Accepted Manuscript Title: Spatial and temporal habitat use and selection by red deer: The use of direct and indirect methods Author: Joana Alves Ant´onio Alves da Silva Amadeu M.V.M. Soares Carlos Fonseca PII: DOI: Reference:
S1616-5047(14)00055-X http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.mambio.2014.05.007 MAMBIO 40676
To appear in: Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:
26-6-2013 2-5-2014 31-5-2014
Please cite this article as: Alves, J., Silva, A.A., Soares, A.M.V.M., Fonseca, C.,Spatial and temporal habitat use and selection by red deer: the use of direct and indirect methods, Mammalian Biology (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2014.05.007 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
1 Spatial and temporal habitat use and selection by red deer: the use of direct and indirect 2 methods 3
5 Department of Biology & CESAM, University of Aveiro, Portugal
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4 Joana Alves*1, António Alves da Silva1, Amadeu M.V.M. Soares, Carlos Fonseca
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6 1Present address: IMAR‐CMA, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Portugal
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8 *Correspondence: J. Alves, IMAR‐CMA, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra,
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9 Largo Marquês de Pombal, 3004‐517 Coimbra, Portugal, Telephone: +351 239 855 760 / Fax: 10 +351 239 855 789
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11 E‐mail address:
[email protected] (J. Alves)
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13 Running title:
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15
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14 Habitat use and selection by red deer
16 Word count: 8949
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17 18 Abstract 19 Given the importance of red deer Cervus elaphus for hunting and conservation purposes,
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20 understanding the interactions between this species and its habitats in the Mediterranean
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21 region is a crucial step for the sustainable management of this species. Aiming to compare
22 pellet group counts and direct observations methods to study the habitat use and selection by
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23 red deer, the results obtained by both methods were compared, and their advantages and 24 disadvantages were discussed. To understand the temporal patterns of habitat use and
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25 selection, the survey was conducted at three different seasons, birth period, rut season and 26 winter. The habitat use and selection were studied in relation to land cover, watercourse,
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27 roads, ecotone zones and other topographic features (altitude, slope and aspect), using 28 generalized linear models and selection ratios. The similarity of the results provided by pellet
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29 group counts and direct observations indicate that both methods may constitute useful tools
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30 to study the habitat use and selection by red deer. Globally, red deer seemed to select habitats
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31 that provide simultaneously food and some cover, as shown by its preference for shrublands, 32 independently of the sampling season. The positive selection of ecotone zones embodies the 33 need for open spaces. Males and females showed a similar use of shrubland, but selected 34 patches with different characteristics therein. The spatial and temporal patterns exhibited by 35 our results suggest that red deer balance their habitat requirements in respect to each phase 36 of their reproductive cycle. Pellet group counts and direct observations seem to be useful 37 methods to analyze habitat use and selection, and may provide helpful knowledge to the 38 management and conservation of red deer. 39 Keywords: Cervus elaphus; direct observations; habitat use and selection; Mediterranean 40 region; pellet group counts 41 2
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42 43 Introduction 44 Understand how animals respond to the environment is one of the principles of ecology
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45 (Manly et al., 2002), that allows to identify the essential resources and how and when such
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46 resources are used. The habitat selection by ungulates, as by other animals, reflects resource 47 requirements (Manly et al., 2002) that can be aggregated into two major components, food
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48 and cover (Borkowski, 2004). That is, in its essence, a simplistic view of the factors that may 49 affect habitat use by ungulates. In fact, there are several variables capable of influencing the
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50 habitat use and selection by the red deer Cervus elaphus (e.g. Lovari et al., 2007; Jiang et al., 51 2008; Godvik et al., 2009; Stewart et al., 2010; Loe et al., 2012). Besides the land cover units,
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52 variables like ecotone proximity, vegetation productivity, water proximity, diversity of plants, 53 distance to roads, distance to villages, altitude, aspect and slope are identified as key factors
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54 influencing red deer habitat use (e.g. San José et al., 1997; Garín, 2000; Licoppe and De
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55 Crombrugghe, 2003). The seasonal dispersion and movements of red deer are also important
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56 factors (Clutton‐Brock et al., 1982; Bonnet and Klein, 1991; Soriguer et al., 1994; Jarnemo, 57 2008), since they may be linked to a spatial gradient of habitat selection. Habitat selection in 58 ungulates is influenced by behavioural and physiological responses to environmental changes 59 (Wecker, 1964) like interspecific competition (e.g. Bartos et al., 2002), predation risk (e.g. 60 Linnell et al., 1999; Mysterud et al., 1999), anthropogenic factors (e.g. Bailey et al., 1996), and 61 also by the sexual differences in energy requirements and foraging behaviour (Barboza and 62 Bowyer, 2000, 2001; Spaeth et al., 2004). 63 Habitat use is related to the manner that an animal uses a set of resources to fulfil its 64 requirements (Block and Brennan, 1993). Habitat selection can be defined as the process 65 involved in the choice of a resource (Johnson, 1980). A more detailed definition is given by 66 Hutto (1985), who defined habitat selection as a hierarchical process involving a series of 3
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67 behavioural responses by the animal (both innate and acquired) in relation to the use of a 68 specific habitat. This use is seen as selective when the resources are used disproportionately to 69 their availability (Johnson, 1980). The habitat selection has an inherent connotation of
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70 complexity since it attempts to understand the behavioural and environmental processes 71 (Jones, 2001). Overall, the patterns of habitat use result from the processes involved in habitat
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72 selection.
