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Sources of sixth form stress
ffournal of Adolescence I 9 8 0 , 3, 65-75
S o u r c e s of s i x t h f o r m stress CLIFFORD B. DOBSON* A 50-item questionnaire was used to investigate the sources of stress among 223 sixth formers in schools in the North of England. About two-thirds of the students felt that being a student preparing for a public examination caused them either "a lot of stress" or "extreme stress". Twenty-nine sources of stress correlated with self-reported student stress, and the item relating to "examination pressures" was consistently associated with high levels of stress. With the exception of only three items, there were no significant differences between males and females in their responses. A principal components analysis of the sources of stress produced 12 factors, suggesting that stress is not unidimensional but multidimensional. From the results obtained, it was considered that, after further research and development, the questionnaire might become a useful diagnostic instrument for use in the context of stress counselling. INTRODUCTION Several studies have drawn attention to the a m o u n t of stress or anxiety a m o n g university and college students, but few have included younger students preparing for public examinations. Ryle (i973) , in his discussion of the nature and causes of student ill-health, referred to aspects of stress associated with examinations. Spielberger (1955) reported h o w students came to his clinic during examination periods complaining that stress reduced their ability to study. T h e literature has suggested, however, that stress in the student situation is not entirely associated with examinations, though this is one of the chief variables. I t would appear that stress is not unidimensional b u t multidimensional, a point which has received some firm support in the recent studies of C o b u r n and Jovaisas (1975) and Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1979) with medical students and teachers respectively. T h e various aspects of student life are potential stress areas, and some of these have been investigated in connection with academic success and failure. I t has been shown, for example, that students with clearly defined goals p e r f o r m e d m o r e effectively in their studies than those without any objectives ('~Veitz, Clarke and Jones, 1955; ~Veitz and Colver, 1959; Wankowski, 1969). T h o s e who showed little interest in their studies tended to fail (Hopkins, # Visiting Research Fellow, Postgraduate School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bradford, Bradford 7, Yorkshire. ox4o--xO7X/8o/oxoo65+n to2.oo/o 9 x98oThe Associationfor the PsychiatricStudyof Adolescents
65
66
C.B. DOBSON
Malleson and Sarnoff, I958 ), and this point was confirmed by Iffert (i958) who claimed that lack of interest was the chief reason for student failure. Poor motivation was shown to be a correlate of academic failure in studies by ~Vankowski (i97o); Cohen and Child (i969); Entwistle (i969) and Entwistle, Nisbet, Entwistle and Cowell (i97i). Teacher-student interaction has received some attention in the literature. The supreme importance of teachers in the learning situation was reported by several investigators, Olsen (I957); Schonell (I962); Dale (x954) and McMullen (I967). Other aspects of teacher-student relationships were examined by Joyce and Hudson (i968) and Child (I97O). In connection with personality traits, academic excellence has been associated with introversion (Burgess, i956; Lynn, 1959; Furneaux, I96t), though it would seem that the relevant criterion is really personal stability (Vernon, I939; Holland, I959). Personal problems, mainly emotional and social, were found amongst 7 ~ per cent of the students in Child's (x97o) sample, and similar findings were reported in earlier studies by MacLachlan and Burnett (x954) and Rust and Davie (i96i). Some have demonstrated that stress can be positively related to academic success (Harris, I94o; Furneaux, i96i ). On this subject, Lavin (i965) has been careful to point out that it is not stress in general terms, whose nature is often nebulous, that has an adverse effect on scholastic success, it is stress which is related to specific situations, such as study, school, inability to cope with work, or worry about future goals, which contributes to failure. The overall findings of some of these studies, together with suggestions made by students, formed the basis of the present investigation, since it was hypothesized that these areas would constitute the major sources of stress among students preparing for the General Certificate of Education. METHOD Sampling and procedure The sample consisted of zz 3 male and female arts and science sixth form students following General Certificate of Education "A" level courses in North of England schools. The students came mainly from grammar schools or comprehensive schools which had formerly been grammar schools, and emphasis was placed on academic excellence in each of the selected schools. The geographical locations of the schools ranged from West Yorkshire to the Lake District, and included industrial and rural areas. Head Teachers or Senior Teachers in charge of sixth form studies were contacted initially to ascertain their willingness to co-operate with the research, and to permit their students to participate. In the event, complete
SOURCES OF SIXTH FORM STRESS
67
support was given on account of the educational relevance and importance of the project. Sixth form tutors in each school volunteered to distribute and administer a questionnaire during the Spring term, 1979. T h e questionnaires were completed anonymously by the 223 students, i46 males and 77 females. The questionnaire
T h e questionnaire consisted of 5~ items relating to possible areas of stress in the students. T h e items were obtained from similar items in the literature, from several discussions with students, and from a pilot study. There was an additional item (5 i) which asked, " T o what extent, both inside and outside of school, do you feel that there is a certain amount of stress attached to being a student following a course leading to a public examination ?" This item was included to give an indication of self-reported student stress. Having presented the students with some guidance as to what was meant by stress in this context ("negative effects"), they were requested to rate their responses to the items on a four-point scale: "no stress at all", "slight stress", "a lot of stress", or "extreme stress". T h e responses were scored o to 3. RESULTS Responses to the item relating to self-reported student stress showed that over 66 per cent of all students considered that being a student caused them either "a lot of stress" or "extreme stress", while only about 4 per cent claimed they experienced no stress at all (Table i). T h e differences between males and females on this item were not statistically significant. Table L Percentages and means of self-reported student stress
Male Female Total
N
No stress at all
Slight stress
I46 77 223
3"42 3"89 3"58
27"39 35"06 3o'o4
Percentages A lot of stress
Extreme stress
56"x6 46"75
x3"ox x4"29
52"9x
x3"45
Mean x-7x x'78 I"76
T h e mean ratings and standard deviations of the responses to the 50 items are shown in Table 2. T h e t-test procedure was applied to the means to determine possible sex differences. T h e only items which discriminated between males and females were item 3 (t = 1-97o5) , item 33 (t = 3-804o) and item 35 (t = 4-3zoo). A correlation matrix of the sources of stress was produced as a basis for a factor analysis, and consisted mainly of positive correlations. Twenty-nine
68
C.B. DOBSON T a b l e 2. 3Iean ratings and standard deviations of responses to sources of stress
Item
Mean
s.d.
