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Spatial systems and structures. A model and a case study
Geoforum, Vol. 6, pp. 95-103.
1975. Pergamon Press Ltd. Printed in Great Britain
Spatial Systems and Structures. R~umliche Systeme
A Model and a Case Study
und Strukturen. Ein Model1 und ein Beispiel
Structures et systkmes spatiaux.
Roger BRUNET,
Un mod&e et une application
Reims*
Summary: World space appears to be divided into unequally stable wholes which we see as being structures produced by the combined action of natural systems, spatial gradients and open energetic systems. The latter are based on the inter play of population, information, resources and capital, acting through the means of production, and in interaction with the social structures which are reproduced by the system and in turn reproduce it-until they become inconsistent with it: these successive reproductions are factors of change. This model is applied, as an example, to Champagne (France). R&urn& L’espace terrestre apparah divis; en ensembles inegalement stables, que nous interpr&ons comme des structures produites par I’action combinee des syst&nes naturels, des gradients spatiaux et de systemes d’energie ouverts. Ces derniers sent fond& sur les jeux combines de la population, de I’information, des ressources et des capitaux, agissant par I’intermediaire des moyens de production, et en interaction avec Ies structures sociales qui sent reproduites par le systime et qui le reproduisent-jusqu’au moment ou elles le contredisent, ces reproductions successives &ant des facteurs de changement. Une application de ce mod& est faire pour la Champagne. Zusammenfanung: Die Erdoberflache gliedert sich in ungleich feste Ganze, die sich als Strukturen darstellen, wie sie sich aus dem Zusammenwirken von naturlichen Systemen, raumlichen Ubergangen und offenen Kraftefeldern ergeben. Letztere beruhen auf dem Zusammenspiel von Bsvolkerung, Information, Ressourcen und Kapital. Sic warden wirksam durch die Produktion und das Wechselspiel von Sotialstruktur und System, die sich gegenseitig bedingen, bis sie aus dem Glei~hg~icht geraten. Dies8 Abfolge verursacht den Wandel. Das Model1 ist auf die Champagne (Frankreich) engewandt.
The analysis of geographical space, like any attempt at
forward by most of the mathematics applied to space, and
scientific analysis, calls for the definition
which do not adequately take into account thresholds and
of a minimum
number of concepts, and, when possible, of a theory. The
retroactive phenomena (BRUNET,
interpretation
comes from the wide extension of geographical matters:
of many studies rests either on empiricism or
even when considering geography as a social science, our
on a small number of models which remain incompletet despite their gradual sophistication and their utilization
1967). A third difficulty
concepts must include theories on social organizations,
in
complex computations. As far as regional structures are
physical environment,
concerned, one cannot be fully satisfied with the present
and space: so, we must add something to social studies,
state of empirical studies, often called qualitative,
which usually fail to take space into account.
nor with
that of the so-called quantitative studies, which are being
The best way to approach the subject at this point may be
challenged even by their most ardent protagonists {CHORLEY.
through fundamental
1973).
A basic difficulty
and change: men and nature, time
queries on the nature and i~nefto~ic
of the observed phenomena. results from the analytical and mechanistic
character of approaches which tend to isolate phenomena in order to search for their causes, while the nature of spatial
1. Systems in Geographic Space
organizations studied by the geographer makes their relations the main concern. Another difficulty too hear
*
Our working hypothesis assumes that a full understanding
is due to the
character of inductions and computations
of spatial organization will not be reached until separative
put
Prof. Dr. Roger BRUNET. editor of L’ESPACE G~OGRAPHIQU~, lnstitut de G&mph& Universitede Reims, 57 rue Pierre Taittinger, F-51084 Reimscadex, France.
t
95
The gravity models, the models of Christaller and Losch, of van. Thiinen and all their variants help us understand certain spatial distributions but not the existence of regional wholes.
Fig. 1 A general made1 of spatial systems. Ein allgemeines Mod&l raumlicher Systeme. Un mod&k g&Gral des systemes sparG3ux.
studies are integrated
into a global study of structures and
systems. But as the hope of grasping totality
is unrealistic,
it becomes necessary to find ruling principles.
(31 The energizing system-except
for the theoreticaf
‘isolate’ cases, which are indeed rare, if not absent-is
an
open system.
Geographical space seems to be divided into whoies,t whose dimensions are regrouped into a certain number of levels, and whose appearance is the landscape: everyone has an intuitive knowledge of it. The important thing is to explain it,
(41 It is based on the interaction of four forms of energy whose very ‘existence’ is determined solely in and by these interactions: papulation,
capital, information,
resources.$
(5) These four forms define the energetic system. They
Our interpretation
rests upon the following s&es of
hypotheses (Fig.11 whose formalization (BRUNET, 1965,
fS67,196S,
is being pursued
1972).