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73 The use and selection of habitat can be evaluated through direct methods or indirect methods 74 depending on the study aims and on the logistics and resources available (McDonald et al.,
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75 2005). The direct methods are based on the observation or tracking of animals, and provide 76 measurements of habitat use/selection at individual or population level, through the
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77 assessment of specific parameters of the individuals (e.g. sex, age, reproductive status) and 78 populations (e.g. sex ratio, age structure, productivity). The indirect methods rely on the
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79 detection and counting of signs of animal presence, such as pellets, tracks, bed sites, which
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80 comprises an index of habitat use by the whole population (Sutherland, 2006). Despite the 81 differences between these two groups of methods, all methods rely on the assumption that
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82 the habitat use measured is representative of the real habitat used by the whole population 83 for all the habitats available. However, the constraints resulting from differences in 84 detectability/sightability of animals or signs, in decay rates or in the non‐random deposition of 85 signs between the habitats may bias the results of habitat use/selection, and must be 86 addressed properly when discussing the results (Månsson et al., 2011). 87 The pellet‐group count methods are widely used in studies of habitat use/selection in deer. 88 Despite the limitations previously mentioned, these methods provide results similar to those 89 obtained from animal tracking (Edge and Marcum, 1989; Loft and Kie, 1988; Månsson et al., 90 2011). Transects for direct observation of animals or census data are methods less common in
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91 habitat studies, but they can be useful to understand not only the habitat use/selection at the 92 population level, but also for specific classes of the population (i.e. age classes or sexes). 93 Due to the expansion of deer populations in North America and Europe (Gill, 1990; Rooney,
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94 2001; Apollonio et al., 2011), studies about the habitat use and selection have been conducted 95 to predict the geographical dispersion of the species (e.g. Bar‐David et al., 2008; Puddu et al.,
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96 2009) while investigating the specific habitat requirements of deer species. In fact, studies
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97 about habitat use/selection may provide the information needed to the management of deer 98 populations, being an important tool to establish management plans in several European
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99 countries (e.g. Italy: Lovari et al., 2007; Norway: Godvik et al., 2009; Poland: Borkowski, 2004; 100 Borkowski and Ukalska, 2008; Spain: Carranza et al., 1991; Garín, 2000). The usefulness of the
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101 habitat use and selection by red deer for conservation and management purposes, allied to 102 the constraints of the methods, makes it necessary to better understand the relationship
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103 between red deer and its habitats, particularly in Mediterranean regions, as well as the ability
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104 of the different methods to detect those relationships. This work aims to increase the current 105 knowledge of a Mediterranean‐like mountainous environment, providing new highlights for
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106 the management and conservation of wild populations of red deer and their habitats. 107 Moreover, this study aims to understand the ability of methods to evaluate habitat use and 108 selection by red deer through comparing pellet‐group counts and transects of direct 109 observations.
110 Using pellet count methods and transects for direct observations with geographical 111 localizations of animals, we evaluate the seasonality and the influence of land cover, 112 topography and anthropogenic features on the habitat use and selection by red deer. 113 According to the optimal foraging theory, an animal uses the habitat to perform several life 114 history activities, selecting the necessary resources for survival and reproduction (Macarthur 115 and Pianka, 1966). The animals select the habitats that maximize the energy gain, and
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116 consequently, the population fitness (Gaillard et al., 2010). Moreover, the specific 117 requirements of animals may change according to its actual reproductive stage and its sex, 118 which can lead to differences in the habitat used/selected by an individual in a particular
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119 period of the year (e.g. Barboza and Bowyer, 2000). As so, a differential habitat use is 120 expected in the seasons studied (i.e. birth season, rut period and winter), due to the specific
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121 requirements of red deer in each stage of its reproductive cycle. Regarding land cover,
122 preferences for open areas of shrubs and for the proximity to ecotone zones are expected,
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123 since these areas provide better food quality and quantity near to shelter areas. Regarding 124 sexes, a differential use of habitat by males and females is predicted, especially in birth time
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125 and winter, due to their distinct energy requirements and foraging behaviours.
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126
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128 Study area
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127 Material and methods
129 The study took place at Lousã (40°3’N, 8°15’W), a Mediterranean mountainous area located in
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130 Central Portugal. Like other Mediterranean environments, Lousã climate is characterized by 131 hot and dry summers and rainy winters (Archibold, 1995), almost without snow. The annual 132 temperatures range from ‐4.1 oC to 35.9 oC with an annual mean of 12 oC, and an annual 133 precipitation of around 827 mm, reaching 1600 mm at the highest elevations. Topographically, 134 the area presents rough terrain with deep valleys and rounded hilltops. The altitude range 135 from 100 m to 1205 m, being 700 m to 1000 m at the most frequent elevations. 136 In terms of land cover, the mountainous region is mainly composed by plantations of 137 coniferous and broadleaf trees interspersed by large Mediterranean shrublands (Fig. 1). The 138 coniferous forests are dominated by pine trees (e.g. Maritime pine Pinus pinaster, Scots pine 139 Pinus sylvestris, Austrian pine Pinus nigra) Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii and Mexican
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140 cypress Cupressus lusitanica. Most of the coniferous forests have sparse understory, with 141 brambles Rubus spp., heathers Erica spp. and Calluna vulgaris and gorses Ulex spp.. These 142 coniferous trees together with some species of broadleaf trees (e.g. oak Quercus sp., chestnut
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143 Castanea sativa, Portuguese laurel Prunus lusitanica, common holly Ilex aquifolium) represent 144 the mixed habitats, where the understory is also sparse. Currently, the broadleaf forests are
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145 less common in this area, being confined to the areas near watercourses. Regarding the 146 understory, broadleaf forests have a very sparse understory mainly with brambles. The
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147 shrublands have a Mediterranean composition, where heathers Erica spp. and Calluna 148 vulgaris, gorses Ulex spp. brooms Genista triacanthos and Cytisus striatus, “carqueja”
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149 Pterospartum tridentatum and several Gramineae species (e.g. Agrostis spp., Festuca spp.) are 150 the dominant species. As in other Mediterranean zones, the shrubs usually have 0.5m to 1m
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151 height, reaching 2m in some areas. Plantations of eucalyptus trees (mainly Eucalyptus 152 globulus) are also common at the lowest elevations, alone or in mixed forests with maritime
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153 pine. During the last years, other exotic species (Acacia dealbata and Acacia longifolia) have
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154 emerged nearby watercourses and roads edges.