Source of stress
13
1.98
i x
1"49
I5 17 16 36 4I 34 4 I9 22 33
I'48 1"37 x'34 I'23 x.z2 x-x8 x.x7 1"I7 1"I7 1"17
30 I 18
z'z5 I'I0 I'10
3
23
z "o4 0"98
0"84 0"83 o.88 o.88 o.81 o.94 o'94 o'88 o'92 0"92 o'86 o'89 o'92 o'78 o'9o o.75 o'92
42 48
0"97 0"96
o.88 o'83
49
0"95
Z o.1
0"92
0.90 0"87 o'86 0"84 0"82 o'8I
o'87 o'7I o.9 o o'81 0"8o 0"95 0-9o 0"83
8
o.8o 0"76 0"75
0"78 o"92 0"89
12 38 26
"o'75 0"74 0"70
0"73 0-85 o'8 S
31
6
0"69 o'68
o'8x o'76
xo 44 45
o'67 0"64 0"58
o'75 0"76 0"78
43
o'58
0"76
Examination pressures Difficulties understanding academic work Lack of concentration at home when studying Difficulties keeping up with academic work Examination syllabuses too demanding in some subjects Consequences of letting down parents Too much homework to do each evening Understanding the wording of examination questions Uncertainty about immediate plans on leaving school W o r r y about ultimate future career Lack of concentration in school Monotony of daily routine Lack of/insufficient useful careers advice and guidance Poor motivation to work in some subjects Personal problems Little "knowledge of standards of work required by the teacher T h e consequences of watching too much T.V. to the detriment of homework Conflicting attitudes to life between students and parents When friends repeatedly get higher marks for written exercises Relevance of subjects being studied Noisy students in class causing distraction Parents who are over-anxious about school work Difficulty making own notes from books Poor school facilities Petty school regulations Lack of understanding by parents about study commitments T o o many consecutive demanding subjects in the school's daily time.table Teachers make too many extra demands on their students Difficulties with boy/girl relationships Too many demands made by parents on after school time which detract from studies High noise level in the school environment N o time to "unwind" between lessons Insufficient freedom from parental demands in respect of social life Lack of privacy at home Work groups (classes) too large for teacher's individual attention Lack of/insufficient time in school for private study Effects of part-time work on study Teachers tend to impose their own special interests on students Conflicting attitudes to life betnveen students and teachers
35 7 14 29 28 47 25
SOURCES OF SIXTH FORM STRESS
69
Table z (continued). Item 32 39 37 46 27 20 5 4~ 5o 24 9
Mean
s.d.
Source of stress
0"57 0"55 0"54 0"52 0"48 0-48 0"45 0-41 0-38 0"37 o-22
0"78 o'78 o'76 o'75 o'72 o'7o o'74 o'72 0"70 o'62 o'6o
Little contact with people of one's own age outside school Teacher/student relationships T o o many periods actually being taught T o o much responsibility at home School discipline too rigid Popularity with school friends Amount of pocket-money compared with others of your age Relationships with friends who are working Difficulties connected with travelling to school Concern about general health Lack of personal equipment
o f t h e s o u r c e s o f stress c o r r e l a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h s e l f - r e p o r t e d s t u d e n t stress, a n d t h e s e are r e c o r d e d in T a b l e 3-
T a b l e 3. Significant correlations between sources of stress and self-reported students stress
Item
Correlation
Source of stress
4x 5 36 xI 26 49 33 2x x9 25 28
0"368 o"36I 0"342 o"317 0"302 0"29 ~ 0"278 0"277 0"274 o'266 o'26t 0"258 0"254 0"248 o-24t o'24x
I 35 47 34 29 x5 48 5~
o"23I o"219 o'2x2 0"207 0"205 0"204 0.202 o'185
Examination pressures Difficulties keeping up with academic work Examination syllabuses too demanding in some subjects Personal problems Lack of concentration in school Too much homework to do each evening Amount of pocket-money compared with others of your age Consequences of letting down parents Difficulties understanding academic work Insufficient freedom from parental demands in respect of social life Relevance of subjects being studied Monotony of daily routine Parents who are over-anxious about school work Worry about ultimate future career Difficulties with boy/girl relationships Too many consecutive demanding subjects in the school's daily timetable Poor motivation to work in some subjects Difficulty making own notes from books Teachers make too many extra demands on their students Understanding the wording of examination questions Lack of understanding by parents about study commitments Lack of concentration at home when studying When friends repeatedly get higher marks for written exercises Difficulties connected with travelling to school
i3 I7 x6 I8 22
C. B. DOBSON
7~
T a b l e 3 (continued). Item
Correlation
Source of stress High noise level in the school environment T h e consequences of watching too much T.V. to the detriment of homework Conflicting attitudes to life between students and parents School discipline too rigid Lack of privacy at home
12
0"180
23
o'17z
42 27 31
o"159 o"157 o"155
Item 13 ("examination pressures") had produced the highest mean as a source of stress (Table 2), and an analysis of the subjects' responses to that item revealed that 74 per cent considered they experienced "a lot of stress" or "extreme stress" (Table 4). Item 13 also had the highest correlation with self-reported student stress (Table 3). Significant correlations were discovered, too, between this item and 27 other sources of stress (Table 5). T a b l e 4. Percentage responses to item 13 ("examblation pressures") Rating
Male
Female
3 2 I o
3o"13 45"20 18"49 6"16
29"87 41 "55 24"67 3"89
Total 30"05 "~ 43"95 J 20"62 "/, 5"38 3
74"00 26"00
T a b l e 5. Significant correlations between item 13 ("examhmtion pressures") and sources of stress Item 36 51 19 25 18 I7 16 48 41 22 3 34 II 28 33 9.
