- Email: [email protected]
South Koreans’ perceptions of North Koreans and implications for public relations campaigns
Public Relations Review 30 (2004) 327–333
South Koreans’ perceptions of North Koreans and implications for public relations campaigns Miejeong Han a,∗ , Sei-Hill Kim b a
Department of Advertising & Public Relations, Hanyang University, 1271 Sa-1 dong, Ansan, Kyunggi-do, 425-791, South Korea b Department of Communication & Journalism, Auburn University, 217 Tichenor Hall, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
Received 9 September 2003; received in revised form 9 March 2004; accepted 19 April 2004
Abstract Analyzing data from a telephone survey of South Korean respondents, we explored public campaign strategies for relationship building between South and North Koreas. We examined three important questions essential for the relationship building: What are the typical images of the North that South Koreans find in the media? How do South Koreans perceive North Koreans? Do such perceptions guide their intention to integrate with North Koreans? Our findings may provide important insights in developing communication agenda and message strategies, particularly for policy makers and public communication practitioners, whose efforts aim to build a favorable relationship between the South and the North. © 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction South and North Koreas have been separated for over 50 years since the split in 1945. The South and the North have employed dramatically different political and economic systems, and people in these two countries, as a result, have developed a strong sense of disparity toward each other. Tangible efforts, however, have been made toward an integration of the South and the North since the monumental summit talk in 2000 between the leaders of two countries. Despite the unpredictable and hostile nature of the North Korean regime, South Koreans have consistently supported humanitarian aid projects to the North, demonstrating rather favorable attitudes toward a variety of economic and diplomatic efforts to facilitate ∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 31 400 5427. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Han). 0363-8111/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2004.04.004
328
M. Han, S.-H. Kim / Public Relations Review 30 (2004) 327–333
a more intimate relationship with North Korea.1 The majority of the South Korean public has supported reunification with the North, expecting that the two countries would come up with a reasonable and feasible method of integration (Ji, 2001). According to a national poll, conducted by Joongang Daily in September 2002, a large majority of South Koreans (70.1%) supported reunification with the North, and about 51.3% believed that reunification would bring mutual benefits to both countries. Recently, Han (2002) has argued that since South and North Koreans have lived in radically different social systems over 50 years, psychological integration should be established first in order to facilitate the process of reunification. That is, both countries should make an extra effort to enhance mutual understanding of each other before they are eventually unified into a single nation. Nationwide public campaigns, Han suggested, should be set up first for working toward building a nation unified psychologically as well as physically. Taylor (2000) maintains that governments could utilize communication campaigns as a valuable resource for nation building. Studies show that public communication campaigns have been used as an effective tool for nation building in many countries (e.g., Bruning, 2002; Pratt, 1985; Van Leuven, 1996). Researchers have claimed that public campaigns may play an important role particularly in solving a variety of social and development problems associated with nation building (e.g., Taylor & Botan, 1997). Relationship is a key concept in public relations approaches to nation building (Taylor, 2000). Relation building is the focus of public communications efforts (Ferguson, 1984), and provides a basis for measuring the effectiveness of public campaigns (Ledingham, 2001). Tangible goals of public relations, as Kovacs (2001) argues, can be attained only by developing and maintaining a successful relationship with the public. This study looks into the relationship between previously unrelated or rarely-related people of South and North Koreas. As Ferguson (1984) maintains, the first step towards relationship building requires learning about relevant publics and their social environment. Ledingham and Bruning (2000) also state that a successful relationship management depends on understanding what must be done to initiate, develop, and maintain the relationship. In this study, we explore how South Koreans (i.e., the target public) perceive the North, and where they stand on important issues relevant to the reunification. Little is known about how South Koreans perceive North Koreans. Furthermore, little research has been done as to whether these perceptions may explain South Koreans’ intention to integrate with the North. South Koreans have had very limited contact with North Koreans.2 Besides what they see in the media, South Koreans seldom have other sources of information about people in the North. In this study, therefore, we first examine the typical images of the North that South Koreans find in the media. In order to identify public communication issues, we then explore how South Koreans perceive North Koreans. Finally, we look into whether these perceptions influence South Koreans’ intention to integrate with the North. We discuss some implications for public campaigns, making suggestions for relationship building between the South and the North.