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155 Outside the mountainous region, the land cover presents a greater humanization and 156 plantations of eucalyptus trees and pine trees (Pinus pynaster) became the dominant 157 vegetation units. Another important stratum is the small patches of agricultural lands near 158 urban fabric, where the conflicts between humans and deer become more pronounced. The 159 main crops of this region are irrigated annual crops (e.g. potatoes, vegetables and maize) and 160 non‐irrigated crops (rye, wheat and oats), often associated with olives and fruit trees. 161 The land cover units with evergreen species do not change significantly between seasons. 162 However, as in most Mediterranean regions, during springtime a boom of herbaceous species 163 is observed, mainly in shurbland areas. In this region, the red deer makes shrublands (e.g. Erica 164 sp.; Pterospartum tridentatum) its main food resource during all year.
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165 The presence of red deer in Lousã mountain is an outcome of a reintroduction process that 166 occurred from 1995 to 1999, with the release of 96 animals (32 males and 64 females). Since 167 then, the population has expanded geographically and demographically, with the occupancy of
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168 new territories. Despite the population expansion, during the period of the study (2005 to 169 2009) the population density remained stable, with an estimated mean of 5.6 deer/km2. The
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170 red deer population currently occupies a range of around 435 km2, including the Lousã
171 Mountain (170 km2) and the surrounding areas. However, the central core of Lousã Mountain
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172 (approximately 120 km2) remains the most important site for red deer, where rut and
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173 reproduction occur.
174 Sympatric with red deer, there are roe deer Capreolus capreolus and wild boar Sus scrofa
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175 populations. The differences between wild ungulate species and the absence of domestic 176 ungulates facilitate the distinction of their pellets. Natural predators are absent, but
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178 adult females.
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177 abandoned dogs act as non‐natural predators, preying predominantly young, sub‐adults and
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179 180 Data collection
181 Direct observations of red deer were made from September 2005 to October 2009, using 200 182 transects (491 km in total) per sampling season. Transects were defined to survey the Lousã 183 Mountain, covering 170 km2 in total (Fig. 1). Three seasons were sampled per year: birth 184 season (15 May–30 June), rut period (16 September–30 September) and winter (15 February– 185 14 March). The seasons were selected to evaluate three stages of the red deer reproductive 186 cycle. After the breeding season, red deer started to disperse from the rutting areas and in late 187 winter, the sexes are completely segregated (Alves et al., 2013b). Red deer is usually described 188 as a crepuscular and nocturnal ungulate, exhibiting their major periods of activity near to 189 sunrise and sunset and during the night (e.g. Clutton‐Brock et al., 1982; Bonnet and Klein, 8
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190 1991; Carranza et al., 1991; Godvik et al., 2009). Based on the activity patterns of red deer, the 191 data collection was performed during four hours after the civil sunrise and four hours before 192 the civil sunset, in order to capture as much as possible the habitat used/selected by red deer
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193 during day‐time and night‐time. Transects were performed by car, at a constant speed of 5 to 194 10 km h‐1 by two skilled observers. 441 deer groups were observed (comprising a total of 853
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195 animals) from which, the sex (i.e. male, female), age class (i.e. young: <1 year; sub‐adult: 1–2
196 years for females and 1–3 years for males; adult: >2 years for females and >3 years for males),
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197 group composition (number of animals of each sex and age class) and geographical localization 198 were recorded for each one. The age classes were determined based on animal size, body
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199 conformation and characteristics of antlers (e.g. Bonnet & Klein 1991). To acquire the true 200 geographical localization of the observed groups, direct animal–observer distances were
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201 recorded using a laser rangefinder, together with the angle and slope of the observation and
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203 25–50 x65 spotting scope.
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202 the GPS coordinates of the point. The observations were made with 10x50 binoculars and a
204 Due to the large size of study area (170km2), the survey of the entire area could not be
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205 performed using pellet group counts, considering the sampling effort required. For that 206 reason, five sub‐areas of 5 km2 with different red deer density were selected, in order to cover 207 the entire range of densities in the study area. The sub‐area densities were calculated 208 considering the direct observations at rut season (sub‐area 1: 10.5±0.6 deer km‐2; sub‐area 2: 209 6.8±0.4 deer km‐2; sub‐area 3: 5.4±0.4 deer km‐2; sub‐area 4: 1.8±0.2 deer km‐2; sub‐area 5: 210 1.1±0.1 deer km‐2). The pellet groups were counted in 100 transects (20 transects per sub‐ 211 area) with 50m x 2m (Mayle et al., 1999), randomly distributed (Fig. 1). The transects were 212 cleaned three months before each survey to avoid counting the same pellets in all seasons due 213 to the slow decay rate verified in the study area (581±55 days; see Alves et al., 2013a for 214 further details). The survey was conducted three times, from June 2008 to March 2009, in the 215 seasons described for direct observations. 9
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216 217 Habitat variables 218 We recognized several variables that could be important predictors of habitat use by red deer
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219 in Lousã Mountain. The variables were: land cover, distance to ecotone, distance to water
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220 resource, distance to road, altitude, slope and aspect. The distance to road was only evaluated 221 using pellet group counts, since some of the roads of the study area were used as transects of
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222 direct observations. These variables were selected due to their relevance for a complete 223 environmental characterization. Topographical variables, like altitude, slope and aspect, are
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224 known by their influence in the land cover, modifying the floristic diversity and affecting the 225 plant growth (Stage and Salas, 2007). Moreover, these variables together with vegetation type
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226 may lead to the occurrence of microclimates, which, in turn, shape quality and availability of 227 food for herbivorous species. Since it was not possible to obtain more detailed variables in the
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228 composition and productivity of plants, we believe that a combination of topographic variables
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229 and land cover will contribute to understand the habitat used by red deer and its temporal
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230 patterns. The inclusion of distances to water, ecotone and roads is related with their influence 231 on the availability of resources and safety. The distance to villages, that is expected to affect a 232 red deer distribution, was not included as variable in the analysis. This option was taken 233 because the villages in this region are concentrated in the surroundings of the Lousã 234 Mountain, which makes the distances of animals to villages equally large for all the 235 observations.