Correlation
Source of stress
o'379 0"368 o"34 o 0"333 0"326 0"293 0"278 0"270 0"267 0"266 0"258 0"247 0"238 0"236
Consequences of letting down parents Self-reported student stress %Vorry about ultimate future career Difficulties with boy/girl relationships Personal problems Difficulties keeping up with academic work Examination syllabuses too demanding in some subjects W h e n friends repeatedly get higher marks for written exercises Too much homework to do each evening Lack of concentration in school Little "knowledge of standards of work required by the teacher Understanding the wording of examination questions Difficulties understanding academic work T o o many consecutive demanding subjects in the school's daily timetable 1Monotony of daily routine Noisy students in class causing distraction
o.22z 0"212
SOURCES OF SIXTH FORM STRESS
7x
Table 5 (continued). Item
Correlation
Source of stress
35 x5 23
o'21I o"198 o'x89
2o 42 x 6 49 4 24 2i
o'x84 o'x84 o'x82 o'x82 o'x74 o"I73 o-I62 o'x44
Difficulty making own notes from books Lack of concentration at home when studying The consequences of watching too much T.V. to the detriment of homework Popularity with school friends Conflicting attitudes to life between students and parents Poor motivation to work in some subjects Work groups (classes) too large for teacher's individual attention Relevance of subjects being studied Uncertainty about immediate plans on leaving school Concern about general health Parents who are over-anxious about school work
T h e sources of stress were submitted to a principal components analysis, using the Birmingham package of Hallworth and Brebner. T h e first principal factor yielded 2o.97 per cent of the overall variance, and the loadings ranged from o.I984 to o.6342. Twelve factors with eigenvalues greater than unity were extracted, and these were subjected to a Promax rotation which gave the best rotated factor matrix. T h e percentage of the total variance, and loadings greater than o.4, are shown in Table 6. A n arbitary semantic label has been attached to each factor, though factor analysts would argue that this is a precarious undertaking. Table 6. Sources of stress : loadings greater than 0"4 Item
Loading
Source of stress
Factor I Getting down to work x 0"766 Poor motivation to work in some subjects 23 0"749 The consequences of watching too much T.V. to the detriment of homework Ix o'69I Difficulties understanding academic work az 0"640 Lack of concentration in school 35 0-632 Difficulty making own notes from hooks x5 o-6io Lack of concentration at home when studying 49 0"553 Relevance of subjects being studied I7 0"505 Difficulties keeping up with academic work Per cent variance: 9"925 Factor II School ethos x4 o'9o2 Petty school regulations 27 0"64o School discipline too rigid x2 0"458 High noise level in the school environment Per cent variance: 5-227
72
C.B. D O B S O N
Table 6 (continued). Item
Loading
Source of stress
Factor I I I Parents 21 0'844 Parents who are over-anxious about school work 26 o.563 Insufficient freedom from parental demands in respect of social life 42 o'479 Conflicting attitudes to life betaveen students and parents Per cent variance: 5"35o Factor IV Standards of work 3 0"843 Knowledge of standards of work required by the teacher Per cent variance: 4"62o Factor V Future goals 4 o.9, x Uncertainty about immediate plans on leaving school x9 0"735 %Vorry about ultimate future career 3o 0"645 Lack of/insufficient useful careers advice and guidance Per cent variance: 5"167 Factor VI Demands of academic life 47 0"798 Teachers make too many extra demands on their students 41 0"79 ~ Too much homework to do each evening 28 o'577 T o o many consecutive demanding subjects in the school's daily tlme-table x6 0"499 Examination syllabuses too demanding in some subjects Per cent variance: 6"82x Factor V I I Examination pressures x3 0"673 Examination pressures 5* 0"635 Self-reported student stress 36 o'509 Consequences of letting down parents Per cent variance: 5"057 Factor V I I I Travelling 50 o'9x6 Difficulties connected with travelling to school Per cent variance: 3"836 Factor I X Class size 6 o'8,4 Work groups (classes) too large for teacher's individual attention Per cent variance: 3"058 Factor X Personal 25 0"747 Difficulties with boy/girl relationships x8 0"655 Personal problems 24 0"607 Concern about general health 20 0"566 Popularity with school friends Per cent variance: 5"235
SOURCES OF SIXTH FORM STRESS
73
Table 6 (continued). Item
Loading
Source of stress
Factor XI Peers 3z --0"936 Little contact with people of one's own age outside school 6 0"424 Work groups (classes) too large for teacher's individual attention 2 o'42z Noisy students in class causing distraction Per cent variance: 3"219 Factor XII Home/parental 31 0"953 Lack of privacy at home 29 0"547 Lack of understanding by parents about study commitments Per cent variance: 4"621 DISCUSSION T h e results of this investigation indicate that about 66 per cent of the 223 students in the sixth form sample consider that being a student preparing for a public examination causes them a lot of stress or extreme stress (Table i). If it can be assumed that self-reported stress is a realistic measure of student stress, the results of this study reveal that two-thirds of these young people are experiencing a great deal of stress. T h e mean ratings of responses to sources of stress (Table 2) give a strong indication that the stress which the students are experiencing is not unidimensional but multidimensional, thus lending support to the findings of Coburn and Jovaisas (x975) and Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1979) of which mention was made on p. 65. Of course, not all students experience the same sources of stress, and some students tend to report stress on certain common items, indicating that some a r e a s of student life are more stressful than others. Moreover, it