1 The Sunshine policy, a reunification policy of the South Korean government, proposes that the government should provide the North with extensive political and economic support as a way to improve the living conditions of North Koreans and, more importantly, to promote peace on the Korean peninsula. Since his inauguration in 1998, the South Korean president Kim, Dae-Jung and his administration have pursued the policy in a variety of fields, such as economic cooperation, social and cultural exchanges, and other humanitarian aid projects to the North. In 2003, the new Roh, Moo-Hyun administration has announced the Peace and Prosperity policy that essentially parallels the major framework of the Sunshine policy. 2 It is illegal for South Koreans to make any social or economic exchanges with North Koreans, including any forms of communication and reunion of separated family members without government permission, which is issued only scarcely.
M. Han, S.-H. Kim / Public Relations Review 30 (2004) 327–333
329
2. Research questions and hypotheses Mass media play an important role in shaping people’s perceptions of different social groups (Fujioka, 1999; Tan, Fujioka, & Lucht, 1997). Given the little direct contact with North Koreans, we believe, South Koreans may rely heavily on what they see on television and what they read in newspapers in forming their perceptions of North Koreans. We, therefore, first explore what South Koreans find in media coverage of the North. We put forth the following research question: RQ1 : What are the typical images of the North that South Koreans find in the media? We also examine how South Koreans perceive North Koreans on a number of attributes important to relationship building. Effective campaign messages can be generated from understanding what the South Korean public thinks of the other public in question. Positive attributes, for example, should be incorporated into campaign messages, whereas negative ones ought to be dealt with caution to avoid potential stereotyping. Our second research question deals with South Koreans’ perceptions of North Koreans. RQ2 : How do South Koreans perceive people in the North? These perceptions may function as stereotypical representations of North Koreans. Studies have suggested that stereotypical – usually negatively valenced – perceptions of a group may influence individuals’ ongoing attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors toward the group (Hsu & Lee, 2002; Mauer, Park, & Rothbart, 1995; Power, Murphy, & Coover, 1996). In this study, we examine whether these perceptions influence South Koreans’ intention to integrate with North Koreans on a variety of social and political issues. We test the following hypotheses: H1. Positive perceptions of North Koreans will be associated with greater intention to integrate with them. H2. Negative perceptions of North Koreans will be associated with less intention to integrate with them.
3. Methods Data for this study came from a telephone survey of the residents in Anyang, South Korea. Our sampling was based on a random-digit dialing (RDD) technique. A total of 443 respondents were interviewed between 20 April and 6 June 2002, with a cooperation rate of 46 percent. We used an open-ended question to examine respondents’ impressions of North Koreans depicted in the media (Media Portrayals of North Koreans). Respondents were asked to talk about the typical images of North Koreans they had found in TV programs and newspapers. Two independent coders content-analyzed a total of 731 comments for further examination. Inter-coder agreement was .91. As a measure of Perceptions of North Koreans, respondents rated, on a five-point scale (1 = not at all, 5 = very much), 10 adjectives as characteristics of North Koreans. These adjectives included five positive characteristics (diligent, trustworthy, independent, ethical, intelligent) and five negative ones (authoritarian, narrow-minded, uneducated, criminal, hostile). As a comparison basis, we also had our respondents rate South Koreans on the same characteristic items.
330
M. Han, S.-H. Kim / Public Relations Review 30 (2004) 327–333
Respondents were asked to indicate their intention to integrate with North Koreans if two Koreas are reunified into one nation. We asked respondents whether they agreed or disagreed (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) with seven statements, which tapped a variety of social and political issues regarding the integration.3 These seven measures were combined into a single index (alpha = .67) representing respondents’ intention to integrate with North Koreans (Intention to Integrate with North Koreans). For control purposes, we measured respondents’ political ideology and their personal interest in the issue of Korean reunification. We also measured demographic variables, including respondents’ age (year of birth, M = 1960.65, S.D. = 14.01), gender (58.4% female), education (the highest degree completed, high school diploma as median), and income (median monthly income between Korean Won 1 and 2 million).