(1) A spatial structure, defined as the orderinS of the elements and relations present in space, corresponds to
regulate, augment or weaken each other: the second case corresponds to the notion of neguentropy {increase of order or energy), the third to the notion of entropy. (6) Cybernetic regulation of the system is ensured: (a) partly by the very interaction of the four forms of energy, accomplished mainly through the means of
the steady state of an energy system. $ (21 The latter acts on areas through the filter of the social srructum (its own product) and in interaction with the
~ro~~~tion; fb) by its own products: social structures and organization, and spatial structures;
general systems of spatial organization.
(c) by exchanges and interactions with the outer world. (7) The system comes into action when a minimum critical Whole is hare temporarily defined as a minimally caherent space, without reference to its nature. This general term is deliberately meant to be less precise than structure or system. Nations and ragions, for example, are wholes; alsO, probably, a town, etc. It is tampting to liken this energy system to the production system for to the mode of production according to terminofogy]; in our opinion. it transcends the single notion of #reduction. This concept is close to the notion of pr~uction in some theories.
forces employed
mass is reached and proceeds up to a maximum critical mass, both of which determine (and are determined by) the exchange possibilities inside the system: this hypothesis accounts for the relative regularity of the dimensions filled in space by the structures corresponding to the steady state of the systems, according to a hierarchy of levels (BRUNEI-, 19691. These dimensions are distributed around values which may be called ‘optimal sizes’-according economic activity.
to the level of
Geoforum/Volume
G/Number 211975
97
(8) A geographical whole then behaves, in this interpretation, like a system provided with retroactive regulations whose functioning in turn ensures phases of steadiness; but not without distortions, whose accumulation
leads to the passage,
possibly abrupt, from one phase of steadiness to another. Also, the content and even the qoatial extension of these wholes vary in time, but at speeds which differ greatly. Clearly, these hypotheses are somewhat linked to various kinds of theories of general systems-obviously as’methodologies, not as a metaphysics.
considered
. .(HARVEY,
1969).
However we should recall that these theories, more an outline than a real elaboration
in the field of physical or
biological systems, cannot be applied to systems involving human activity without first undergoing substantial adaptations. Neither the processes, nor the relations, nor the measurements and refinement possibilities of knowledge are of the same nature: concepts from a totally different subject cannot simply be transposed. This kind of hypothesis cannot be verified unless their formalization
is continuously
refined and applications are
sought, and until measurements can be taken: to put some light in these black-boxes is a large task, but seems possible. The diagram in Fig. 1, which is put forward as a general model, represents an attempt at formalization. interpretation
A detailed
entailing lengthy developments cannot be
presented here*. The purpose of this article is to suggest a schema of a logical and deductive model; and how it can be applied to a geographical whole, in this case, Champagne region. Neither the state of theoretical reflections, nor the state of the studies on the chosen example, nor even the state of the available data enables us to give a quantified
Fig. 2 Functioning of the model. A-Area (geographical whole); C-Capital; E-Energy system; G-General systems of space organization (gravity, etc.); H-Heritage: history, hysteresis phenomenon; I-Information; L-Landscape; M-Means of production; N-Nature: its structures and organization; P-Population; R-Resources; S-Social structures and organization; U-Universe: cosmic energy; W-Outer world: the metasystems including E and the other systems of type E. The model’s general functioning is set forth in Section 2, and its application to Champagne is presented in Section 3.
analysis other than by some indices.t Moreover, mathematical language does not perforce apply to all systems, or all parts of systems, as L. von BERTALANFFV (BERTALANFFY.
himself
admits
1968).
Funktionsweise des Modells. A-Region (als geographisches Ganzes); C-Kapital-System; E-Krlftefeld; G-Allgemeine Systeme rtiumlicher Organisation (GravitBt etc.); H-Erbe:
2. Elements and Relations in the Model (Fig. 2): The Structure of the System
Geschichte, fortwirkende
I-Information;
L-Landschaft;
ihre Strukturen
und
Energie;
N-Natur:
P-BevGlkerung;
R-Ressourcen;
Organisation;
S-Sozialstrukturen
und
W-Metaphysis
Ph?momene;
M-Produktivmittel;
-organisation;
U-Universum:
einschlieRlich
E und Systemvarianten
kosmische
dawn.
2.1.
The Main Parts
Fijr die theoretische
A (area) is a geographical whole (in the wide sense of the word region), basic subject-matter it an isoschematic whole (BRUNET,
of the geographer. We call 19691, since only one
structure is apparent in this portion of space. The dimensions
Anwendung
Fonctionnement A-Aire
G-SystBme
But
it will
t
be included in our book Geographical to be published in 1975.
Wholes
and
Systems,
Only the most significant ones shall be dealt with here. Additional information may be found in the ChampagneArdenne regional Atlas, (Reims, ARERS, 1973-1975).
siehe
Kapitel
Kapitel
2, fiir die
3.
traces
S-Structures
et organisation W-Monde
les autres
syst6mes
Le fonctionnement
g&v?ral
d’energie;
Igravite,
etc);
d’hys&r&sis;
de production;
P-Population;
sociales;
ext&rieur: du type
ph6nomBne
M-Moyens
at son organisation;
E-SystBme
de I’espace
de I’histoire,
L-Paysage;
cosmique;
C-Capital;
d’organisation
ses structures
son application
siehe
g4ographique):
g&v%aux
I-Information;
Space
des Modells
du mod&e.