236 The study area was classified into five land cover units (shrubland, coniferous forest, broadleaf 237 forest, mixed forest, and eucalyptus forest) based on the interpretation of aerial photographs 238 (©2005 IGP/DGRF; 1:10 000) and confirmation by direct observation in the ground. Since 239 pellet group count methods enables the simultaneous collection of habitat features (Skarin, 240 2009), we decided to divide the coniferous forest according to its density of understory and 10
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241 the size of coniferous trees, considering three stages: coniferous trees with 5‐10 m of height 242 and dense understory (Coniferous stage I); coniferous trees with 10‐20 m of height without 243 understory (Coniferous stage II); and coniferous trees with >20 m of height and understory
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244 (Coniferous stage III). The non‐natural grasslands of very small sizes were also differentiated by 245 pellet group counts. The sub‐area was considered a variable of five levels in the analysis of
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246 pellet group counts.
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247 Distances to the nearest water resource (m) and to the nearest active road (m) were obtained 248 from a geographic information system (ArcGIS 9.3, Esri, Redlands, CA, U.S.A.). The topographic
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249 variables, altitude (km), slope (percentage) and aspect (degree) were extracted from a digital 250 elevation model. The aspect was transformed into “northness” (cos[aspect]) and “eastness”
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251 (sin[aspect]), except for selection ratios calculations where a transformation to a categorical 252 variable is used (i.e. north, south, east and west). Due to the high importance of ecotone zones
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253 for deer species (e.g. Licoppe, 2006), the study area was stratified into open areas (mainly for
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254 food) and closed areas (mainly for cover) based on aerial photographs (©2005 IGP/DGRF). The
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255 nearest distance (m) to the ecotone zone was measured. 256 Direct observations with the respective coordinates were incorporated into a geographical 257 information system database (ArcGIS 9.3, Esri, Redlands, CA, U.S.A.), from which all the 258 variables were extracted. 259
260 Data analysis
261 Generalized linear models with a negative binomial distributions and a log link function were 262 fitted, in order to account for overdispersion, to pellet group counts and direct observations 263 datasets to access the associations between the habitat variables and the red deer spatial use. 264 The habitat selection by red deer animals, in terms of direct observations, was evaluated
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265 through appropriate methods for use‐versus‐available (presence‐versus‐pseudo‐absence) 266 study designs by the fit of logistic resource selection probability function with a binomial 267 distribution and logit link function using the method described by Lele (2009). This technique
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268 allows taking into account that the available is a random subset of locations that although 269 unused has potential to be used (pseudo‐absences). The dataset of the available was
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270 constructed by placing 20000 random points in the study area, following the guidelines of
271 Barbet‐Massin (2012). To test differences among seasons, the season was included into the
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272 models as a variable. The independence of the variables was ensuring through correlation 273 analysis and variance inflation factors (VIF) (Zuur et al., 2009), without any correlation found
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274 (r<0.3, VIF<2). The best‐fit model was selected based on Akaike information criteria (AIC) 275 (Akaike, 1974). For each model, the AIC values (lower values indicate more model parsimony),
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276 the number of parameters (k), the difference between AIC values of any model and of the 277 most parsimonious model (Δ AIC) and the relative likelihood of the model (AICwi) were
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278 evaluated. For each datasets, models with Δ AIC between 0 and 2 (Burnham and Anderson,
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279 2002) or the best five are presented. In order to evaluate any potential spatial autocorrelation,
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280 the residuals of the best‐fit models were checked for spatial autocorrelation using Moran I 281 (Moran, 1950; Lin and Zhang, 2007). Residuals of the best‐fit models do not presented any 282 statistical evidence of spatial autocorrelation, suggesting that the models cope with any 283 potential effect caused by spatial autocorrelation. 284 To analyse the preference or avoidance of habitat variables by red deer using pellet group 285 counts, the selection ratios and Bonferroni‐adjusted 95% confidence intervals (Manly et al., 286 2002) were calculated for each variable at each surveyed season. These calculations were 287 made using the equations described by Manly et al. (2002) for the selection ratio (w=oi/πi, 288 where oi is the proportion of the sample of used resource units in category i and πi is the 289 proportion of available resource units of the category i), standard error of the selection ratio 290 (SE=√oi (1‐oi)/uiπi2, where ui is the number of resource units in category i in the sample of used 12
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291 units), 95% confidence interval (CI) and standardized selection ratios (Bw= wi/∑wi). A selective 292 use of habitat occurred when w differed statistically from 1 (CI did not include 1). If w was 293 significantly higher than 1, there was preference, and if significantly lower than 1, there was
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294 avoidance. Bws’ were used for direct comparisons between selection ratios. A log‐likelihood 295 chi‐square test (χL2) was used to test the null hypothesis that red deer was randomly selecting
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296 habitat variables in proportion to its availability (Manly et al., 2002).