4. Findings 4.1. Media portrayals of North Koreans Our first research question deals with media portrayals of North Koreans. When our respondents were asked about impressions of North Koreans depicted in the media, the most frequent comment they generated was sympathy toward North Koreans. More than a half (53.2%) of comments were about feeling sympathetic to North Koreans and their living conditions. The next frequently-mentioned comment was negative characteristics of North Koreans (e.g., liars, cruel), accounting for about 10.7% of the total comments, whereas only about 3.8% mentioned positive images (e.g., innocent, artistic, good people). Also frequently mentioned (6.2%) was the feeling of disparity between South and North Koreans. Perceptions of similarity, however, accounted for only about 2.3% of the total comments. In summary, our content analysis shows that South Koreans have perceived from the media that North Koreans are deprived in many ways and they are in a serious need for help. Our analysis also indicates that South Koreans have found negative, rather than positive, images of North Koreans in the media. Finally, we found that South Koreans have formed an impression, from the media, that North Koreans are quite different from themselves. 4.2. South Koreans’ perceptions of North Koreans To examine how South Koreans perceive North Koreans (RQ2), we had our respondents evaluate North Koreans on a variety of attributes. They also evaluated South Koreans on the same characteristics (see Table 1). On negative attributes, South Koreans perceived that North Koreans were less authoritarian, less criminal, and less hostile than themselves. This finding is quite surprising, given that North Korea has often been depicted as hostile, repressive, and belligerent. North Koreans were also judged to be less educated and more narrow-minded than South Koreans. On positive attributes, respondents rated 3
These seven statements include: “It is desirable in many respects for children from the South and the North to attend the same school”; “It would be better to hire a South Korean than a North Korean if their qualifications and skills are compatible”; “The President of the unified government should come from South Korea”; “It is more desirable to marry a South Korean than someone from the North”; “If necessary, I and my family are willing to move to the North and live there”; “I have no problem with being hired by a North Korean”; “I support having North Koreans as my neighbors.”
M. Han, S.-H. Kim / Public Relations Review 30 (2004) 327–333
331
Table 1 Comparison between perceptions of North and South Koreans (2002, N = 443) Perceptions
North Koreans
South Koreans
t
Negative attributes Authoritarian Narrow-minded Uneducated Criminal Hostile
2.54 3.73 3.12 2.99 2.78
3.48 2.39 1.93 3.28 2.94
−12.03∗∗∗ 16.78∗∗∗ 16.26∗∗∗ −4.33∗∗∗ −2.24∗
Positive attributes Diligent Trustworthy Independent Ethical Intelligent
3.50 2.49 2.75 2.97 2.32
3.38 2.87 3.27 2.86 3.34
1.51 −5.61∗∗∗ −7.00∗∗∗ 1.85 −16.45∗∗∗
∗∗∗
P < .001; ∗∗ P < .01; ∗ P < .05.
that North Koreans were less trustworthy, less independent, and less intelligent than themselves. These differences were all statistically significant. 4.3. Intention to integrate with North Koreans Our two hypotheses examine whether South Koreans’ perceptions of the North influence their intention to integrate with North Koreans. Respondents’ intention was predicted using a multiple regression model, which included demographics, political ideology, personal interest in the unification issues, and perceptions of North Koreans (10 attribute measures). Supporting our hypotheses, we found that perceptions had significant impacts. Perceptions of North Koreans as trustworthy (β = .11), ethical (β = .11), and intelligent (β = .14) indicated significant positive relationships to the intention. Perceiving North Koreans as criminal (a negative attribute), on the other hand, showed a negative relationship (β = −.19).