may be the personality of the individual which more realistically determines whether or not an item is stressful (Warr and Wall, i975). Not surprisingly, item 13 concerning "examination pressures" was consistently reported as a major source of stress (Tables 2 and 3), and items 16 and 17 relating to "examination syllabuses" and "keeping up with academic work" followed closely. One needs to determine, however, what elements contribute to these examination pressures, for the item as it stands is too global and deserves further analysis. T o some extent such an analysis is possible from the available data contained in this study where, for instance, as many as 27 sources of stress are positively related to "examination pressures" (Table 5). T h e twelve factors produced by the principal components analysis (Table 6) point to the areas of student life referred to above, and would seem to confirm the notion of multidimensionality in student stress. For the most part, these
74
C.B. DOBSON
factors relate to the school and study situations, though references are made to the home/parental sector. %Vith the exception of three items, there were no significant differences in the responses between males and females. T h e three items in question show that females experience more stress than males on "little knowledge of standards of work required by the teacher", while " m o n o t o n y of daily routine" and "making own notes from books" appear to be greater sources of stress for males than for females. Finally, these results suggest a starting point for further research in this area, particularly in relation to the dcvelopment of the questionnaire to establish its empirical validity and reliability, although some limited degree of its validity as a measure of stress is evident from the significant correlations which occur bctwccn student stress and twenty-nine sources of stress (Table 3). It could become an effective diagnostic instrument in the context of stress counselling. REFERENCES Burgess, E. (1956). Personality factors of over- and under-achievers in engineering. ffournal of Educational Psychology 47, 89-99. Child, D. (197o). Some aspects of study habits in higher education. International ffournal of Educational Science 4, I x-2o. Cobum, D. and Jovalsas, A. V. (1975). Perceived sources of stress among first-year medical students, ffournal of Medical Education 50, 589-95. Cohen, L. and Child, D. (I969). Some sociological and psychological factors in university failure. Durham Research Reviezo z2, 365-72. Dale, R. R. (1954). From School to University. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Entwistle, N. J. (1969). The relationships bet~veen personality, study methods and academic performance. British ffournal of Educational Psychology 4o, 132-43. Ent-wistle, N. J., Nisbet, J., Entwistle, D. and Cowell, M. D. (1971). The academic performance of students. I. Prediction from scales of motivation and study methods. British ffournal of Educational Psychology 4 I, 258-67 . Furneaux, W. D. (I961). The Chosen Few. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Harris, D. (194o). Factors affecting college grades: a review of the literature. Psychology Bulletin, 37. Holland, J. L. (1959). The prediction of college grades from the California Psychological Inventory and the Scholastic Aptitude Test. ffournal of Educational Psychology, 50. Hopkins, J., Malleson, N. and Sarnoff, I. (1958). Some non-intellectual correlates of success and failure among university students. British ffournal of Educational Psychology 28, 25-36. Iffert, R. E. (1958). Retention and withdrawal of college students. U.S. Dept. of Health Education and Welfare, Bulletin, No. 1. Joyce, C. R. B. and Hudson, L. (1968). Students' style and teacher style. British ffournal of Medical Education 2, 28-32. Kyriacou, C. and Sutcliffe, J. (1978). Teacher stress: Prevalence, sources, and symptoms. British ffournal of Educational Psychology 48, 159-67.
SOURCES OF SIXTH FOI~aM STRESS
75
Lavin, D. E. (I965). The prediction of academic performance. New York. Russell
Sage Foundation. Lynn, R. (x959). Two personality characteristics related to academic achievement. British ffournal of Educational Psychology 29, z x3-x6. McMullen, I. (x967). Secondary education in several countries. The Times Educational SuppIeme~,t. 3o June. MacLachlan, P. S. and Burnett, C. W. (I954). Who are the superior freshmen in College ? Personnel and Guidance Journal 32, 345-9. Olsen, F. J. (x957). Failure in first year universiW examinations. Australian Journal of Education x, 3. Rust, R. M. and Davie, J. S. (I96Q. The personal problems of college students. i~fental Hygiene 45, 247-57, Ryle, G. (x973). Student casualties. Penguin. Schonell, F. J., Roe, E. and Meddleton, I. G. (x96z). Promise and performance.
Uni~'ersity of London Press. Spielberger, C. D. and Sarason, I. G. (I955). Stress and Anxiety. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Vernon, P. E. (x939). Educational abilities of training college students. British
ffournal of Educational Psychology, 9. Wankows"Id,J. A. (I969). Some aspects of motivation in success and failure at university. Paper presented at the 4th Annual Conference of the Society for Research into Higher Education, December I968, pp. x-39. ~Vankowski, J. A. (I97o). Some non-intellective influences in success and failure of the random sample students. Paper prepared for the British Psychological Society Conference. Warr, P. and X,Vall, T. (1975). Work and tVell-belng. Harmandswork: Penguin. Weitz, H., Clarke, M. and Jones, O. (I955). The relationship between choice of a major field of study and academic preparation and performance. Educational and Psychological Measurement XV, 28-38. Weitz, H. and Colver, R. M. (I959). The relationship betnveen the educational goal and the academie performance of women--a confirmation. Educational and Psychological 21leasurement XIX, 373-80.