(ensemble
H-RBmanences:
l
Erkltirung
auf die Champagne
N-Nature:
R-Ressources;
U-Univers,
les m&tasyst&mes
Bnergie incluant
E et
E; du mod6le
g la Champagne
est expose
est p&en&
au chapitre
au chapitre
3.
2,
G/Number 211975
GeoforumlVolume
98
contribute to the reproduction of the system, through social practice.
of these spatial structures seem to be organized into six hierarchical levels: neighbourhood (IO1 - IO2 km’),
(French: quartier)
district (French: pays) (103), region
(104), province (lo’),
IR stands for the detection of resource and perhaps creation
domain (106), zone (10’).
of some new resources, as new ‘values’ (cultural, touristic,
. ).
idolatry of nature, etc.
L (landscape) is the appearance, the reflection of A: it discloses only a part of it and with some distortions; it includes relics from the old structures, by way of hysteresis (H).
RC stands for the production of goods.
CP stands for income and thus consumption (including
A is the product of the combined action of E, S, G and N.
social expenditures), which guarantees the upkeep and development of the population; the distribution
E is the energy (or production)
system acting upon the
of income is
ensured by the interaction of social structure with the
space A.
political organizations linked to it (SE). A distinction
S (social structure and organization)
is a product of E (ES)
in interaction with E by feedback (SE). The influence of E
) and
can be made between entrepreneur income (CP, wage-earner income (CPz I.
upon A (EA) acts through it: S operates as a filter. S also
The system is set in motion by themeans ofproduction
retains traces of the old systems (by H).
The latter include the firms, the work force of entrepreneurs
) and wage-earners (PM, ); financial means and invest-
G corresponds to the whole of the laws and mechanisms of
(PM,
spatial distribution,
ments (CM), including means of communication,
all of which are related, in some way, to
(M).
etc.;
gradients; it includes every type of gravity phenomenon-
technology (IM). Resources development is undertaken
expressed in the gravity, proximity,
through M (MR). One way of measuring M is through
models, etc.
polarization
and decision
. These mechanisms are linked to the laws of
the universe (UG) and to world organization (W), in which the system under study (WG) is included.
productivity. The functioning of the system is ensured by the whole of the decisions (d) which are themselves maintained by
N corresponds to the types of physical space organization,
information,
which are themselves a product of the universe (UN).
tion of the labour forces (PM), the utilization
and which intervene especially in the applicaof capital, the
development of resources (via MI, and also in the regulations 2.2. Structure of E
(SE). Some d, obviously, comes from W. These sets of
The energetic (or production)
system is composed of the
whole of the interactions among the four forms of energy P (population),
I (information),
R (resources), C (capital).
It is an open system: there is a continuous interaction,
relations
include
immaterial
The resources
more
or less intense and uneven, between this system and the outer world (W). Pi, Ii, Ri, Ci are the energy inputs, and P,, Ior R,, Co the outputs. Nevertheless, the flow between P, I, R and C shows that the system comprises a cyclical closing.
include
not only material
works
(R) are a product
those resources
(biology),
(minerals),
through
resources or linked
products
but also
services.
of the universe
renewable
non-renewable
(coal, oil for example) earth
production,
and all the requisite
(U). They
photosynthesis
of past photosynthesis
to the composition
of geotectonic
forces
of the
(slopes,
internal heat of the earth, etc.) and of the atmosphere-all of these data which finally pertain to cosmic energy in all its guises. They can be linked to the location phenomena
This system exists at a given level of a hierarchical scale: it
which disclose the
proximity of resources.
includes the subsystems of inferior level and is included in the metasystems of superior level (i.e. W), which exert a 2.3.
strong regulation power (WE).
Regulations
We admit that the four forms of energy belong to the same
The interactions
conceptual level. But, according regions, one form forces)
can dominate:
in underdeveloped
in highly
industrialized
here, a basis for a taxonomy
i.e. population
(working
But regulations are ensured by:
information
and capital
-exchanges with the outside P;, C;
professional
regulation
and even mental
to the effects
voluntary
models.
.;
-social structures of the system (SE) and of metasystems
of regions.
training,
.and P,, C,
etc.; perhaps we have,
PI and IP correspond
education,
(PI,
IR, RC, CP and transitions through M) can be cumulative.
(WE): social reproductions, The connections
of the energy system
types of
countries, countries,
of the elements
to the different
of ideas,
institutions,
planning
political
power,
laws and
etc.;
demographic
They include all the
Iearnings, and the elaboration of mental models which
-spatial
structure
functioning
itself, which
of the system
facilitates
(AE)
or impedes
the
and also plays a part in
GeoforumlVolume
G/Number 211975
99
the ‘outer’ world (AW) of which it is a component; thus,
eastern and middle part of the Basin, the full significance
spatial structure is not only a projection of social structures
of which shall be seen later on.
on space, but constantiy interacts, as a part of the total Lastly, it is in turn divided into subsystems which are
system.
distinct yet linked together. As a preliminary assumption, we can distinguish: the cities of the northern Champagne 24. Change
‘triangle’; the Troyan group; the Chalky plain (which groups several districts of similar structure); the Wine district.