5. Suggestions for relationship building campaigns Our findings about media portrayals of North Koreans suggest that the South Korean media need to make an extra effort to feature North Koreans in a more positive light. This is not to say that the media should exclude any information that can give out negative impressions of the North, but to say that they should provide more balanced portrayals of North Koreans. Positive media presentations of the North would smooth the integration process between South and North Koreans. Our respondents often indicated feelings of disparity toward North Koreans. This may have an important implication for developing message strategies of relation building campaigns. We suggest that key messages of the campaigns emphasize similarities between the South and the North, rather than differences, which in turn help narrow the perceived disparity. Relationship building campaigns, for example, may highlight the common heritage shared by the two countries. Recently, the South Korean government
332
M. Han, S.-H. Kim / Public Relations Review 30 (2004) 327–333
has launched a public tour program to Kumgang Mountain in North Korea. As a way to bring out more common interests, the government has also made an effort to facilitate sports and arts exchanges with the North. Such programs, if properly promoted, can provide South Koreans with opportunities to experience greater familiarity with North Koreans, which in turn may contribute to building a more favorable relationship. We also found that our respondents exhibited rather ambivalent perceptions of North Koreans. They generally perceived that North Koreans are less hostile, criminal, and authoritarian than themselves. At the same time, however, they saw themselves as more intelligent, independent, and trustworthy than North Koreans. These findings may indicate that despite the negative propaganda they have received in the past, South Koreans now make rather lenient evaluations of North Koreans. Traditionally, North Koreans have been depicted as hostile, cruel, and belligerent. More recently, however, they are presented as helpless and vulnerable especially in the media. South Koreans, therefore, may not feel as threatened by North Korea as they have before. This trend may provide a good opportunity for relationship building campaigns as South Koreans become more open to knowing and understanding North Koreans. Finally, our findings show that the way South Koreans perceive the North has significant effects on their intention to integrate with North Koreans. We recommend that campaign messages focus on characterizing North Koreans as intelligent, trustworthy, and ethical. Our data analyses indicate that these attributes, among others, are important considerations when South Koreans form their intention to integrate with people in the North. We also found that South Koreans were significantly concerned about the potential criminal nature of North Koreans. This may come from the lack of direct experience with North Koreans or the lack of feeling that “they are just similar to us.” In order to facilitate South Koreans’ intention to integrate with the North, public campaigns should make an extra effort to deal with this particular image. Campaigns may also need to provide more accurate information about everyday lives in the North, which are essentially similar to those of South Koreans. We explored public campaign strategies for relationship building between South and North Koreas, looking at media portrayals of North Koreans, South Koreans’ perceptions of North Koreans, and their intention to integrate with people in the North. Our findings may provide important considerations in formulating communication agenda and message strategies, particularly for policy makers and public communication practitioners, whose efforts aim to build a more favorable relationship between the South and the North.
References Bruning, S. D. (2002). Relationship building as a retention strategy: Linking relationship attitudes and satisfaction evaluation to behavioral outcomes. Public Relations Review, 28, 39–48. Ferguson, M. A. (August 1984). Building theory in public relations: Interorganizational relationship. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Gainesville, FL. Fujioka, Y. (1999). Television portrayals and African–American stereotypes: Examination of television effects when direct contact is lacking. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 76, 52–73. Han, S. Y. (2002). It is time to prepare for psychological integration between two Koreas. Minjupyongtong, 29, 28. Hsu, Y., & Lee, P. (2002). Accounting for the effects of ethnic consciousness in Taiwan: A framing perspective. American Asian Review, 20, 157–190. Ji, Y. S. (2001). Conflicting visions for Korean reunification. Unpublished manuscript, Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
M. Han, S.-H. Kim / Public Relations Review 30 (2004) 327–333
333
Kovacs, R. (2001). Relationship building as integral to British activism: Its impact on accountability in broadcasting. Public Relations Review, 27, 421–436. Ledingham, J. A. (2001). Government–community relationships: Extending the relational theory of public relations. Public Relations Review, 27, 285–295. Ledingham, J. A., & Bruning, S. D. (2000). Managing community relationships to maximize mutual benefit: Doing well by doing good. In R. Heath (Ed.), Public relations handbook (pp. 527–534). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Mauer, K. L., Park, B., & Rothbart, M. (1995). Subtyping versus subgrouping: Processes in stereotype representation. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69, 812–824. Pratt, C. (1985). Public relations in the third world: The African context. Public Relations Journal, 41, 11–16. Power, J. G., Murphy, S., & Coover, G. (1996). Priming prejudice: How stereotypes and counter-stereotypes influence attribution of responsibility and credibility among ingroups and outgroups. Human Communication Research, 23, 36–58. Tan, A., Fujioka, Y., & Lucht, N. (1997). Native American stereotypes, TV portrayals, and personal contact. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 74, 265–284. Taylor, M. (2000). Toward a public relations approach to nation building. Journal of Public Relations Research, 12, 179–210. Taylor, M., & Botan, C. H. (1997). Strategic communication campaigns for national development in the Pacific Rim: The case of public education in Malaysia. Australian Journal of Communication, 24, 115–130. Van Leuven, J. K. (1996). Public relations in Southeast Asia: From nation building campaigns to regional interdependence. In H. Culbertson & N. Chen (Eds.), International public relations: A comparative analysis (pp. 93–106). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