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297 P values lower than 0.05 were considered statistically significant. The results are expressed as 298 mean ± standard error (SE), unless otherwise stated. The statistical analyses were performed
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299 using R 2.10.0 (R Development Core Team, 2009). 300
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301 Results
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302 Habitat use
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303 The analysis of habitat use by red deer using either indirect or direct methods suggested an
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304 effect of season, leading to temporal patterns of landscape use (Table 1). In fact, considering 305 the best models for habitat use, the season was a significant variable in all the models 306 regardless the methodology employed (i.e. pellet group counts or direct methods). The same 307 happened with land‐cover, which also appears as a significant explanatory variable in all of the 308 best‐fit models of habitat use. Although some of the significant variables of the best models of 309 habitat use were the same for pellet group counts and direct observations, other variables 310 were only selected for the models of one of the methods studied (Table 1). 311 The temporal patterns of red deer habitat use, from both pellet group counts and direct 312 observation methods, were explained through both the time spent by animals in each land‐ 313 cover unit, and the topographical variables inherent to specific patches (Table 2). The best 314 model of habitat use for pellet group counts reveals that, among the land‐cover units, the 13
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315 mixed forests were less used than coniferous stage III. Similar results were found in the habitat 316 use obtained from direct observations of animals, with the mixed forest being less used than 317 the coniferous forest. Additionally, the probability of red deer being encountered in
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318 shrublands was higher than in other habitats (Table 2). 319 According to the habitat use of males and females, based on direct observations, the
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320 shrubland was the unit where both sexes spent more time, regardless the season (Fig. 2). At
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321 birth time, females used areas closer to ecotone and water, higher altitudes, less steep areas 322 and southwest aspects. During rut season and winter, the habitat used by both sexes was
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323 similar (Table 3). 324
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325 Habitat selection
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326 The selection ratios obtained from pellet group counts showed a significant selection of some
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327 land cover units for all the surveyed seasons (birth time: χL25=30.92, P<0.001; rut season: 328 χL25=18.62, P=0.002; winter: χL25=83.09, P<0.001). Based on this analysis, shrubland areas were
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329 the preferred habitat in all seasons (Fig. 3a). Concerning distance to water sources, the 330 selection ratios did not show any clear pattern of selection for any season (Fig. 3b). This was 331 also the case of active roads, where the pattern was only clear in winter, where areas closer to 332 roads were avoided (χL26=21.25, P=0.002) (Fig. 3c). Areas far from ecotone were significantly 333 avoided in all seasons (birth time: χL28=20.05, P=0.010; rut season: χL28=16.09, P=0.041; winter: 334 χL28=28.63, P<0.001), especially when animals were in closed areas (birth time: χL25=40.82, 335 P<0.001; rut season: χL25=28.00, P<0.001; winter: χL25=14.12, P=0.015) (Fig. 3d, e). The analysis 336 of the selection ratios for topographic variables showed that red deer avoid elevations above 337 950 m and north aspects, and preferred intermediate slopes.
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338 The results of the best model of habitat selection, obtained from direct observations, showed 339 once again a temporal effect in the selection of space by red deer (Table 4). The preference for 340 shrublands compared with coniferous forest was also noticed in the model. Globally, red deer
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341 prefers areas closer to ecotone and water, higher altitudes and south aspects (Table 4). 342 Regarding males and females, and comparing the proportion of use with the proportion of
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343 available, different preferences can be found. Females selected positively shrublands, ecotone
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344 areas and south aspects at birth time. At the same season, males preferred the core areas of 345 shrubland patches (Table 3).
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346
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347 Discussion
348 Our results demonstrate that pellet group counts and transects of direct observations are
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349 useful methods to study the habitat use and selection by red deer. However, it is important to
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350 be aware that these two methods have vantages and disadvantages that can influence and 351 change the outcome of the studies about habitat use and selection. In fact, considering the
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352 specificities of pellet group counts and direct observations, it is important to notice that 353 questions regarding detectability/sightability of animals or pellets, decay rates and deposition 354 of pellets and sampling periods are crucial aspects to be considered before the application of 355 the methods, and during the discussion of the results obtained. 356 The pellet group counts methods are highly influenced by the survey design, namely in terms 357 of sampling effort, distribution of sampling units, size and shape of sampling units, 358 accumulation period (or decay rates), and by the identification of the species who produced 359 the pellets (e.g. Månsson et al., 2011; Alves et al., 2013a). Moreover, the reliability of this 360 method depends on a uniform deposition of pellets in all the areas used by red deer. This 361 could be one of the major limitations of pellet group counts, but according to our results, the
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362 similarity between both methods indicates a positive relationship between direct observations 363 of red deer and deposition of pellets. Despite the intensive use of pellet group counts since 364 1940 (Bennett et al., 1940; Neff, 1968), the reliability of this method to estimate abundance of
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365 deer and habitat use is still not consensual (e.g. Putman, 1984; Fuller, 1991, 1992; White, 366 1992; Anderson, 2001; Brinkman et al., 2013). Recent studies have shown that pellet group
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367 count methods are useful and reliable tools for wildlife management, as long as the necessary 368 sampling effort and design are employed, and decay and deposition rates are known (Forsyth
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369 et al. 2007, Acevedo et al. 2010, Alves et al 2013a). Moreover, Månsson et al. (2011) in a study 370 about the use of pellet counts as a method of accurately described habitat selection of moose
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371 Alces alces, concluded that this method provides similar results with those obtained from GPS
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372 data, which confirms its suitability.
373 In methods of direct observations, the major concerns arise from issues related to differences
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374 in the detectability between the habitats or individual behaviour of deer (e.g. different sexes
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375 or age classes) (Sutherland, 2006). In forest habitats, the detectability is usually lower than in 376 open areas, which can lead to an underestimation of the use of closed habitats. However, the
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377 lower use of forest habitats detected also by pellet group counts, suggests that differences in 378 the detectability are not leading to a significant underestimation of these areas. Licoppe and 379 De Crombrugghe (2003) also studied the suitability of census data, and their results indicate 380 that there is a good correlation between census data (direct observations) and GPS data. Red 381 deer individual behaviour, and its differences between sexes and age classes, is another factor 382 that may influence the detectability and signability, which consequently bias the results 383 obtained from direct observations. In fact, some studies demonstrate that males and females 384 may react differently to anthropogenic pressure and become less detectable in some 385 situations (Apollonio et al., 2005). Other studies have demonstrated that the detection 386 probability of calves may vary through the year, which may lead to an underestimation of this 387 age class (Bonenfant et al., 2005). In our reality, and according to our own field observations, 16
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388 despite the dissimilar behaviour and preferences of sexes and age classes, we believe that 389 these constrain did not influence significantly the outcome of habitat use and selection 390 obtained from direct observations. Besides the individual behaviour, the activity patterns are
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391 another issue that must be addressed when dealing with direct observations of red deer, since 392 it has implications in the sampling periods. Considering the patterns of activity described for
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393 red deer populations (e.g. Clutton‐Brock et al., 1982; Carranza et al., 1991; Godvik et al., 2009; 394 Pépin et al., 2009; Allen et al., 2014), it seems that the activity patterns change over the year
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395 and are, in many occasions, more population‐specific than species‐specific. As so, the sampling 396 periods for direct observations of animals should be defined taking into account the activity
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397 patterns of the studied population, to avoid bias or misinterpretation of the results. In this 398 study, the sampling periods were defined to capture the habitat used/selected by red deer
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399 during day‐time and night‐time since the studied population presents a crepuscular behaviour, 400 performing activities like feeding and resting during the first and last hours of light, and also
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401 during the night. One constrains of the direct observation without night‐vision equipment is
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402 the inability of sampling the habitat used/selected during the night, which can bias the results.