This system is by no means a machine.
(Fig. 3). The mere reproduction
of the system implies change. Any
reproduction entails the accumulation and magnification differences: it is never a perfect reproduction.
of
It includes
Reims and Chllons, to which can be added Epernay and
innovation, another source of change. It calls decision into
small satellite towns, owe their specific activities to a wide
play and the latter, being human, can never be perfectly
range of average-sized industrial establishments (typically:
rational: it acts therefore as a source of modification
200 to 800 jobs) of great diversity, of rather rudimentary
in
the system. All these causes of change, included in the
production (mostly assembly work), usually controled from
system and inherelot in its very functioning, are more or less
the outside. Another specific activity resides in its trading
controled by the regulations (SE and especially WE)-which
function as is indicated by the important part played by
also contribute to change. Beyond a certain threshold, the change is so great that we are dealing with another structure. Far from being static, this model integrates change. The functioning of the system therefore produces goods (material and other), social relations, spaces. .
. and history.”
3. A Case Study: The Champagne Region 31. ~fini~ion
of Spatial Structure
Champagne is truly a geographical whole. It once was a feudal unity and it is now an administrative division: although its borders have varied considerably, its central area retains true individuali~,
as can be seen from the
landscape and the activities. With or without its margins, it stands out among neighbouring wholes. It comprises, for the main part, a broad portion of a densely cultivated and sparsely populated chalky halo extending east of Paris, at a distance of 100-290
km, and its edges: to
Fig.3
the west lies the top of the tertiary plateaus with their
The main figures of Champagne spatial organization.
viticultural
(1 I Chalky halo; (2) Vineyards; (3) Tertiary plateaus; (4) Forested
rim and to the east are the well-timbered
secondary plateaus. It is traversed by the routes connecting Paris with the middle Rhine and in it lie cities undergoing relatively rapid development, the most populated of which are Reims (pop. 200,000)
in the north, Troyes {pop. ~40,000~
in the south, Chilons-sur-Marne 70,000)
(regional chief-town,
pop.
in the centre. In this space live a total of 900,000
plateaus; (5) Northern Champagne triangle; (6) Troyan sub system; 17) Principal axis and motorway under construction; (8) Chief towns: (9) Entering of manpower. Die Hauptglieder der raumlichen Organisation der Champagne. (1) Kreide-Ring; (2)*Rebkulturen;
(3) Tertiar-Becken;
(4) Sewaldete Schichtkamme; (5) Das Dreieck der niirdlichen
inhabitants in an area of 15,000 km’. Clearly, we are
Champagne; (6) Das SubSystem von Troyes; (7) Hauptachse und
dealing with a whole located at the fourth level of the
Autobahnen fim Sau); (8) Wichtige Stadte: (9) Arbeitskraft-
spatial scale (BRUNEI-,
Zustrom.
1969). This whole itself is a sub
system of the Paris Basin (third level), but situated in the Les traits essentiels de I’organisation de I’espace champenois# (1) Aureole crayause; (2) Vignoble; (3) Plateaux tertiaires; l
We think this model can be applied to various kinds of geographical wholes and can provide a basis for larger dweiopments in social sciences; but here vve consider only regional phenomena.
(4) Plateaux b&s&; (5) Triangle nerd-champenois; 16) Soussysteme troyen; (7) Grandes liaisons et autoroute (197678); (8) Villes principales; (9) Entr$es de main d’oeuvre.
Geoforum/Volume
100
transport and redistribution
firms: trucking, chain-companies
resulting, in combination
G/Number
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with intense professional training
distribution of metal works (PUM, the largest firm in Reims,
(IP), in the high qualification
supplies more than 1 Mt of steel in sheet-metal, girders, etc.
information
of farmers. Incoming of
(Ii) with the new industries arriving from the
cut on request). Two other functions relate to agriculture
outside or after their take-over by the outside. But loss of
(concentration
information
and shipping of agricultural products) and to
services provided to farmers as well as to the regional population.
abroad (I,),
Troyes fulfils similar functions, although they are less developed in the field of trading; but industrial activity of the northern Champagne type, although present, has far from dethroned the traditional
rule of hosiery (25% of the
through the emigration of qualified persons
(I, and P,), the transfer of industrial authority to Paris or and, for the hosiery in Troyes, due to the lack
of renewal (strong entropy of a nearly closed system), as was the case for the wool industry in Reims between 1880 and 1950. On the whole, a high level for agriculture and trade but weaker for industry.
french output). Resources (R): Complete reversal in the utilization Farming on a large scale prevails in Chalky Champagne:
two main resources: (I
of the
1the position with regard to Paris,
concentrated on the production of cereals, sugar-beets and
to the connection Paris-East
lucerns with variably sized complements in contract-farming
to the important centres of Rhinish Europe: a cause of
and North Sea-Mediterranean,
(peas) and calf-bull fattening, it has sound operating
blockingup
structures at its disposal (the typical farm has 150 hectares,
Champagne served as a protective glacis for Paris against
and an annual turnover of about 5100,000).