South Koreans’ perceptions of North Koreans and implications for public relations campaigns Miejeong Han a,∗ , Sei-Hill Kim b a
Department of Advertising & Public Relations, Hanyang University, 1271 Sa-1 dong, Ansan, Kyunggi-do, 425-791, South Korea b Department of Communication & Journalism, Auburn University, 217 Tichenor Hall, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
Received 9 September 2003; received in revised form 9 March 2004; accepted 19 April 2004
Abstract Analyzing data from a telephone survey of South Korean respondents, we explored public campaign strategies for relationship building between South and North Koreas. We examined three important questions essential for the relationship building: What are the typical images of the North that South Koreans find in the media? How do South Koreans perceive North Koreans? Do such perceptions guide their intention to integrate with North Koreans? Our findings may provide important insights in developing communication agenda and message strategies, particularly for policy makers and public communication practitioners, whose efforts aim to build a favorable relationship between the South and the North. © 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction South and North Koreas have been separated for over 50 years since the split in 1945. The South and the North have employed dramatically different political and economic systems, and people in these two countries, as a result, have developed a strong sense of disparity toward each other. Tangible efforts, however, have been made toward an integration of the South and the North since the monumental summit talk in 2000 between the leaders of two countries. Despite the unpredictable and hostile nature of the North Korean regime, South Koreans have consistently supported humanitarian aid projects to the North, demonstrating rather favorable attitudes toward a variety of economic and diplomatic efforts to facilitate ∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 31 400 5427. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Han). 0363-8111/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2004.04.004
328
M. Han, S.-H. Kim / Public Relations Review 30 (2004) 327–333
a more intimate relationship with North Korea.1 The majority of the South Korean public has supported reunification with the North, expecting that the two countries would come up with a reasonable and feasible method of integration (Ji, 2001). According to a national poll, conducted by Joongang Daily in September 2002, a large majority of South Koreans (70.1%) supported reunification with the North, and about 51.3% believed that reunification would bring mutual benefits to both countries. Recently, Han (2002) has argued that since South and North Koreans have lived in radically different social systems over 50 years, psychological integration should be established first in order to facilitate the process of reunification. That is, both countries should make an extra effort to enhance mutual understanding of each other before they are eventually unified into a single nation. Nationwide public campaigns, Han suggested, should be set up first for working toward building a nation unified psychologically as well as physically. Taylor (2000) maintains that governments could utilize communication campaigns as a valuable resource for nation building. Studies show that public communication campaigns have been used as an effective tool for nation building in many countries (e.g., Bruning, 2002; Pratt, 1985; Van Leuven, 1996). Researchers have claimed that public campaigns may play an important role particularly in solving a variety of social and development problems associated with nation building (e.g., Taylor & Botan, 1997). Relationship is a key concept in public relations approaches to nation building (Taylor, 2000). Relation building is the focus of public communications efforts (Ferguson, 1984), and provides a basis for measuring the effectiveness of public campaigns (Ledingham, 2001). Tangible goals of public relations, as Kovacs (2001) argues, can be attained only by developing and maintaining a successful relationship with the public. This study looks into the relationship between previously unrelated or rarely-related people of South and North Koreas. As Ferguson (1984) maintains, the first step towards relationship building requires learning about relevant publics and their social environment. Ledingham and Bruning (2000) also state that a successful relationship management depends on understanding what must be done to initiate, develop, and maintain the relationship. In this study, we explore how South Koreans (i.e., the target public) perceive the North, and where they stand on important issues relevant to the reunification. Little is known about how South Koreans perceive North Koreans. Furthermore, little research has been done as to whether these perceptions may explain South Koreans’ intention to integrate with the North. South Koreans have had very limited contact with North Koreans.2 Besides what they see in the media, South Koreans seldom have other sources of information about people in the North. In this study, therefore, we first examine the typical images of the North that South Koreans find in the media. In order to identify public communication issues, we then explore how South Koreans perceive North Koreans. Finally, we look into whether these perceptions influence South Koreans’ intention to integrate with the North. We discuss some implications for public campaigns, making suggestions for relationship building between the South and the North.