S o u r c e s of s i x t h f o r m stress CLIFFORD B. DOBSON* A 50-item questionnaire was used to investigate the sources of stress among 223 sixth formers in schools in the North of England. About two-thirds of the students felt that being a student preparing for a public examination caused them either "a lot of stress" or "extreme stress". Twenty-nine sources of stress correlated with self-reported student stress, and the item relating to "examination pressures" was consistently associated with high levels of stress. With the exception of only three items, there were no significant differences between males and females in their responses. A principal components analysis of the sources of stress produced 12 factors, suggesting that stress is not unidimensional but multidimensional. From the results obtained, it was considered that, after further research and development, the questionnaire might become a useful diagnostic instrument for use in the context of stress counselling. INTRODUCTION Several studies have drawn attention to the a m o u n t of stress or anxiety a m o n g university and college students, but few have included younger students preparing for public examinations. Ryle (i973) , in his discussion of the nature and causes of student ill-health, referred to aspects of stress associated with examinations. Spielberger (1955) reported h o w students came to his clinic during examination periods complaining that stress reduced their ability to study. T h e literature has suggested, however, that stress in the student situation is not entirely associated with examinations, though this is one of the chief variables. I t would appear that stress is not unidimensional b u t multidimensional, a point which has received some firm support in the recent studies of C o b u r n and Jovaisas (1975) and Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1979) with medical students and teachers respectively. T h e various aspects of student life are potential stress areas, and some of these have been investigated in connection with academic success and failure. I t has been shown, for example, that students with clearly defined goals p e r f o r m e d m o r e effectively in their studies than those without any objectives ('~Veitz, Clarke and Jones, 1955; ~Veitz and Colver, 1959; Wankowski, 1969). T h o s e who showed little interest in their studies tended to fail (Hopkins, # Visiting Research Fellow, Postgraduate School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bradford, Bradford 7, Yorkshire. ox4o--xO7X/8o/oxoo65+n to2.oo/o 9 x98oThe Associationfor the PsychiatricStudyof Adolescents
65
66
C.B. DOBSON
Malleson and Sarnoff, I958 ), and this point was confirmed by Iffert (i958) who claimed that lack of interest was the chief reason for student failure. Poor motivation was shown to be a correlate of academic failure in studies by ~Vankowski (i97o); Cohen and Child (i969); Entwistle (i969) and Entwistle, Nisbet, Entwistle and Cowell (i97i). Teacher-student interaction has received some attention in the literature. The supreme importance of teachers in the learning situation was reported by several investigators, Olsen (I957); Schonell (I962); Dale (x954) and McMullen (I967). Other aspects of teacher-student relationships were examined by Joyce and Hudson (i968) and Child (I97O). In connection with personality traits, academic excellence has been associated with introversion (Burgess, i956; Lynn, 1959; Furneaux, I96t), though it would seem that the relevant criterion is really personal stability (Vernon, I939; Holland, I959). Personal problems, mainly emotional and social, were found amongst 7 ~ per cent of the students in Child's (x97o) sample, and similar findings were reported in earlier studies by MacLachlan and Burnett (x954) and Rust and Davie (i96i). Some have demonstrated that stress can be positively related to academic success (Harris, I94o; Furneaux, i96i ). On this subject, Lavin (i965) has been careful to point out that it is not stress in general terms, whose nature is often nebulous, that has an adverse effect on scholastic success, it is stress which is related to specific situations, such as study, school, inability to cope with work, or worry about future goals, which contributes to failure. The overall findings of some of these studies, together with suggestions made by students, formed the basis of the present investigation, since it was hypothesized that these areas would constitute the major sources of stress among students preparing for the General Certificate of Education. METHOD Sampling and procedure The sample consisted of zz 3 male and female arts and science sixth form students following General Certificate of Education "A" level courses in North of England schools. The students came mainly from grammar schools or comprehensive schools which had formerly been grammar schools, and emphasis was placed on academic excellence in each of the selected schools. The geographical locations of the schools ranged from West Yorkshire to the Lake District, and included industrial and rural areas. Head Teachers or Senior Teachers in charge of sixth form studies were contacted initially to ascertain their willingness to co-operate with the research, and to permit their students to participate. In the event, complete
SOURCES OF SIXTH FORM STRESS
67
support was given on account of the educational relevance and importance of the project. Sixth form tutors in each school volunteered to distribute and administer a questionnaire during the Spring term, 1979. T h e questionnaires were completed anonymously by the 223 students, i46 males and 77 females. The questionnaire
T h e questionnaire consisted of 5~ items relating to possible areas of stress in the students. T h e items were obtained from similar items in the literature, from several discussions with students, and from a pilot study. There was an additional item (5 i) which asked, " T o what extent, both inside and outside of school, do you feel that there is a certain amount of stress attached to being a student following a course leading to a public examination ?" This item was included to give an indication of self-reported student stress. Having presented the students with some guidance as to what was meant by stress in this context ("negative effects"), they were requested to rate their responses to the items on a four-point scale: "no stress at all", "slight stress", "a lot of stress", or "extreme stress". T h e responses were scored o to 3. RESULTS Responses to the item relating to self-reported student stress showed that over 66 per cent of all students considered that being a student caused them either "a lot of stress" or "extreme stress", while only about 4 per cent claimed they experienced no stress at all (Table i). T h e differences between males and females on this item were not statistically significant. Table L Percentages and means of self-reported student stress
Male Female Total
N
No stress at all
Slight stress
I46 77 223
3"42 3"89 3"58
27"39 35"06 3o'o4
Percentages A lot of stress
Extreme stress
56"x6 46"75
x3"ox x4"29
52"9x
x3"45
Mean x-7x x'78 I"76
T h e mean ratings and standard deviations of the responses to the 50 items are shown in Table 2. T h e t-test procedure was applied to the means to determine possible sex differences. T h e only items which discriminated between males and females were item 3 (t = 1-97o5) , item 33 (t = 3-804o) and item 35 (t = 4-3zoo). A correlation matrix of the sources of stress was produced as a basis for a factor analysis, and consisted mainly of positive correlations. Twenty-nine
68
C.B. DOBSON T a b l e 2. 3Iean ratings and standard deviations of responses to sources of stress
Item
Mean
s.d.