threats coming from the Rhine; but inversely the position
utilizes little
if not of entropy, from 1860 to 1945, when
manpower (60 hectares per worker), considerable but
is now an excellent one, considering the proximity
reasonable equipment
important markets and the low cost of a scarcely populated
(80 hectares per tractor) and a lot of
chemical fertilizer.
and not very rugged area favourable to traffic: whence, the
The Vineyard profits fully from champagne’s exceptional and international farm-operators,
of
prestige. With 20,000 hectares and 13,000 it represents undoubtedly
one of the richest
arrival of agricultors from rich but overflowing neighbouring areas, the ‘untightening’ of Parisian industries (decentralization), the wealth of foreign investments;
regions of France: the average vine-grower, with 2 hectares,
(2) the chalky soils, which appeared to be poor up until
has an annual turnover of about $36,000.
1950, have proven to be excellent for cultivation,
and there-
fore very attractive, thanks to the progress of information (IR), as long as machinery and fertilizer
3.2. The Energy System
(MR) are available.
There are no other resources, especially in the subsoil:
This structure, of which only the main elements have been described, is of recent formation:
it was not really set up
the greater part of the raw-materials of industry are imported (Ri); hence there is no visible exportation
of
before the 196Os, when radical changes were introduced
resources either but it can be borne in mind that Champagne
into the system. How can we define the latter?
‘sells’ its space, that is, its now excellent position (R,). Capital (C): The exploiting of these resources provides an
Population (P): We can quote here: low densities (IO-15
important production (RC). French regional accountancy
inh./km’),
is not very useful in understanding it well. But the average
except in the vineyards (80). well suited to the
production systems, apart from an excess in the eastern
output of an hectare of Chalky Champagne is about $800,
margins due to the entropy of their production systems;
that of an hectare of vineyard 518,000,
strong natural dynamism (+lO”/oo
inputs: these are very high figures. On the whole, the region
yearly) and sound age
structures (44% are under 25); recent entering (Pi) of entrepreneurs (mostly agricultural),
and of manpower
for rather moderate
falls into the first third of the French regions as far as the GNP/inh.
is concerned (6th rank; total products $2.5
(Ardennes, Aisne) into the cities; exit (P,) of skilled labour
billions). There is a large entry of capital (Ci) considering
of which the actual system makes insufficient use.
company takeovers,
parisian and foreign investments, the
arrival of neighbouring agricultors and the important Information
(I): A high level of information
in the commer-
public
subsidies (housing, equipment) obtained by active pressure groups [retroaction AW (through S-WE)]. On the other
cial field, accumulated by the merchant class (Champagne
hand, a considerable part of the profits from industry and
fairs in the Middle Ages, international
trade leaves the region (C,).
cloth and wine trade
since the 17th century); it has led to the success of chaincompanies and transport firms. Sound information
also in
Productive investment (CM) is at a rather high level, except
the agricultural field: secular accumulation of know-how in
perhaps for the Troyan hosiery; but it is rational and not
the Vineyards, importation
excessive. The distribution of income (CP) through the
(Ii) of information
with the
arrival of cultivators coming from Picardie (and Belgium),
retroaction S-CP
is very uneven. There results an unre-
__~ GeoforumlVolume
strained
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Vineyards
211975
on the part of the cultivators
and in Chalky
of trade and industry,
which
in the French
ratios slightly
Champagne
explain
whole,
in the
and of numerous
and a moderate
part of the workers, position
101
consumption
is serviced from
heads
chain-stores,
on the
in France;
an average general
and household
the outside;
owing to the domination
the retail trade and independent
lastly, the exodus
workers
of household
trades than with
under average.
are relatively
anomalous
the high-class and the big farmers
equipment
Structure
of Society,
Spatial
Structure
local ones, and still do partly:
and are unsatisfactory
and Regulations
data are changing, We consider
the structure
time a product
osf the energy
system by feed-back, income,
of society
the labour
of the structure
mental
models
as concerns
the distribution
forces and decision-making. ensured,
On the other
of
disputes
The stability
at least between
because this regulation
behaviour
comprises
is characterized a coherent
functions
well.*
French
regions,
to other
by a truly
of low training,
classes’ are very few. A minimum
different
industry.
assembly
workshops,
management,
results:
It happens
belonging
hand, the ruling classes, in spite of internal
sion, form
cohesive circle which
a remarkably
are outside
have not know
has been mentioned, wage-earners
with
nor that of
of Chalky
Champagne
little or no specialization.