1 The Sunshine policy, a reunification policy of the South Korean government, proposes that the government should provide the North with extensive political and economic support as a way to improve the living conditions of North Koreans and, more importantly, to promote peace on the Korean peninsula. Since his inauguration in 1998, the South Korean president Kim, Dae-Jung and his administration have pursued the policy in a variety of fields, such as economic cooperation, social and cultural exchanges, and other humanitarian aid projects to the North. In 2003, the new Roh, Moo-Hyun administration has announced the Peace and Prosperity policy that essentially parallels the major framework of the Sunshine policy. 2 It is illegal for South Koreans to make any social or economic exchanges with North Koreans, including any forms of communication and reunion of separated family members without government permission, which is issued only scarcely.
M. Han, S.-H. Kim / Public Relations Review 30 (2004) 327–333
329
2. Research questions and hypotheses Mass media play an important role in shaping people’s perceptions of different social groups (Fujioka, 1999; Tan, Fujioka, & Lucht, 1997). Given the little direct contact with North Koreans, we believe, South Koreans may rely heavily on what they see on television and what they read in newspapers in forming their perceptions of North Koreans. We, therefore, first explore what South Koreans find in media coverage of the North. We put forth the following research question: RQ1 : What are the typical images of the North that South Koreans find in the media? We also examine how South Koreans perceive North Koreans on a number of attributes important to relationship building. Effective campaign messages can be generated from understanding what the South Korean public thinks of the other public in question. Positive attributes, for example, should be incorporated into campaign messages, whereas negative ones ought to be dealt with caution to avoid potential stereotyping. Our second research question deals with South Koreans’ perceptions of North Koreans. RQ2 : How do South Koreans perceive people in the North? These perceptions may function as stereotypical representations of North Koreans. Studies have suggested that stereotypical – usually negatively valenced – perceptions of a group may influence individuals’ ongoing attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors toward the group (Hsu & Lee, 2002; Mauer, Park, & Rothbart, 1995; Power, Murphy, & Coover, 1996). In this study, we examine whether these perceptions influence South Koreans’ intention to integrate with North Koreans on a variety of social and political issues. We test the following hypotheses: H1. Positive perceptions of North Koreans will be associated with greater intention to integrate with them. H2. Negative perceptions of North Koreans will be associated with less intention to integrate with them.
3. Methods Data for this study came from a telephone survey of the residents in Anyang, South Korea. Our sampling was based on a random-digit dialing (RDD) technique. A total of 443 respondents were interviewed between 20 April and 6 June 2002, with a cooperation rate of 46 percent. We used an open-ended question to examine respondents’ impressions of North Koreans depicted in the media (Media Portrayals of North Koreans). Respondents were asked to talk about the typical images of North Koreans they had found in TV programs and newspapers. Two independent coders content-analyzed a total of 731 comments for further examination. Inter-coder agreement was .91. As a measure of Perceptions of North Koreans, respondents rated, on a five-point scale (1 = not at all, 5 = very much), 10 adjectives as characteristics of North Koreans. These adjectives included five positive characteristics (diligent, trustworthy, independent, ethical, intelligent) and five negative ones (authoritarian, narrow-minded, uneducated, criminal, hostile). As a comparison basis, we also had our respondents rate South Koreans on the same characteristic items.
330
M. Han, S.-H. Kim / Public Relations Review 30 (2004) 327–333
Respondents were asked to indicate their intention to integrate with North Koreans if two Koreas are reunified into one nation. We asked respondents whether they agreed or disagreed (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) with seven statements, which tapped a variety of social and political issues regarding the integration.3 These seven measures were combined into a single index (alpha = .67) representing respondents’ intention to integrate with North Koreans (Intention to Integrate with North Koreans). For control purposes, we measured respondents’ political ideology and their personal interest in the issue of Korean reunification. We also measured demographic variables, including respondents’ age (year of birth, M = 1960.65, S.D. = 14.01), gender (58.4% female), education (the highest degree completed, high school diploma as median), and income (median monthly income between Korean Won 1 and 2 million).