Source of stress
13
1.98
i x
1"49
I5 17 16 36 4I 34 4 I9 22 33
I'48 1"37 x'34 I'23 x.z2 x-x8 x.x7 1"I7 1"I7 1"17
30 I 18
z'z5 I'I0 I'10
3
23
z "o4 0"98
0"84 0"83 o.88 o.88 o.81 o.94 o'94 o'88 o'92 0"92 o'86 o'89 o'92 o'78 o'9o o.75 o'92
42 48
0"97 0"96
o.88 o'83
49
0"95
Z o.1
0"92
0.90 0"87 o'86 0"84 0"82 o'8I
o'87 o'7I o.9 o o'81 0"8o 0"95 0-9o 0"83
8
o.8o 0"76 0"75
0"78 o"92 0"89
12 38 26
"o'75 0"74 0"70
0"73 0-85 o'8 S
31
6
0"69 o'68
o'8x o'76
xo 44 45
o'67 0"64 0"58
o'75 0"76 0"78
43
o'58
0"76
Examination pressures Difficulties understanding academic work Lack of concentration at home when studying Difficulties keeping up with academic work Examination syllabuses too demanding in some subjects Consequences of letting down parents Too much homework to do each evening Understanding the wording of examination questions Uncertainty about immediate plans on leaving school W o r r y about ultimate future career Lack of concentration in school Monotony of daily routine Lack of/insufficient useful careers advice and guidance Poor motivation to work in some subjects Personal problems Little "knowledge of standards of work required by the teacher T h e consequences of watching too much T.V. to the detriment of homework Conflicting attitudes to life between students and parents When friends repeatedly get higher marks for written exercises Relevance of subjects being studied Noisy students in class causing distraction Parents who are over-anxious about school work Difficulty making own notes from books Poor school facilities Petty school regulations Lack of understanding by parents about study commitments T o o many consecutive demanding subjects in the school's daily time.table Teachers make too many extra demands on their students Difficulties with boy/girl relationships Too many demands made by parents on after school time which detract from studies High noise level in the school environment N o time to "unwind" between lessons Insufficient freedom from parental demands in respect of social life Lack of privacy at home Work groups (classes) too large for teacher's individual attention Lack of/insufficient time in school for private study Effects of part-time work on study Teachers tend to impose their own special interests on students Conflicting attitudes to life betnveen students and teachers
35 7 14 29 28 47 25
SOURCES OF SIXTH FORM STRESS
69
Table z (continued). Item 32 39 37 46 27 20 5 4~ 5o 24 9
Mean
s.d.
Source of stress
0"57 0"55 0"54 0"52 0"48 0-48 0"45 0-41 0-38 0"37 o-22
0"78 o'78 o'76 o'75 o'72 o'7o o'74 o'72 0"70 o'62 o'6o
Little contact with people of one's own age outside school Teacher/student relationships T o o many periods actually being taught T o o much responsibility at home School discipline too rigid Popularity with school friends Amount of pocket-money compared with others of your age Relationships with friends who are working Difficulties connected with travelling to school Concern about general health Lack of personal equipment
o f t h e s o u r c e s o f stress c o r r e l a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h s e l f - r e p o r t e d s t u d e n t stress, a n d t h e s e are r e c o r d e d in T a b l e 3-
T a b l e 3. Significant correlations between sources of stress and self-reported students stress
Item
Correlation
Source of stress
4x 5 36 xI 26 49 33 2x x9 25 28
0"368 o"36I 0"342 o"317 0"302 0"29 ~ 0"278 0"277 0"274 o'266 o'26t 0"258 0"254 0"248 o-24t o'24x
I 35 47 34 29 x5 48 5~
o"23I o"219 o'2x2 0"207 0"205 0"204 0.202 o'185
Examination pressures Difficulties keeping up with academic work Examination syllabuses too demanding in some subjects Personal problems Lack of concentration in school Too much homework to do each evening Amount of pocket-money compared with others of your age Consequences of letting down parents Difficulties understanding academic work Insufficient freedom from parental demands in respect of social life Relevance of subjects being studied Monotony of daily routine Parents who are over-anxious about school work Worry about ultimate future career Difficulties with boy/girl relationships Too many consecutive demanding subjects in the school's daily timetable Poor motivation to work in some subjects Difficulty making own notes from books Teachers make too many extra demands on their students Understanding the wording of examination questions Lack of understanding by parents about study commitments Lack of concentration at home when studying When friends repeatedly get higher marks for written exercises Difficulties connected with travelling to school
i3 I7 x6 I8 22
C. B. DOBSON
7~
T a b l e 3 (continued). Item
Correlation
Source of stress High noise level in the school environment T h e consequences of watching too much T.V. to the detriment of homework Conflicting attitudes to life between students and parents School discipline too rigid Lack of privacy at home
12
0"180
23
o'17z
42 27 31
o"159 o"157 o"155
Item 13 ("examination pressures") had produced the highest mean as a source of stress (Table 2), and an analysis of the subjects' responses to that item revealed that 74 per cent considered they experienced "a lot of stress" or "extreme stress" (Table 4). Item 13 also had the highest correlation with self-reported student stress (Table 3). Significant correlations were discovered, too, between this item and 27 other sources of stress (Table 5). T a b l e 4. Percentage responses to item 13 ("examblation pressures") Rating
Male
Female
3 2 I o
3o"13 45"20 18"49 6"16
29"87 41 "55 24"67 3"89
Total 30"05 "~ 43"95 J 20"62 "/, 5"38 3
74"00 26"00
T a b l e 5. Significant correlations between item 13 ("examhmtion pressures") and sources of stress Item 36 51 19 25 18 I7 16 48 41 22 3 34 II 28 33 9.
