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Soviet physical and biological geography
Geofontm, Vol. 10, pp. 261-265,1979. Pergamon Press Ltd. Printed in Great Britain.
Soviet Physical and Biological Geography I.P. GERASIMOV, V.S. PREOBRAZHENSKY, R.P. ZIMINA” and T.V. ZVONKOVAt, Moscow, U.S.S.R.
Abstract:
Soviet physical and biological geography was built initially on solid Russian traditions. Its development since the Revolution, however, has been strongly influenced by planning needs for information and data about physical en~ronment and natural resources and more recently by rising concern for the quality of environment. New methods of data collection, monitoring and analysis have been introduced to enrich and to complement traditional approaches.
Major characteristic Development
attention was then directed towards the organization of the rational use of natural resources and towards the analysis and evaluation of natural conditions in the backward regions that were scheduled to development. To solve all these problems, Soviet scientists had to accumulate profound knowledge of natural phenomena and processes peculiar to the vast and variegated territory of the country and to establish the main regularities of their spatial distribution. They had to carry out very extensive survey work to compile thematic (morphological, hydrological, pedological and geobotanical) maps, to prepare a series of guide-books and descriptions of the regions and to innovate regionalisation methodologies. As a result, it was the theoretical and methodolo~cal bases of the analytical branches of physical and biological geography climatology, hydrology, geomorphology, soil science and geobotany - that were most actively developed, while these also provided much information about all the principal components of the natural environment within the U.S.S.R.
of the History of
Soviet physical and biological geography proceeded by extending a wide range of ideas culled from progressive scientists in former Russia: P.P. Semenov-Tien-Shansky, A.I. Voyeikov and V.V. Dokuchaev. Yet it has continuously developed under the influence of both social practice and the strength of the inner logic of scientific evolution. Fundamental to the development of Soviet physical and geological geography has been the planned character of the economy of the U.S.S.R. and especially the fact that the implementation of such planning was based on the study of natural environment and resources. During the early years of Soviet power and the first pre-war Five-Year Plans, when the foundation of a socialist society was being laid, such problems as the overcoming of the centuries-old backwardness of nation minorities, and the enhancement of the planned development of mineral, land, water, forest and other natural resources had to be solved. Most * Academician I.P. Gerasimov, Dr. V.S. Preobrazhensky and Dr. Rimma Petrovna Zimina, Institute of Geography, AN SSSR, Moscow 1090 17, Staromonetny per. 29, U.S.S.R. $ Professor Tat’yana Vasil’yevich Zvonkova, Moscow State University, Moscow 1172334, Lenin Hills, U.S.S.R. 261
At the same time, all these branches were united by developing the concepts of landscapes (Berg) and of the physical interrelationships of components of the natural environment (Grigoriev). The foundation of geobotany and zoogeography was laid by Sukachev and Severtsev, which served also as a basis for the formation of corresponding
262
Geoforum/Volume
1O/Number 3/ 1979
interdisciplinary studies in physical and biological geography. Thus, mutually beneficial contacts were developed between the analytical and synthetic branches of geography.
whole complicated picture of the spatial distribution of the processes of forming and modifying regional and global eco- and geosystems, on the other.
New impetus to the development of geographical science came during the post-Second World War Five-Year Plans, when the country was faced by the need for planned changes in the natural environment in certain regions and, first of all, in their water regimes (primarily in arid regions), land resources and natural ecosystems. Thus, the problem of modifying radiational and water budgets of certain areas, of raising soil fertility and of expanding the reproduction of biological resources became the principal foci of attention. In particular, it stimulated an active broadening of geophysical and geochemicaf studies and hence the further development of the major subdivision of physical geography that contributes most to understanding the dynamics and development of nature and of its ecosystems.