4. Findings 4.1. Media portrayals of North Koreans Our first research question deals with media portrayals of North Koreans. When our respondents were asked about impressions of North Koreans depicted in the media, the most frequent comment they generated was sympathy toward North Koreans. More than a half (53.2%) of comments were about feeling sympathetic to North Koreans and their living conditions. The next frequently-mentioned comment was negative characteristics of North Koreans (e.g., liars, cruel), accounting for about 10.7% of the total comments, whereas only about 3.8% mentioned positive images (e.g., innocent, artistic, good people). Also frequently mentioned (6.2%) was the feeling of disparity between South and North Koreans. Perceptions of similarity, however, accounted for only about 2.3% of the total comments. In summary, our content analysis shows that South Koreans have perceived from the media that North Koreans are deprived in many ways and they are in a serious need for help. Our analysis also indicates that South Koreans have found negative, rather than positive, images of North Koreans in the media. Finally, we found that South Koreans have formed an impression, from the media, that North Koreans are quite different from themselves. 4.2. South Koreans’ perceptions of North Koreans To examine how South Koreans perceive North Koreans (RQ2), we had our respondents evaluate North Koreans on a variety of attributes. They also evaluated South Koreans on the same characteristics (see Table 1). On negative attributes, South Koreans perceived that North Koreans were less authoritarian, less criminal, and less hostile than themselves. This finding is quite surprising, given that North Korea has often been depicted as hostile, repressive, and belligerent. North Koreans were also judged to be less educated and more narrow-minded than South Koreans. On positive attributes, respondents rated 3
These seven statements include: “It is desirable in many respects for children from the South and the North to attend the same school”; “It would be better to hire a South Korean than a North Korean if their qualifications and skills are compatible”; “The President of the unified government should come from South Korea”; “It is more desirable to marry a South Korean than someone from the North”; “If necessary, I and my family are willing to move to the North and live there”; “I have no problem with being hired by a North Korean”; “I support having North Koreans as my neighbors.”
M. Han, S.-H. Kim / Public Relations Review 30 (2004) 327–333
331
Table 1 Comparison between perceptions of North and South Koreans (2002, N = 443) Perceptions
North Koreans
South Koreans
t
Negative attributes Authoritarian Narrow-minded Uneducated Criminal Hostile
2.54 3.73 3.12 2.99 2.78
3.48 2.39 1.93 3.28 2.94
−12.03∗∗∗ 16.78∗∗∗ 16.26∗∗∗ −4.33∗∗∗ −2.24∗
Positive attributes Diligent Trustworthy Independent Ethical Intelligent
3.50 2.49 2.75 2.97 2.32
3.38 2.87 3.27 2.86 3.34
1.51 −5.61∗∗∗ −7.00∗∗∗ 1.85 −16.45∗∗∗
∗∗∗
P < .001; ∗∗ P < .01; ∗ P < .05.
that North Koreans were less trustworthy, less independent, and less intelligent than themselves. These differences were all statistically significant. 4.3. Intention to integrate with North Koreans Our two hypotheses examine whether South Koreans’ perceptions of the North influence their intention to integrate with North Koreans. Respondents’ intention was predicted using a multiple regression model, which included demographics, political ideology, personal interest in the unification issues, and perceptions of North Koreans (10 attribute measures). Supporting our hypotheses, we found that perceptions had significant impacts. Perceptions of North Koreans as trustworthy (β = .11), ethical (β = .11), and intelligent (β = .14) indicated significant positive relationships to the intention. Perceiving North Koreans as criminal (a negative attribute), on the other hand, showed a negative relationship (β = −.19).