The situation
is
the incomes
are
of transition,
enable
inquiry tyt,
despite
partly through
the good relations
a remarkable
they have
multiform
technique
and perfected
quite sensitive
matters,
cannot
power
period
the
societies,
of development
intenand
to any source of difficulfor the localities,
. . Of course,
etc.
itself of glory
let us mention
and friendly
the ‘creation’
its remarkable
of recovery,
this policy,
if not one of true
avert the more serious clashes; but it is
to social
peace-and
of the system.
while precluding
through
with the higher civil servants.
and leisure facilities
in cultural
very conducive
organizations the first Expansion
either
employers:
housing*,
committees
liberalism
these
directly,
.), either
insurance
good sporting
functioning
the wage-
and none of the old
such as share-cropping,
either
suited to test for alarms and to avert
of mutual
forecasting,
is
the price of land nor the mass equipment
to hope to change category
methods
where
the outside,
etc.
and which has maintained
sive welfare
as possible of
But in both cases, social mobility
earner
have not
Agricole),
in France,
or still through
is especially
conflicts,
from
system,
and management
the Credit
for the Social Christian
reveals
spread out far more.
neither
diversification
power
since the second half of the 19th century,
whose wealth
in the Vineyards
in necessary
even between
Industrial
of Agriculture,
how to maintain
fastening
of a class of farmers,
governed the whole
have even invented
which
personnel:
and of as small a number
almost at a standstill:
They
created
power,
known
how, have
much more complex
of investments
of expan-
is very much
change to the situation.
promotion
(especially
political
process.
sub-system
marriages,
people.
of Commerce,
Committees
in the last 20
unities,
of skilled
through
credit
the
the cause, the result calls to mind a particularly
itself in the juxtaposition
on the methods
of industrial
any fundamental
(Chambers
structure.
to obtain
of large production
either
the
whatever
The production
dispossession
ruling groups control
do not give
with a hiigh proportion
regulation
by numerous
and country
Save for the industries
of simple
factories
efficacious
trade and manufac-
opinions
brought
perfectly
to large firms of which
authorities
between
turing or from differing
and partial
now the new
and research
not been able or have not wanted years the implanting
which
and execu-
used to suffice
And
itself with an identical
that regional
customers
Even when these
changes far more slowly:
arising from disparities
town-dwellers
entrepreneurs
the proliferation
administration
accomodates
incomes.
while the ‘middle
systems, at least in the beginning,
essentially
region,
society,
of technicians
tives and a mass of low wage-earners for trade and the textile production
bipolar
group of high-income
and a mass of workers
so, local
for working
are a source of hysteresis.
closed and united For the main part, and compared Champagne
for higher
is high:
Parisian
system and an agent of that
chiefly
is all the better
two ‘revolutions’,
as being at the same
few;
purchases
dealt more with
services and trades cater essentially 3.3.
of
is here one of the best integrated
ultimately
to the
It is a fact that this muffling,
serious malfunctionings
in the system,
have remained
at his disposal. Low-rent
Furthermore
the middle
the production independent *
Certain social
systems
theoricians relations
The
and
state
the
that
is in turn
few:t
industrial
the mode
of production
reproduced
by them.
to
number
firms which
professions,
make
activity reproduces This
is quite
+
housing
region
is one of the
last in France
in these categories.
as
were
was set up as early particular One
of directors.
And
have played
‘easy’
who
solution
Regional their
role,
makes
main
building
patronal’
(compulsary unions
part
the
Association
of
in the relatively
Aeims
(Champex) of people.
of and
sub-
members
textile.
The
the ‘Soci&!tkd’Equipement’,
the same groups
(one
of the century)
the trade
an important
Office,
the two
by the employers
as the beginning
of reconverting
Expansion with
developed; established
use of the ‘1% of them
its board
lndustrialisation
of people
is very
of the Marne
scription).
line of thought.
Champagne-Ardenne
concerns
serving as complement
(services to business firms,
trade:1 are relatively
in the same t
categories
also fulfill
Regional the
Geoforum/Volume
102
G/Number
2/1975
also precludes any real boldness which could greatly
the Mediterranean-North
accelerate progress: progress came from outside changes, well fitted by this efficient regulation.
Middle Ages, then declined when traffic swung to the Paris
However this system is giving way to contradictions,
even
when these ate not imposed from the outside: the expanding of administrative and teaching functions, the effects induced by the overall rise in income and in consumption upon services to the individual-and
ultimately
upon
those to the small business-and upon anomalous trade, the rise in income of the small vine-growers, are expressed
Sea line, which was busy during the
and Rhine routes, and now tends to regain some strength; and which passes east of Paris, in what was, not long ago, the protective zone of the capital, a fact which seriously lessenned its importance up until 1945. Thus a space in limited demand, with scarcely populated and cheap lands, had taken shape: a notable gradient, compared with industrial Europe, that made Champagne a coveted land, almost a land of colonization,
after 1945.
in the gradual smothering of the middle classes, a fact
Present growth, partly as a result of this, has not brought
not without consequential effects upon the social and
profit to all of Champagne equally: the northern part had neither the same production structures nor the same social
political climate.
organization as the south, and is much better serviced by the flow of transport, while the Troyan sub-system has remained slightly apart and is fixed because of the rigid 3.4. Spatial Structure
structure built up around the hosiery. Thus more and more
Both energy systems and the structure of society are
is seen to be in opposition: in the south, a slowly changing
necessary to define and interpret the Champagne whole;
town with only a ‘departemental’
but we must now take spatial organization (N and G)
rapidly-evolving urban group of which the influence is
into consideration.