All this stimulates an intensive development of the integrational processes within physical and biological geography and the development of diversified links with economic and social geography. The following processes should, thus, be mentioned :
Under the conditions of advanced socialism, the tasks facing Soviet geography have become even more complicated. Alongside subsequent study of the major components of the natural environment as a system of reproductive resources, the need for research into the impact of economic activities on en~ronment became more critical. It was recognized that the processes of forming anthropogenically altered natural geosystems create systems which not only reproduce natural resources, but which also are of great importance in shaping the living conditions and the health of the population. The complexity of problems concerning the evaluation of the impact of large-scale changes in nature has sharply increased, and requires both better forecasting of such changes and the introduction of deliberate measures to prevent negative consequences. Simultaneously, geographers assumed increased responsibilities not only for designing certain economic projects, but also as participants in decision making, influencing the choices made from alternative projects. To do all this effectively, geographers have to collect ever greater volumes of the necessary data, to acquire deeper knowledge of the mechanisms of the interaction of the nature’s components in local and regional geosystems, on the one hand, and to try to understand the
first, the strengthening of integrating studies (land-use, landscape science, biogeography, paleogeography), which have recently developed a number of new and general conceptual models embracing a wide range of geo~ap~cal phenomena and problems; second, the strengthening of traditional continuous interdisciplinary (but intra-geography) approaches: comparative-geographical, cartographical, ecological and systems approaches, and the development of new ones; third, the development of “border” scientific trends in the physics and chemistry of natural ecosystems, mathematical geographical simulation and so on.
Major Recent Trends in Soviet Physical and Biological Geography
Three major social tasks have been deemed to be the most urgent during the past decade: 1. The ever increasing scale of the impacts and the spatial diffusion of influences of human activities on nature urge scientists to organize strict control of anthropogenic change in the natural environmeIlt and its consequences (the deterioration of the health of population, the renewability of natural resources and the state of natural ecosystems). All this is necessary to substantiate measures for managing natural geosystems. The set of such actions is denoted by Soviet geographers as a system of monitouing environment. Academician Gerasimov has pointed out the necessity to form a system of three-level monitoring. 2. The necessity and resources
for the rational use of natural their economic and social
263
Geoforum/Volume lo/Number 3/1979
benefit-cost evaluation, and the prediction of the volume of labour necessary for their prospecting and extraction broadens both the ranges and the scales of conscious modification of the natural environment. The programme for an interzonal spatial redistribution of river runoff is one example which illustrates the increase in the scales of impact and in the complexities of research. Its aim is quite clear - to facilitate an increase in agricultural production in the southern regions of the U.S.S.R. which are rich in solar and land resources by transfering water to them from waterlogged northern zones. There is thus an accompanying need for scientific forecasting of the scales of both the direct effects and the chain reactions in the natural systems. This social task makes it even more essential to work out the principles for, and methods of, comprehensive geographical forecasts. We consciously emphasize the word “comprehensive”, since in solving such tasks it is impossible to limit oneself to separate forecasts, such as
geocenosis”, “geosystem”” and (b) specific detailed models such as “radiational budget”, “ecological pyramic”, “bio“water budget”, towards genie cycle in soils”. This tendency uniting global and specific models reflects a trend to realize within modem geography the ideas of the unity of nature and the unity of the general and the particular; it is a tendency based on the progressive traditions of Russian geographical science. In large measure it also preconditioned the acceptance of a modem systems approach by Soviet geography, not as something exterior, but as a necessity that had ripened within the science itself. Moreover, geography has emerged as one of the active forces in developing a systems orientation.
of the changes in climate, water budgets, land use and ecosystems. To solve problems properly, systems of interrelated forecasts of change in both separate components of nature and the geosystem as a whole should be elaborated.
All this has served to develop consciously Lnth the synthetic branches like general geogianhy, landscape science, biogeography, paleogeography and the analytical branches such as geomorphology, climatology, hydrology, geography of soils, geobotany and zoogeography. Co-ordination of work in these two directions has usually been by creating the respective scientific departments, by financing studies and publications, by training specialists and by encouraging State research
3. Increasing pollution of the environment both by industry and agriculture (chemicalization, concentration of cattle-breeding) and the development of regions with extreme natural conditions, make the tasks of optimizing the living conditions of the population by improving the natural environment more urgent. Our role is to define the geographical components of creating an environment optimum for living in settlements and in recreational regions. In this field, there should be particularly close contact between physical and biological geography, on the one hand, and social geography on the other.
The Theory and Structure and Biological Geography
of Soviet
Physical
One of the specific features in the development of Soviet geographical thought is a joint, mutually beneficial, elaboration of (a) general concepts such as “biosphere”, “geographical mantle”, “landscape”, “ecosystem”, “bio-
This tendency has expressed itself differently in the widespread principle to study the components of nature as parts of natural entities. As a result, geography has been active on the margins of other, more specialized sciences.