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403 Based on our approach of comparing direct observations and pellet group counts, and 404 considering the similar results provide by both methods, we think that the sampling periods 405 defined for this work were able to capture the general patterns of habitat use/selection of this 406 red deer population. Another issue that should be addressed is the use of non‐paved roads as 407 transects for direct observations which, depending on the road traffic, type, distribution and 408 density of roads, may influence the outcome of the studies (e.g. Anderson et al., 2013; 409 Meisingset et al., 2013). According to our results from pellet group counts, the habitat used by 410 red deer did not seem to be influenced by roads, and so the use of these structures in direct 411 observations should not affect the results. Despite all the limitations presented, the methods 412 of direct observations allow to discriminate the habitat use and selection by males and
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413 females, or by different age classes, which constitutes an advantage for the management and 414 conservation of deer species. 415 Regarding our results, both methods indicated the season and land cover as variables capable
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416 of explaining the use and the selection of habitat by red deer in this Mediterranean region. The 417 best models selected for pellet group counts and direct observations, included the season and
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418 the land cover, and also other significant variables, which, in some cases, differed between
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419 methods. Such dissimilarities in the results may be a consequence of the temporal snapshots 420 surveyed using each method, the representativeness of the sampled area and the spatial scale
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421 inherent to the pellet group counts and direct observations.
422 Independently of the method employed, the results demonstrated a seasonal effect on the
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423 habitat used by this red deer population. As expected, a spatial and temporal effect in the 424 habitat use by red deer was obtained, showing a non‐random use of the available habitat, i.e.
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425 a selection of the space according to land cover, watercourses, distance to ecotone and roads
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426 and topographic features. In general, the shrubland areas were the most used but also the
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427 preferred land cover units. Regarding topographic features, altitude and aspect helped to 428 clarify how red deer chose between patches with the same land cover composition, indicating 429 a higher use of south hillsides and at higher altitude. The selection of areas closer to ecotone 430 was more noticeable in birth time, especially when the animals were in closed areas. 431 Regarding the predictions about the habitat use and selection by red deer in this 432 Mediterranean‐like region, the results about the effects of season and the preference for 433 shrublands and areas closer to ecotone confirm our expectations. Red deer seemed to favour 434 habitats that provide food and cover simultaneously, as showed by its preference for 435 shrublands, which due to its height (0.5‐2m), provides shelter in addition to rich food 436 resources. The absence or low abundance of understory in coniferous and mixed forest led to 437 a lower use of these areas, because they cannot fulfil entirely red deer requirements. 18
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438 Regarding eucalyptus forest, the avoidance of this habitat type by red deer may be related 439 with the absence of understory in most of the patches. Despite our expectations regarding the 440 preference by the broadleaf forests (which is the most similar to autochthonous forest of the
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441 region), the small size of its patches and the low presence of understory, lead to a lower use of 442 these patches comparing to coniferous or mixed forests. Although other studies have referred
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443 that red deer prefers closed environments (e.g. Licoppe, 2006; Jiang et al., 2008), our results 444 show clearly that the presence of open habitats explains better the spatial selection by red
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445 deer. While preferences for closed units change from area to area according to the landscape 446 structure (Bobek et al., 1984 found a preference for deciduous forest and; Licoppe, 2006;
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447 Theuerkauf and Rouys, 2008 for coniferous forest), the positive selection of open areas with 448 high quality and food abundance (i.e. shrublands and/or grasslands) were a constant in studies
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449 about red deer, principally in Mediterranean regions (e.g. Carranza et al., 1991; Garín, 2000;
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450 Lovari et al., 2007; this study).
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451 Our results showed that when animals used coniferous or mixed forests, they selected areas at 452 distances closer to the edge, which may represents an energetic adaptation by minimizing the
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453 travel time between food and cover (Thomas and Taylor, 2006). On the other hand, the 454 understory of closed areas became denser near the edge, providing food linked to cover. 455 Evidences of this strategy were reported by Bobek et al. (1984) and Licoppe and De 456 Crombrugghe (2003) in their studies about red deer in Europe. Ramos et al. (2006) also found a 457 preference by edges in their study about rubbing trees by red deer in Northeast Portugal, 458 which was justified by the needs of open spaces for rubbing and visual communication. 459 At Mediterranean climates the summer arises as the most limiting period of the year and may 460 lead to nutritional constrains by the hot and dry weather (Bugalho and Milne, 2003). The 461 influence of the distance to water was significant, mainly during the rut season, indicating the 462 need for use areas closer to this resource. Topographic features such as altitude, slope and
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463 aspect are known as influencing the vegetation composition, in terms of species and size 464 (Stage and Salas, 2007), and consequently, the red deer distribution. The selection for south 465 and west aspects reported by Adrados et al. (2008), Pépin et al. (2008), Serrouya and D'Eon
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466 (2008) and this study may constitute an adaptive behaviour that maximizes the intake of high 467 quality food when exposed to better climatic conditions.