Correlation
Source of stress
o'379 0"368 o"34 o 0"333 0"326 0"293 0"278 0"270 0"267 0"266 0"258 0"247 0"238 0"236
Consequences of letting down parents Self-reported student stress %Vorry about ultimate future career Difficulties with boy/girl relationships Personal problems Difficulties keeping up with academic work Examination syllabuses too demanding in some subjects W h e n friends repeatedly get higher marks for written exercises Too much homework to do each evening Lack of concentration in school Little "knowledge of standards of work required by the teacher Understanding the wording of examination questions Difficulties understanding academic work T o o many consecutive demanding subjects in the school's daily timetable 1Monotony of daily routine Noisy students in class causing distraction
o.22z 0"212
SOURCES OF SIXTH FORM STRESS
7x
Table 5 (continued). Item
Correlation
Source of stress
35 x5 23
o'21I o"198 o'x89
2o 42 x 6 49 4 24 2i
o'x84 o'x84 o'x82 o'x82 o'x74 o"I73 o-I62 o'x44
Difficulty making own notes from books Lack of concentration at home when studying The consequences of watching too much T.V. to the detriment of homework Popularity with school friends Conflicting attitudes to life between students and parents Poor motivation to work in some subjects Work groups (classes) too large for teacher's individual attention Relevance of subjects being studied Uncertainty about immediate plans on leaving school Concern about general health Parents who are over-anxious about school work
T h e sources of stress were submitted to a principal components analysis, using the Birmingham package of Hallworth and Brebner. T h e first principal factor yielded 2o.97 per cent of the overall variance, and the loadings ranged from o.I984 to o.6342. Twelve factors with eigenvalues greater than unity were extracted, and these were subjected to a Promax rotation which gave the best rotated factor matrix. T h e percentage of the total variance, and loadings greater than o.4, are shown in Table 6. A n arbitary semantic label has been attached to each factor, though factor analysts would argue that this is a precarious undertaking. Table 6. Sources of stress : loadings greater than 0"4 Item
Loading
Source of stress
Factor I Getting down to work x 0"766 Poor motivation to work in some subjects 23 0"749 The consequences of watching too much T.V. to the detriment of homework Ix o'69I Difficulties understanding academic work az 0"640 Lack of concentration in school 35 0-632 Difficulty making own notes from hooks x5 o-6io Lack of concentration at home when studying 49 0"553 Relevance of subjects being studied I7 0"505 Difficulties keeping up with academic work Per cent variance: 9"925 Factor II School ethos x4 o'9o2 Petty school regulations 27 0"64o School discipline too rigid x2 0"458 High noise level in the school environment Per cent variance: 5-227
72
C.B. D O B S O N
Table 6 (continued). Item
Loading
Source of stress
Factor I I I Parents 21 0'844 Parents who are over-anxious about school work 26 o.563 Insufficient freedom from parental demands in respect of social life 42 o'479 Conflicting attitudes to life betaveen students and parents Per cent variance: 5"35o Factor IV Standards of work 3 0"843 Knowledge of standards of work required by the teacher Per cent variance: 4"62o Factor V Future goals 4 o.9, x Uncertainty about immediate plans on leaving school x9 0"735 %Vorry about ultimate future career 3o 0"645 Lack of/insufficient useful careers advice and guidance Per cent variance: 5"167 Factor VI Demands of academic life 47 0"798 Teachers make too many extra demands on their students 41 0"79 ~ Too much homework to do each evening 28 o'577 T o o many consecutive demanding subjects in the school's daily tlme-table x6 0"499 Examination syllabuses too demanding in some subjects Per cent variance: 6"82x Factor V I I Examination pressures x3 0"673 Examination pressures 5* 0"635 Self-reported student stress 36 o'509 Consequences of letting down parents Per cent variance: 5"057 Factor V I I I Travelling 50 o'9x6 Difficulties connected with travelling to school Per cent variance: 3"836 Factor I X Class size 6 o'8,4 Work groups (classes) too large for teacher's individual attention Per cent variance: 3"058 Factor X Personal 25 0"747 Difficulties with boy/girl relationships x8 0"655 Personal problems 24 0"607 Concern about general health 20 0"566 Popularity with school friends Per cent variance: 5"235
SOURCES OF SIXTH FORM STRESS
73
Table 6 (continued). Item
Loading
Source of stress
Factor XI Peers 3z --0"936 Little contact with people of one's own age outside school 6 0"424 Work groups (classes) too large for teacher's individual attention 2 o'42z Noisy students in class causing distraction Per cent variance: 3"219 Factor XII Home/parental 31 0"953 Lack of privacy at home 29 0"547 Lack of understanding by parents about study commitments Per cent variance: 4"621 DISCUSSION T h e results of this investigation indicate that about 66 per cent of the 223 students in the sixth form sample consider that being a student preparing for a public examination causes them a lot of stress or extreme stress (Table i). If it can be assumed that self-reported stress is a realistic measure of student stress, the results of this study reveal that two-thirds of these young people are experiencing a great deal of stress. T h e mean ratings of responses to sources of stress (Table 2) give a strong indication that the stress which the students are experiencing is not unidimensional but multidimensional, thus lending support to the findings of Coburn and Jovaisas (x975) and Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1979) of which mention was made on p. 65. Of course, not all students experience the same sources of stress, and some students tend to report stress on certain common items, indicating that some a r e a s of student life are more stressful than others. Moreover, it