* Let us explain the meaning literature:
of these terms in Soviet
Biosphere is a sphere where a living matter is present, and in which this living matter plays a leading role in all dynamic and evolutionary processes. Geographical mantle is a sphere of interpenetration and interaction of lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere characterized by a joint influence of the solar and intra-earth sources of energy. Landscape is a territorial complex of interconnected components of nature: climate, relief, surface and ground waters, soils, animal and plant world characterized by a comparative homogeneity. Ecosystem or biogeocenosis is a system consisting of biota and abiotic components linked among themselves by a cycle of energy and matter. Geosystem is a territorial system consisting of interacting (a) components of nature and (b) technogenic components.
264
It reflects two objective and simultaneous the scientific-organizational processes in strategy: differentiation and integration of scientific knowledge (both in the sphere of obtaining new information and in working out the ways of obtaining it). The preservation - even an increase in interest towards soil and biological (biota) ~mponents of geosystems, i.e. towards a geosystems study of soils and biota - is a major general tendency in Soviet geography. This has ensued because biogeo~aphy becomes stronger within the of physico-geographical sciences, system approaching a position in which it can be singled out as an independent subsystem, uniting the geography of soils with geobotany and zoogeography. In recent decades the development of Soviet biogeography was both rapid and complicated, its topics ranging from the study of soil types and the composition of flora and fauna in different natural regions to the study of interaction and evolution of the soil-vegetation cover and animal population. Later, study moved towards understanding the structure, functioning and mass and energy exchange of the principal natural ecosystems of the Soviet Union as a basis for protecting lands and biota and their rational use under present conditions of scientific and technological progress. The formation of constructive geography is an impo~~t reaction by geographers to the development of scientific and technological revolution in the U.S.S.R. This revolution requires and facilitates advanced development of general theoretical concepts for the solution of practical (applied) tasks; it has become particularly necessary while working out different geographical forecasts. Theoretical and applied studies began to be united organically; new information obtained in the course of applied studies enabled scientists to undertake theoretical research, modernize conventional theories, develop new methods and put forward new proposals and solutions, making for simultaneous and practical checking of such solutions. New forms of the impact of modem society on the natural environment and its consequences are studied in regularities in the formation of spatial systems: relations such as “nature technology” and “nature population”
Geoforum~Vol~e
1O~Number 311979
are determined. Such constructive-geographical studies become an indispensable part of the design of new economic and technical projects which, as a result of their regional specificity or great spatial scales do not have real analogies from which to derive forecasts of changes in natural environment, e.g. regarding the KaraKum canal and the West-Siberian lowland. Thus, on the one hand, science finds new ways and possibilities for the conscious construction of an environment favourable for man, for increasing the productivi~ of nature and for making the most effective use of the factors of production to meet the ever-growing needs of society. On the other hand, there is a clear task of optimizing the interaction of society and nature to cope with the increasing impact of the activity of a mankind equipped with powerful technical means, and so to prevent destruction of the natural environment. The development of such a constructive trend dialectically erases the contradiction between theoretical and applied studies. It offers a unity between theory and practice in research which represents a specific feature of the development of Soviet geography: by contrast, this contradiction between theoretical and applied research in the field of physical geography has been rather strong in British geo-
graphy. Methods in Soviet Physical and Biological Geography
The last decade has been typified by an active me~odological “re-tooling” concerning the collection of new data, the systematization of materials, and the stages of empirical and theoretical generalization. With respect to data collection and its primary processing, most characteristic is the search for ways of using spatial information both in traditional work, such as thematic mapping (including landscape mapping and physical regionalization) with the aid of multispectral survey and deciphering, and in studying the dynamics of natural processes and phenomena, regular and irregular or sporadic by means of grid squares. Another feature Soviet geography
of information collection in has been the expanded de-
Geoforum/Volume
IO/Number
265
3/1979
velopment of comprehensive research stations, a trend closely connected with the co-ordination and the development of both synthetic and analitical methodologies. A broad network of stations makes it possible to: (1) underpin the traditional spatial-comparative method by new and more precise measurements of numerous static and dynamic, physical, chemical and biological parameters of various components of nature and natural processes; (2) unite observations of the functioning of eco- and geosystems (of cyclic changes depending on mass and energy cycles) and of their changes in time (dynamics and development), as well as of the relation between the state of the system and the parameters of the influencing factors, particularly the anthropogenic factors; (3) provide sufficient data for modelling ecoand geosystems to enrich general models with concepts of various combinations of heterogeneous mechanisms operating in the interaction of nature’s elements (e.g. energetic, tropical, informational links); (4) detects links between the morphology of eco- and geosystems and processes of mass and energy exchange. Nowadays considerable attention is being paid to the co-ordination of comprehensive observations from ground stations with information coming from space satellites. The development of the methods for empirical generalizations particularly requires active examination of the possibilities for the use of mathematical methods and computers. Numerous specific methods have been suggested to reveal the links between components of natural complexes. These attempts have been especially successful in climatology, hydrology and geomorphology. At the same time, efforts are being made to create mathematical models of eco- and geosystems with the help of geophysical and geochemical approaches. Such a methodological search so far mainly concerns the simplest traditional component models, but work is also being done on regionalization of a territory using multifactor autocorrelation. The influence