gradually reaching a ‘regional’ scope, including the
radius; in the north, a
~d~partements’ of the Marne, of the Ardennes and a large We at once find evidence of an aureolar principle, made up of two combined systems. The first one is the ringtype geomorphological organization of the sedimentary basin: however far one may be from a deterministic view, it cannot be dismissed, since Champagne, by definition, comprises the plain of chalk and its margins. The second one is due to the distance from Paris and rests on the first, in so far as the position of the metropolis near the centre
part of the Aisne. In the end one could even foresee, if not forecast, a rapprochement between northern Champagne and Picardie, whose structures are more and more alike, and between southern Champagne and Burgundy: a case of a destructuring and restructuring of the regional wholes of the Paris Basin. For the time being, political and administrative structures of the official regions check this tendency.
of the sedimentary basin is not a result of chance. Thus
The change of structure which Champagne underwent
Champagne lies on portions of several rings which extend
between 1950 and 1965, including a full conversion of
all around Paris and are determined by their distance from
the agricultural and industrial content and of part of the
Paris: the fairly wooded tops of the tertiary plateaus
urban functions, but a still moderate alteration of the social
which separate the first central ring of large-scale farming
structures, also gradually leads to a change in internal
(Soissonnais, Valois, Brie) from the second more recent
relations, settlement structures and, obviously, landscapes.
one (Chalky Champagne); the ‘crown cities’ that form the
Consequently, urban landscapes are profoundly
first large urban relay around Paris; the wooded steps
by the proliferation
which mark the true limits of the Paris Basin.
factories within the town repiaced by large suburbian industrial estates, the elimination
The system of strong polarization towards Paris which includes and transcends these halos exercises its utmost influence, with its historical contradictions:
a long period of
submissiveness and atony in the first half of the twentieth
modified
of large unities, the demolition
of old
of insanitary blocks, the
growth of collective facilities-northern
Champagne being
once more clearly in advance in these matters. The landscape of Chalky Champagne is becoming completely bare and neat, as a result of the clearing of ‘savarts’ (waste), and of pine-wooded patches of the last century: the only
century, and development since then.
exception is the survival of military camps set up 100 years We also find that Champagne is part of northern France, from the demographic point of view (traditionally
high
birth-rates) as well as from the climatic point of view:
ago, at the time of the ‘glacis’ and of the ‘poor’ chalk; the old field-pattern
has been completely altered by consolida-
tion.
northern limit of vine-growing where the best vineyards thrive; reign of the sugar-beet; regularity of cereal yields; recent growth of corn.
The adjustment of settlement to fit the new system is probably more meaningful because rural housing and the
Lastly we find that it belongs to Northern and Eastern
network of small towns have a strong capacity for survival
France, which is especially dynamic
through hysteresis. Here, the old clustered settlement is
(BRUNET,
1973); on
GeoforumIVolume
G/Number
103
211975
unsuited to the system; villages have been emptying for a
signifies that these elements take on meaning only inside
century and now contain only a few families. Actually
the whole system and through their relations with the whole
they
make up a network of scarcely populated hamlets, devoid
of the other elements. These relations, which make up
of shops and services, as these are regrouped in a small
the system, and produce the structures, alter completely
number of centres: despite appearances, this results in a
at times, thus introducing discontinuity
scatteredsettlementstructure,
supported by the con-
struction of modern villas for the farm-operators. basic cell of this structure is not the ‘commune’
The (parish)
of 10 km2 any more, but the ‘canton’ (district) of about 100200
km2. On the other hand, farmers’ travelling
facilities and wealth cripple the growth of the small towns while favouring the larger ones, that alone meet the demand for good service. Obviously, the situation is very different in the Vineyards, where a closely-knit network of large well-equipped villages is maintained by a dense and rich population. Thus we see now the change of system brings about a complete transformation
of the historical legacy,
in the structures of rural settlement as well as in those of the relations between town and country. Champagne gains a stronger internal cohesiveness at a time when its
into history.
On the other hand, the extent of successive systems in space is much more steady, precisely because it is linked to the invariance of N (the chalky plain) and G (the position). Yet, the beginning of a change is also felt, which is conceivable in so far as these two data lose their specificity and their unity: as the very conditions of the position are modified (clearly strengthening the advantages of northern Champagne), and the value of chalk likens it more and more to the fertile lands of the Paris Basin and of Picardie, the cards are dealt with a new way: the Champagne space tends to split in order to merge with neighbouring spaces because its subsystems have become too differentiated. This is an interesting example of the reorganization of a spatial level, a function of the very transformation system, interacting with the transformations
dependency towards the outside is increasing.
of its
of its sub-
systems and of the metasystems of which it is a part.
4. Conclusion The functioning off the system just described shows to
References
what extent, in the case of Champagne, the rate at which time passes is variable: between 1950 and 1965, we witnessed a true mutation during which a new structure superseded the old one; although the elements of the old structure have not all changed, the whole of the relations has been transformed.