may be the personality of the individual which more realistically determines whether or not an item is stressful (Warr and Wall, i975). Not surprisingly, item 13 concerning "examination pressures" was consistently reported as a major source of stress (Tables 2 and 3), and items 16 and 17 relating to "examination syllabuses" and "keeping up with academic work" followed closely. One needs to determine, however, what elements contribute to these examination pressures, for the item as it stands is too global and deserves further analysis. T o some extent such an analysis is possible from the available data contained in this study where, for instance, as many as 27 sources of stress are positively related to "examination pressures" (Table 5). T h e twelve factors produced by the principal components analysis (Table 6) point to the areas of student life referred to above, and would seem to confirm the notion of multidimensionality in student stress. For the most part, these
74
C.B. DOBSON
factors relate to the school and study situations, though references are made to the home/parental sector. %Vith the exception of three items, there were no significant differences in the responses between males and females. T h e three items in question show that females experience more stress than males on "little knowledge of standards of work required by the teacher", while " m o n o t o n y of daily routine" and "making own notes from books" appear to be greater sources of stress for males than for females. Finally, these results suggest a starting point for further research in this area, particularly in relation to the dcvelopment of the questionnaire to establish its empirical validity and reliability, although some limited degree of its validity as a measure of stress is evident from the significant correlations which occur bctwccn student stress and twenty-nine sources of stress (Table 3). It could become an effective diagnostic instrument in the context of stress counselling. REFERENCES Burgess, E. (1956). Personality factors of over- and under-achievers in engineering. ffournal of Educational Psychology 47, 89-99. Child, D. (197o). Some aspects of study habits in higher education. International ffournal of Educational Science 4, I x-2o. Cobum, D. and Jovalsas, A. V. (1975). Perceived sources of stress among first-year medical students, ffournal of Medical Education 50, 589-95. Cohen, L. and Child, D. (I969). Some sociological and psychological factors in university failure. Durham Research Reviezo z2, 365-72. Dale, R. R. (1954). From School to University. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Entwistle, N. J. (1969). The relationships bet~veen personality, study methods and academic performance. British ffournal of Educational Psychology 4o, 132-43. Ent-wistle, N. J., Nisbet, J., Entwistle, D. and Cowell, M. D. (1971). The academic performance of students. I. Prediction from scales of motivation and study methods. British ffournal of Educational Psychology 4 I, 258-67 . Furneaux, W. D. (I961). The Chosen Few. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Harris, D. (194o). Factors affecting college grades: a review of the literature. Psychology Bulletin, 37. Holland, J. L. (1959). The prediction of college grades from the California Psychological Inventory and the Scholastic Aptitude Test. ffournal of Educational Psychology, 50. Hopkins, J., Malleson, N. and Sarnoff, I. (1958). Some non-intellectual correlates of success and failure among university students. British ffournal of Educational Psychology 28, 25-36. Iffert, R. E. (1958). Retention and withdrawal of college students. U.S. Dept. of Health Education and Welfare, Bulletin, No. 1. Joyce, C. R. B. and Hudson, L. (1968). Students' style and teacher style. British ffournal of Medical Education 2, 28-32. Kyriacou, C. and Sutcliffe, J. (1978). Teacher stress: Prevalence, sources, and symptoms. British ffournal of Educational Psychology 48, 159-67.
SOURCES OF SIXTH FOI~aM STRESS
75
Lavin, D. E. (I965). The prediction of academic performance. New York. Russell
Sage Foundation. Lynn, R. (x959). Two personality characteristics related to academic achievement. British ffournal of Educational Psychology 29, z x3-x6. McMullen, I. (x967). Secondary education in several countries. The Times Educational SuppIeme~,t. 3o June. MacLachlan, P. S. and Burnett, C. W. (I954). Who are the superior freshmen in College ? Personnel and Guidance Journal 32, 345-9. Olsen, F. J. (x957). Failure in first year universiW examinations. Australian Journal of Education x, 3. Rust, R. M. and Davie, J. S. (I96Q. The personal problems of college students. i~fental Hygiene 45, 247-57, Ryle, G. (x973). Student casualties. Penguin. Schonell, F. J., Roe, E. and Meddleton, I. G. (x96z). Promise and performance.
Uni~'ersity of London Press. Spielberger, C. D. and Sarason, I. G. (I955). Stress and Anxiety. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Vernon, P. E. (x939). Educational abilities of training college students. British
ffournal of Educational Psychology, 9. Wankows"Id,J. A. (I969). Some aspects of motivation in success and failure at university. Paper presented at the 4th Annual Conference of the Society for Research into Higher Education, December I968, pp. x-39. ~Vankowski, J. A. (I97o). Some non-intellective influences in success and failure of the random sample students. Paper prepared for the British Psychological Society Conference. Warr, P. and X,Vall, T. (1975). Work and tVell-belng. Harmandswork: Penguin. Weitz, H., Clarke, M. and Jones, O. (I955). The relationship between choice of a major field of study and academic preparation and performance. Educational and Psychological Measurement XV, 28-38. Weitz, H. and Colver, R. M. (I959). The relationship betnveen the educational goal and the academie performance of women--a confirmation. Educational and Psychological 21leasurement XIX, 373-80.