of systems
analysis
should
also
be underlined in theoretical generalization. First, in Soviet physical and biological geography new conceptual models of eco- and geosystems are being developed continuously. These numerous models are systematized and a number of new models have been tested in research and design practice (such as spatialrecreational systems, geotechnical systems). Second, extensive studies on models for a number of kinds of cognitive activity in geography (cartographic generalization, regionalization, evaluation) have been carried out by Soviet geographers. Conclusion
We should certainly not exaggerate the results of using these new methods and techniques in combination with traditional approaches and methods in physical and biological geography. It must be admitted that many studies using new methods are still of an experimental character and, consequently, not always efficient enough. Sometimes they even lead a scholar into a methodological cul-de-sac, because while looking for new methods one has to consciously simplify and make more formal real natural phenomena, processes and interactions. But these inevitable “costs” of new methods and approaches should not discourage us. On the contrary, such failures bear stimuli for new creative searches. However, a nihilistic underestimation and denial of approaches and methods traditional for physical and biological geography would be a great mistake. Although fundamental changes and “revolutions” in the field of general thinking and research methods are constantly taking place in science, all new things always and everywhere developed on the experience accumulated earlier. Thus, in this respect the task is not to deny and forget the past experience of science, but to study carefully and comprehensively the accumulated scientific capital and to use widely the most precious, permanent scientific values tested by time in an organic combination with new concepts, approaches and methods. Much of the argument presented above is common for Soviet and British geographies. That is why a thorough exchange of methodological experience and discussions at our sessions will undoubtedly be useful for both the delegations at this Seminar.
Soviet Physical and Biological Geography I.P. GERASIMOV, V.S. PREOBRAZHENSKY, R.P. ZIMINA” and T.V. ZVONKOVAt, Moscow, U.S.S.R.
Abstract:
Soviet physical and biological geography was built initially on solid Russian traditions. Its development since the Revolution, however, has been strongly influenced by planning needs for information and data about physical en~ronment and natural resources and more recently by rising concern for the quality of environment. New methods of data collection, monitoring and analysis have been introduced to enrich and to complement traditional approaches.
Major characteristic Development
attention was then directed towards the organization of the rational use of natural resources and towards the analysis and evaluation of natural conditions in the backward regions that were scheduled to development. To solve all these problems, Soviet scientists had to accumulate profound knowledge of natural phenomena and processes peculiar to the vast and variegated territory of the country and to establish the main regularities of their spatial distribution. They had to carry out very extensive survey work to compile thematic (morphological, hydrological, pedological and geobotanical) maps, to prepare a series of guide-books and descriptions of the regions and to innovate regionalisation methodologies. As a result, it was the theoretical and methodolo~cal bases of the analytical branches of physical and biological geography climatology, hydrology, geomorphology, soil science and geobotany - that were most actively developed, while these also provided much information about all the principal components of the natural environment within the U.S.S.R.
of the History of
Soviet physical and biological geography proceeded by extending a wide range of ideas culled from progressive scientists in former Russia: P.P. Semenov-Tien-Shansky, A.I. Voyeikov and V.V. Dokuchaev. Yet it has continuously developed under the influence of both social practice and the strength of the inner logic of scientific evolution. Fundamental to the development of Soviet physical and geological geography has been the planned character of the economy of the U.S.S.R. and especially the fact that the implementation of such planning was based on the study of natural environment and resources. During the early years of Soviet power and the first pre-war Five-Year Plans, when the foundation of a socialist society was being laid, such problems as the overcoming of the centuries-old backwardness of nation minorities, and the enhancement of the planned development of mineral, land, water, forest and other natural resources had to be solved. Most * Academician I.P. Gerasimov, Dr. V.S. Preobrazhensky and Dr. Rimma Petrovna Zimina, Institute of Geography, AN SSSR, Moscow 1090 17, Staromonetny per. 29, U.S.S.R. $ Professor Tat’yana Vasil’yevich Zvonkova, Moscow State University, Moscow 1172334, Lenin Hills, U.S.S.R. 261
At the same time, all these branches were united by developing the concepts of landscapes (Berg) and of the physical interrelationships of components of the natural environment (Grigoriev). The foundation of geobotany and zoogeography was laid by Sukachev and Severtsev, which served also as a basis for the formation of corresponding
262
Geoforum/Volume
1O/Number 3/ 1979
interdisciplinary studies in physical and biological geography. Thus, mutually beneficial contacts were developed between the analytical and synthetic branches of geography.