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468 The anthropogenic effects on wildlife populations have been widely described, particularly
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469 concerning the negative impact of roads (Putmam, 1997; Jaeger et al., 2005; Preisler et al., 470 2006; Ament et al., 2008). According to our results, the roads did not seem to influence
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471 substantially the spatial distribution of red deer, as also reported by Morellet et al. (1997), 472 Licoppe and De Crombrugghe (2003) for red deer in France and Belgium, and by Johnson et al.
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473 (2000) for elk in New Zeeland. In fact, the only season where we found a negative impact of 474 roads was at winter, which in terms of pellet group counts corresponds to the period from
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475 December until February. The reasons behind this result are not clear, which highlightings the
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476 need for detailed further research on this topic. However, it is important to note that the roads
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477 evaluated in this study are non‐paved forest roads, with low traffic (less than one car by hour). 478 Regarding the use and selection of habitat by males and females, our expectation was partly 479 correct. Although the results indicated differences between the sexes, these differences were 480 not in the use and selection of land cover units, but in the topographic characteristics inherent 481 to the patches used. For both sexes, the shrublands were the most used and preferred 482 habitats. However, some specific characteristics inherent to these patches were differentially 483 selected by each sex to fulfil their requirements in terms of food resources and security. In our 484 study area, males were found at lower altitudes closer to agricultural fields compared to 485 females, which is a strategy to obtain better food regardless their security. At birth time, 486 females preferred patches located at higher altitudes and at south hillsides, and areas closer to 487 ecotone. These results seem to be related with the reproductive strategies of both sexes.
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488 While the reproductive success of males is dependent on physical condition during the rutting 489 period, female success depends on the survival rates of the offspring (Clutton‐Brock et al., 490 1982; Main and du Toit, 2005). These different strategies lead to differences in the selection of
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491 shrubland patches. 492 The spatial and temporal patterns shown in our data suggests that red deer make an energetic
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493 balance in terms of food and shelter to fulfil the specific requirements of each phase of its life
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494 cycle.
495 In conclusion, our results suggest a temporal use and selection of habitat by red deer,
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496 particularly in relation to water, ecotone and topographic features. In this Mediterranen 497 mountainous area, the shrublands emerged as the most important habitat for red deer,
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498 regardless the season or the sex. Although males and females have used the same type of land 499 cover, both sexes select different characteristics therein. Red deer is favourable to
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500 fragmentation of continuous forest areas into smaller patches bordered by open areas rich in
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501 high‐quality food. Regarding the methods employed in this study, pellet group counts and
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502 direct observations seem to be reliable methods to analyse habitat use and selection, as long 503 as the specificities and limitations of the methods are properly addressed before data 504 collection and when drawing conclusions. 505
506 Acknowledgments
507 Joana Alves was funded by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) PhD grant 508 SFRH/BD/22599/2005. We would like to thanks to the Autoridade Florestal Nacional (AFN) for 509 the logistic support and the persons that contributed, in some way, to this work. We also thank 510 Jaime Ramos and Tiago Natal da Luz for English corrections, and the referees for helpful 511 comments on the manuscript.
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701 wolves and humans in the Bialowieza Forest, Poland. For. Ecol. Manage. 256, 1325‐1332.
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702 Thomas, D.L., Taylor, E.J., 2006. Study designs and tests for comparing resource use and 703 availability II. J. Wildl. Manage. 70, 324‐336. 704 Ward, A.I., White, P.C.L., Walker, N.J., Critchley, C.H., 2008. Conifer leader browsing by roe 705 deer in English upland forests: Effects of deer density and understorey vegetation. For. Ecol. 706 Manage. 256, 1333‐1338.
707 Wecker, S.C., 1964. Habitat Selection. Sci. Am. 211, 109‐116. 708 White, G.C., 1992. Do pellet counts index white‐tailed deer numbers and population‐ change – 709 a comment. J. Wildl. Manage. 56, 611‐612.
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710 Zuur, A.F., Ieno, E.N., Elphick, C.S., 2009. A protocol for data exploration to avoid common 711 statistical problems. Methods Ecol. Evol. 1, 3‐14.
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d
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an
us
cr
ip t
712
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712 713 Figure captions 714 Fig. 1. Map of the study area showing the sampling design and the stratification of land cover.
ip t
715 The sampling units (i.e. transects of pellet group counts and transects of direct observations)
cr
716 and the sub‐areas selected for pellet group counts are also shown.
717 Fig. 2. Availability and use of shrubland (Shr), eucalyptus forest (Euc), broadleaves forest (Bro),
an
719 observations, during birth time, rut season and winter.
us
718 mixed forest (Mix) and coniferous forest (Con) by males and females of red deer using direct
720 Fig. 3. Selection ratios for (a) land cover, (b) distance to water, (c) distance to active roads, (d)
M
721 distance to closed areas, and (e) distance to open areas, based on pellet group counts by red 722 deer during birth time, rut season and winter. Land cover was stratified into coniferous stage I
d
723 (Con I), coniferous stage II (Con II), coniferous stage III (Con III), mixed forest (Mix), shrubland
te
724 (Shr) and grasslands (Gra) (for detailed information on this classification see Materials and 725 Methods). Distances were pooled into 25 m intervals. If selection ratio is significantly higher
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726 than 1 (dashed line) it indicates preference, if significantly lower than 1 it indicates avoidance. 727 The error bars are Bonferroni‐adjusted 95% confidence intervals. *P <0.05, **P <0.01, ***P 728 <0.001. 729
730 Table 1. Best‐fit generalized linear models of habitat use by red deer, using pellet group counts 731 or direct observations, and best models of habitat selection by red deer using direct 732 observations. 733
Model structure
Habitat use Pellet group counts1
k
AIC
∆ AIC
AICwi
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season, land cover, sub‐area, ecotone, road, northness, eastness
7
1787.95
0
0.041
season, land cover, sub‐area, northness, eastness
5
1788.50
0.56
0.031
season, land cover, sub‐area, ecotone, northness, eastness
6
1788.70
0.75
0.028
season, land cover, sub‐area, slope, northness, eastness
6
1788.70
0.75
0.028
season, land cover, sub‐area, slope, eastness
5
1788.72
0.77
0.028
1
Direct observations
ip t
2395.74
0
0.330
season, land cover, water, altitude, northness, eastness
6
season, land cover, ecotone, water, altitude, northness, eastness
7
2396.05
0.31
0.282
season, land cover, water, altitude, slope, northness, eastness
7
2397.72
1.98
0.122
us
cr
Habitat selection 2
an
Direct observations
season, land cover, ecotone, water, altitude, slope, northness
7
3358.29
0
0.72
season, land cover, ecotone, water, altitude, slope, northness, eastness
8
3360.27
1.98
0.27
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Based on generalized linear models with a negative binomial distribution and log link function.