5. Suggestions for relationship building campaigns Our findings about media portrayals of North Koreans suggest that the South Korean media need to make an extra effort to feature North Koreans in a more positive light. This is not to say that the media should exclude any information that can give out negative impressions of the North, but to say that they should provide more balanced portrayals of North Koreans. Positive media presentations of the North would smooth the integration process between South and North Koreans. Our respondents often indicated feelings of disparity toward North Koreans. This may have an important implication for developing message strategies of relation building campaigns. We suggest that key messages of the campaigns emphasize similarities between the South and the North, rather than differences, which in turn help narrow the perceived disparity. Relationship building campaigns, for example, may highlight the common heritage shared by the two countries. Recently, the South Korean government
332
M. Han, S.-H. Kim / Public Relations Review 30 (2004) 327–333
has launched a public tour program to Kumgang Mountain in North Korea. As a way to bring out more common interests, the government has also made an effort to facilitate sports and arts exchanges with the North. Such programs, if properly promoted, can provide South Koreans with opportunities to experience greater familiarity with North Koreans, which in turn may contribute to building a more favorable relationship. We also found that our respondents exhibited rather ambivalent perceptions of North Koreans. They generally perceived that North Koreans are less hostile, criminal, and authoritarian than themselves. At the same time, however, they saw themselves as more intelligent, independent, and trustworthy than North Koreans. These findings may indicate that despite the negative propaganda they have received in the past, South Koreans now make rather lenient evaluations of North Koreans. Traditionally, North Koreans have been depicted as hostile, cruel, and belligerent. More recently, however, they are presented as helpless and vulnerable especially in the media. South Koreans, therefore, may not feel as threatened by North Korea as they have before. This trend may provide a good opportunity for relationship building campaigns as South Koreans become more open to knowing and understanding North Koreans. Finally, our findings show that the way South Koreans perceive the North has significant effects on their intention to integrate with North Koreans. We recommend that campaign messages focus on characterizing North Koreans as intelligent, trustworthy, and ethical. Our data analyses indicate that these attributes, among others, are important considerations when South Koreans form their intention to integrate with people in the North. We also found that South Koreans were significantly concerned about the potential criminal nature of North Koreans. This may come from the lack of direct experience with North Koreans or the lack of feeling that “they are just similar to us.” In order to facilitate South Koreans’ intention to integrate with the North, public campaigns should make an extra effort to deal with this particular image. Campaigns may also need to provide more accurate information about everyday lives in the North, which are essentially similar to those of South Koreans. We explored public campaign strategies for relationship building between South and North Koreas, looking at media portrayals of North Koreans, South Koreans’ perceptions of North Koreans, and their intention to integrate with people in the North. Our findings may provide important considerations in formulating communication agenda and message strategies, particularly for policy makers and public communication practitioners, whose efforts aim to build a more favorable relationship between the South and the North.
References Bruning, S. D. (2002). Relationship building as a retention strategy: Linking relationship attitudes and satisfaction evaluation to behavioral outcomes. Public Relations Review, 28, 39–48. Ferguson, M. A. (August 1984). Building theory in public relations: Interorganizational relationship. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Gainesville, FL. Fujioka, Y. (1999). Television portrayals and African–American stereotypes: Examination of television effects when direct contact is lacking. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 76, 52–73. Han, S. Y. (2002). It is time to prepare for psychological integration between two Koreas. Minjupyongtong, 29, 28. Hsu, Y., & Lee, P. (2002). Accounting for the effects of ethnic consciousness in Taiwan: A framing perspective. American Asian Review, 20, 157–190. Ji, Y. S. (2001). Conflicting visions for Korean reunification. Unpublished manuscript, Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
M. Han, S.-H. Kim / Public Relations Review 30 (2004) 327–333
333
Kovacs, R. (2001). Relationship building as integral to British activism: Its impact on accountability in broadcasting. Public Relations Review, 27, 421–436. Ledingham, J. A. (2001). Government–community relationships: Extending the relational theory of public relations. Public Relations Review, 27, 285–295. Ledingham, J. A., & Bruning, S. D. (2000). Managing community relationships to maximize mutual benefit: Doing well by doing good. In R. Heath (Ed.), Public relations handbook (pp. 527–534). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Mauer, K. L., Park, B., & Rothbart, M. (1995). Subtyping versus subgrouping: Processes in stereotype representation. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69, 812–824. Pratt, C. (1985). Public relations in the third world: The African context. Public Relations Journal, 41, 11–16. Power, J. G., Murphy, S., & Coover, G. (1996). Priming prejudice: How stereotypes and counter-stereotypes influence attribution of responsibility and credibility among ingroups and outgroups. Human Communication Research, 23, 36–58. Tan, A., Fujioka, Y., & Lucht, N. (1997). Native American stereotypes, TV portrayals, and personal contact. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 74, 265–284. Taylor, M. (2000). Toward a public relations approach to nation building. Journal of Public Relations Research, 12, 179–210. Taylor, M., & Botan, C. H. (1997). Strategic communication campaigns for national development in the Pacific Rim: The case of public education in Malaysia. Australian Journal of Communication, 24, 115–130. Van Leuven, J. K. (1996). Public relations in Southeast Asia: From nation building campaigns to regional interdependence. In H. Culbertson & N. Chen (Eds.), International public relations: A comparative analysis (pp. 93–106). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.