whole complicated picture of the spatial distribution of the processes of forming and modifying regional and global eco- and geosystems, on the other.
New impetus to the development of geographical science came during the post-Second World War Five-Year Plans, when the country was faced by the need for planned changes in the natural environment in certain regions and, first of all, in their water regimes (primarily in arid regions), land resources and natural ecosystems. Thus, the problem of modifying radiational and water budgets of certain areas, of raising soil fertility and of expanding the reproduction of biological resources became the principal foci of attention. In particular, it stimulated an active broadening of geophysical and geochemicaf studies and hence the further development of the major subdivision of physical geography that contributes most to understanding the dynamics and development of nature and of its ecosystems.
All this stimulates an intensive development of the integrational processes within physical and biological geography and the development of diversified links with economic and social geography. The following processes should, thus, be mentioned :
Under the conditions of advanced socialism, the tasks facing Soviet geography have become even more complicated. Alongside subsequent study of the major components of the natural environment as a system of reproductive resources, the need for research into the impact of economic activities on en~ronment became more critical. It was recognized that the processes of forming anthropogenically altered natural geosystems create systems which not only reproduce natural resources, but which also are of great importance in shaping the living conditions and the health of the population. The complexity of problems concerning the evaluation of the impact of large-scale changes in nature has sharply increased, and requires both better forecasting of such changes and the introduction of deliberate measures to prevent negative consequences. Simultaneously, geographers assumed increased responsibilities not only for designing certain economic projects, but also as participants in decision making, influencing the choices made from alternative projects. To do all this effectively, geographers have to collect ever greater volumes of the necessary data, to acquire deeper knowledge of the mechanisms of the interaction of the nature’s components in local and regional geosystems, on the one hand, and to try to understand the
first, the strengthening of integrating studies (land-use, landscape science, biogeography, paleogeography), which have recently developed a number of new and general conceptual models embracing a wide range of geo~ap~cal phenomena and problems; second, the strengthening of traditional continuous interdisciplinary (but intra-geography) approaches: comparative-geographical, cartographical, ecological and systems approaches, and the development of new ones; third, the development of “border” scientific trends in the physics and chemistry of natural ecosystems, mathematical geographical simulation and so on.
Major Recent Trends in Soviet Physical and Biological Geography
Three major social tasks have been deemed to be the most urgent during the past decade: 1. The ever increasing scale of the impacts and the spatial diffusion of influences of human activities on nature urge scientists to organize strict control of anthropogenic change in the natural environmeIlt and its consequences (the deterioration of the health of population, the renewability of natural resources and the state of natural ecosystems). All this is necessary to substantiate measures for managing natural geosystems. The set of such actions is denoted by Soviet geographers as a system of monitouing environment. Academician Gerasimov has pointed out the necessity to form a system of three-level monitoring. 2. The necessity and resources
for the rational use of natural their economic and social
263
Geoforum/Volume lo/Number 3/1979
benefit-cost evaluation, and the prediction of the volume of labour necessary for their prospecting and extraction broadens both the ranges and the scales of conscious modification of the natural environment. The programme for an interzonal spatial redistribution of river runoff is one example which illustrates the increase in the scales of impact and in the complexities of research. Its aim is quite clear - to facilitate an increase in agricultural production in the southern regions of the U.S.S.R. which are rich in solar and land resources by transfering water to them from waterlogged northern zones. There is thus an accompanying need for scientific forecasting of the scales of both the direct effects and the chain reactions in the natural systems. This social task makes it even more essential to work out the principles for, and methods of, comprehensive geographical forecasts. We consciously emphasize the word “comprehensive”, since in solving such tasks it is impossible to limit oneself to separate forecasts, such as
geocenosis”, “geosystem”” and (b) specific detailed models such as “radiational budget”, “ecological pyramic”, “bio“water budget”, towards genie cycle in soils”. This tendency uniting global and specific models reflects a trend to realize within modem geography the ideas of the unity of nature and the unity of the general and the particular; it is a tendency based on the progressive traditions of Russian geographical science. In large measure it also preconditioned the acceptance of a modem systems approach by Soviet geography, not as something exterior, but as a necessity that had ripened within the science itself. Moreover, geography has emerged as one of the active forces in developing a systems orientation.