2
Based on generalized linear models with a binomial distribution and logit link function.
d
1
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For each model the number of parameters (k), the AIC values (lower values indicate more model parsimony), the difference between AIC values (Δ AIC) and the relative likelihood of the model (AICwi) are presented. Only models with Δ AIC <2 or the best five models are shown.
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Season represent three stages of the red deer life cycle: birth time, rut season and winter. Variables included in the models are: land cover, sub‐area, distance to ecotone (m), slope (%) distance to roads (m), distance to water (m), altitude (km), northness (cos[aspect]) and eastness sen[aspect]). Significant variables are indicated in bold.
734
735 Table 2. Regression coefficients (β) and standard errors (SE) for the best‐fit generalized linear 736 models of habitat use by red deer, using pellet group counts (left model) or direct observations 737 (right model). Pellet group counts Variable (Intercept) Winter
β
Direct observations SE
2.341 0.188 *** ‐0.504 0.111 ***
Variable
β
SE
(Intercept)
1.032 0.269 ***
Winter
0.349 0.133 **
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Rut season
0.026 0.107 0
Birth time
Shrubland
0.084 0.141
Shrubland
0.301 0.068 ***
Grassland
‐0.471 0.390
Eucaliptus forest
0.101 0.179
Mixed forest
‐0.607 0.166 ***
Broadleaf forest
0.289 0.289
Coniferous stage II
‐0.111 0.159
Coniferous stage III Distance to ecotone (m)
0
Mixed forest
0
Altitude (km) Northness
Northness
0.311 0.142 *
Eastness
1.029 0.288 ***
‐0.158 0.041 *** 0.119 0.042 **
‐0.258 0.091
Sub‐area 5
‐1.202 0.233 *
Sub‐area 4
‐0.408 0.223 *
Sub‐area 3
0.447 0.207 .
Sub‐area 2
0.458 0.193 ***
d
M
Eastness
te
0
0
‐0.002 0.001 *
an
0.002 0.001 .
0
0
Distance to water (m)
Distance to roads (m)
nd
‐0.428 0.149 **
Coniferous forest
‐0.001 0.001 .
Sub‐area 1
nd
0
ip t
Coniferous stage I
0
cr
0
‐0.118 0.106
us
Birth time
Rut season
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The regression coefficients where estimated using generalized linear models with a negative binomial distribution and log link function. . P <0.10,*P <0.05, **P <0.01, ***P <0.001; 0 ‐ comparison terms; nd – no data
738
739 Table 3. Availability and use of different environmental variables by males and females of red 740 deer based on direct observations during birth time, rut season and winter. 741
Available
Mean
Birth time Distance to ecotone (m)
SE
Male Use Mean
SE
Female Use Mean
SE
176.95
11.13
158.76
83.93
95.98
14.96
Distance to water (m)
87.09
3.84
105.75
43.22
76.82
10.18
Slope (%)
39.59
1.31
34.94
4.02
29.74
3.61
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712.07
12.4
723.54
93.33
836.69
15.46
0.15
0.05
0.49
0.28
‐0.04
0.14
‐0.09
0.05
‐0.42
0.46
‐0.09
0.14
Eastness Rut season
174.34
12.1
121.04
7.52
Distance to water (m)
85.14
4.3
77.09
3.09
Slope (%)
39.75
1.34
27.17
0.98
721.09
12.92
832.42
7.12
0.08
0.05
‐0.22
‐0.08
0.05
0.01
Altitude (m) Northness Eastness
9.44
70.85
2.91
29.38
1.2
821.71
6.94
0.05
‐0.23
0.05
0.05
‐0.07
0.05
189.72
12.91
133.26
106.65
153.52
29.23
Distance to water (m)
86.61
4.05
57.64
30.73
72.76
7.34
Slope (%)
39.83
1.39
41.82
12.69
21.75
2.24
12.75
830.36
21.61
813.13
17.44
0.18
0.04
‐0.73
0.13
‐0.14
0.12
‐0.11
0.05
‐0.1
0.37
‐0.26
0.11
Altitude (m)
701.46
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d
Northness Eastness
M
Distance to ecotone (m)
124.12
an
Winter
742
us
Distance to ecotone (m)
ip t
Northness
cr
Altitude (m)
743 Table 4. Regression coefficients (β) and standard errors (SE) for the best‐fit generalized linear 744 model of habitat selection by red deer, using direct observations. 745
Direct observations
Variable
(Intercept)
β
SE
‐6.491 1.689 ***
Winter
0.293 0.243 ***
Rut season
2.512 0.187
Birth time Shrubland Eucaliptus forest
0
0
0.422 0.113 *** ‐1.545 0.284 ***
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Broadleaf forest
‐12.310 4.403 ** ‐0.145 0.237
Coniferous forest
0
0
Distance to ecotone (m)
‐0.001 0.000 ***
Distance to water (m)
‐0.004 0.001 ***
Altitude (km)
1.832 0.302 *** ‐0.037 0.003 ***
Northness
‐0.499 0.082 ***
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Slope (%)
ip t
Mixed forest
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The regression coefficients where estimated using generalized linear models with a binomial distribution and logit link function.
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. P <0.10,*P <0.05, **P <0.01, ***P <0.001; 0 ‐ comparison terms
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746 747
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749
d
748
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