of the changes in climate, water budgets, land use and ecosystems. To solve problems properly, systems of interrelated forecasts of change in both separate components of nature and the geosystem as a whole should be elaborated.
All this has served to develop consciously Lnth the synthetic branches like general geogianhy, landscape science, biogeography, paleogeography and the analytical branches such as geomorphology, climatology, hydrology, geography of soils, geobotany and zoogeography. Co-ordination of work in these two directions has usually been by creating the respective scientific departments, by financing studies and publications, by training specialists and by encouraging State research
3. Increasing pollution of the environment both by industry and agriculture (chemicalization, concentration of cattle-breeding) and the development of regions with extreme natural conditions, make the tasks of optimizing the living conditions of the population by improving the natural environment more urgent. Our role is to define the geographical components of creating an environment optimum for living in settlements and in recreational regions. In this field, there should be particularly close contact between physical and biological geography, on the one hand, and social geography on the other.
The Theory and Structure and Biological Geography
of Soviet
Physical
One of the specific features in the development of Soviet geographical thought is a joint, mutually beneficial, elaboration of (a) general concepts such as “biosphere”, “geographical mantle”, “landscape”, “ecosystem”, “bio-
This tendency has expressed itself differently in the widespread principle to study the components of nature as parts of natural entities. As a result, geography has been active on the margins of other, more specialized sciences.
* Let us explain the meaning literature:
of these terms in Soviet
Biosphere is a sphere where a living matter is present, and in which this living matter plays a leading role in all dynamic and evolutionary processes. Geographical mantle is a sphere of interpenetration and interaction of lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere characterized by a joint influence of the solar and intra-earth sources of energy. Landscape is a territorial complex of interconnected components of nature: climate, relief, surface and ground waters, soils, animal and plant world characterized by a comparative homogeneity. Ecosystem or biogeocenosis is a system consisting of biota and abiotic components linked among themselves by a cycle of energy and matter. Geosystem is a territorial system consisting of interacting (a) components of nature and (b) technogenic components.
264
It reflects two objective and simultaneous the scientific-organizational processes in strategy: differentiation and integration of scientific knowledge (both in the sphere of obtaining new information and in working out the ways of obtaining it). The preservation - even an increase in interest towards soil and biological (biota) ~mponents of geosystems, i.e. towards a geosystems study of soils and biota - is a major general tendency in Soviet geography. This has ensued because biogeo~aphy becomes stronger within the of physico-geographical sciences, system approaching a position in which it can be singled out as an independent subsystem, uniting the geography of soils with geobotany and zoogeography. In recent decades the development of Soviet biogeography was both rapid and complicated, its topics ranging from the study of soil types and the composition of flora and fauna in different natural regions to the study of interaction and evolution of the soil-vegetation cover and animal population. Later, study moved towards understanding the structure, functioning and mass and energy exchange of the principal natural ecosystems of the Soviet Union as a basis for protecting lands and biota and their rational use under present conditions of scientific and technological progress. The formation of constructive geography is an impo~~t reaction by geographers to the development of scientific and technological revolution in the U.S.S.R. This revolution requires and facilitates advanced development of general theoretical concepts for the solution of practical (applied) tasks; it has become particularly necessary while working out different geographical forecasts. Theoretical and applied studies began to be united organically; new information obtained in the course of applied studies enabled scientists to undertake theoretical research, modernize conventional theories, develop new methods and put forward new proposals and solutions, making for simultaneous and practical checking of such solutions. New forms of the impact of modem society on the natural environment and its consequences are studied in regularities in the formation of spatial systems: relations such as “nature technology” and “nature population”
Geoforum~Vol~e
1O~Number 311979
are determined. Such constructive-geographical studies become an indispensable part of the design of new economic and technical projects which, as a result of their regional specificity or great spatial scales do not have real analogies from which to derive forecasts of changes in natural environment, e.g. regarding the KaraKum canal and the West-Siberian lowland. Thus, on the one hand, science finds new ways and possibilities for the conscious construction of an environment favourable for man, for increasing the productivi~ of nature and for making the most effective use of the factors of production to meet the ever-growing needs of society. On the other hand, there is a clear task of optimizing the interaction of society and nature to cope with the increasing impact of the activity of a mankind equipped with powerful technical means, and so to prevent destruction of the natural environment. The development of such a constructive trend dialectically erases the contradiction between theoretical and applied studies. It offers a unity between theory and practice in research which represents a specific feature of the development of Soviet geography: by contrast, this contradiction between theoretical and applied research in the field of physical geography has been rather strong in British geo-
graphy. Methods in Soviet Physical and Biological Geography
The last decade has been typified by an active me~odological “re-tooling” concerning the collection of new data, the systematization of materials, and the stages of empirical and theoretical generalization. With respect to data collection and its primary processing, most characteristic is the search for ways of using spatial information both in traditional work, such as thematic mapping (including landscape mapping and physical regionalization) with the aid of multispectral survey and deciphering, and in studying the dynamics of natural processes and phenomena, regular and irregular or sporadic by means of grid squares. Another feature Soviet geography
of information collection in has been the expanded de-
Geoforum/Volume
IO/Number
265
3/1979
velopment of comprehensive research stations, a trend closely connected with the co-ordination and the development of both synthetic and analitical methodologies. A broad network of stations makes it possible to: (1) underpin the traditional spatial-comparative method by new and more precise measurements of numerous static and dynamic, physical, chemical and biological parameters of various components of nature and natural processes; (2) unite observations of the functioning of eco- and geosystems (of cyclic changes depending on mass and energy cycles) and of their changes in time (dynamics and development), as well as of the relation between the state of the system and the parameters of the influencing factors, particularly the anthropogenic factors; (3) provide sufficient data for modelling ecoand geosystems to enrich general models with concepts of various combinations of heterogeneous mechanisms operating in the interaction of nature’s elements (e.g. energetic, tropical, informational links); (4) detects links between the morphology of eco- and geosystems and processes of mass and energy exchange. Nowadays considerable attention is being paid to the co-ordination of comprehensive observations from ground stations with information coming from space satellites. The development of the methods for empirical generalizations particularly requires active examination of the possibilities for the use of mathematical methods and computers. Numerous specific methods have been suggested to reveal the links between components of natural complexes. These attempts have been especially successful in climatology, hydrology and geomorphology. At the same time, efforts are being made to create mathematical models of eco- and geosystems with the help of geophysical and geochemical approaches. Such a methodological search so far mainly concerns the simplest traditional component models, but work is also being done on regionalization of a territory using multifactor autocorrelation. The influence
of systems
analysis
should
also
be underlined in theoretical generalization. First, in Soviet physical and biological geography new conceptual models of eco- and geosystems are being developed continuously. These numerous models are systematized and a number of new models have been tested in research and design practice (such as spatialrecreational systems, geotechnical systems). Second, extensive studies on models for a number of kinds of cognitive activity in geography (cartographic generalization, regionalization, evaluation) have been carried out by Soviet geographers. Conclusion
We should certainly not exaggerate the results of using these new methods and techniques in combination with traditional approaches and methods in physical and biological geography. It must be admitted that many studies using new methods are still of an experimental character and, consequently, not always efficient enough. Sometimes they even lead a scholar into a methodological cul-de-sac, because while looking for new methods one has to consciously simplify and make more formal real natural phenomena, processes and interactions. But these inevitable “costs” of new methods and approaches should not discourage us. On the contrary, such failures bear stimuli for new creative searches. However, a nihilistic underestimation and denial of approaches and methods traditional for physical and biological geography would be a great mistake. Although fundamental changes and “revolutions” in the field of general thinking and research methods are constantly taking place in science, all new things always and everywhere developed on the experience accumulated earlier. Thus, in this respect the task is not to deny and forget the past experience of science, but to study carefully and comprehensively the accumulated scientific capital and to use widely the most precious, permanent scientific values tested by time in an organic combination with new concepts, approaches and methods. Much of the argument presented above is common for Soviet and British geographies. That is why a thorough exchange of methodological experience and discussions at our sessions will undoubtedly be useful for both the delegations at this Seminar.