Basin, France, Western Europe), Champagne finally owes its position.
..
individuality-to
the chalky plain and to
In semblance these two data seem intangible
In actual fact, they are made up partly of invariance, partly of change. We see how very relative they are
L. van
BRUNET, Lettres BRUNET,
BRUNET, Revue BRUNET,
Les campagnes
et Sciences
humaines,
R. (1967): M&m&es
New
Fault6
des
Le quartier
Pour
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BRUNET.
R. (1973):
I I, 4. pp. 249-254. CGORLEY, HARVEY,
rural,
Schema
de Bretagne,
R.J.,
Ed.
D. (1969):
11973):
Saint-Brieuc; 11,
and
Travaux
Pp. 3-14. de I’espace
L’Espaceg6ographiqoe,
Directions
Explanation
&gionale;
pp. 649-662,
et dynamisme
systime;
rbgionale;
de la gbographie
de Reims,
Structure d’un
structure
pp.81-100.
1,
contemporaine,
de Gkographie
en
I, Paris.
une thborie
gkographique
de l’lnstitut
de discontinoit6 VI
Pyr@nBes S.-Ouest,
R. (1972):
La Pens&
toulousaines.
Lesph&om&es
R. (1969): GBogr.
the development of trade and the emptying of the ‘glacis’; and
Theory.
Toulouse.
et Documents,
fran@s.
opulence; the position has done as much. This indeed
GeneralSysrem
R. (1965):
historically: transport facilities have brought about in turn the chalky soils have provided in turn mediocrity
11968):
York.
CNRS,
Inside the larger systems of which it is a part (Parisian its original@-its
BERTALANFFY,
in Geography.
in Geography.
Vd.
London.
London.
1975. Pergamon Press Ltd. Printed in Great Britain
Spatial Systems and Structures. R~umliche Systeme
A Model and a Case Study
und Strukturen. Ein Model1 und ein Beispiel
Structures et systkmes spatiaux.
Roger BRUNET,
Un mod&e et une application
Reims*
Summary: World space appears to be divided into unequally stable wholes which we see as being structures produced by the combined action of natural systems, spatial gradients and open energetic systems. The latter are based on the inter play of population, information, resources and capital, acting through the means of production, and in interaction with the social structures which are reproduced by the system and in turn reproduce it-until they become inconsistent with it: these successive reproductions are factors of change. This model is applied, as an example, to Champagne (France). R&urn& L’espace terrestre apparah divis; en ensembles inegalement stables, que nous interpr&ons comme des structures produites par I’action combinee des syst&nes naturels, des gradients spatiaux et de systemes d’energie ouverts. Ces derniers sent fond& sur les jeux combines de la population, de I’information, des ressources et des capitaux, agissant par I’intermediaire des moyens de production, et en interaction avec Ies structures sociales qui sent reproduites par le systime et qui le reproduisent-jusqu’au moment ou elles le contredisent, ces reproductions successives &ant des facteurs de changement. Une application de ce mod& est faire pour la Champagne. Zusammenfanung: Die Erdoberflache gliedert sich in ungleich feste Ganze, die sich als Strukturen darstellen, wie sie sich aus dem Zusammenwirken von naturlichen Systemen, raumlichen Ubergangen und offenen Kraftefeldern ergeben. Letztere beruhen auf dem Zusammenspiel von Bsvolkerung, Information, Ressourcen und Kapital. Sic warden wirksam durch die Produktion und das Wechselspiel von Sotialstruktur und System, die sich gegenseitig bedingen, bis sie aus dem Glei~hg~icht geraten. Dies8 Abfolge verursacht den Wandel. Das Model1 ist auf die Champagne (Frankreich) engewandt.
The analysis of geographical space, like any attempt at
forward by most of the mathematics applied to space, and
scientific analysis, calls for the definition
which do not adequately take into account thresholds and
of a minimum
number of concepts, and, when possible, of a theory. The
retroactive phenomena (BRUNET,
interpretation
comes from the wide extension of geographical matters:
of many studies rests either on empiricism or
even when considering geography as a social science, our
on a small number of models which remain incompletet despite their gradual sophistication and their utilization
1967). A third difficulty
concepts must include theories on social organizations,
in
complex computations. As far as regional structures are
physical environment,
concerned, one cannot be fully satisfied with the present
and space: so, we must add something to social studies,
state of empirical studies, often called qualitative,
which usually fail to take space into account.
nor with
that of the so-called quantitative studies, which are being
The best way to approach the subject at this point may be
challenged even by their most ardent protagonists {CHORLEY.
through fundamental
1973).
A basic difficulty
and change: men and nature, time
queries on the nature and i~nefto~ic
of the observed phenomena. results from the analytical and mechanistic
character of approaches which tend to isolate phenomena in order to search for their causes, while the nature of spatial
1. Systems in Geographic Space
organizations studied by the geographer makes their relations the main concern. Another difficulty too hear
*
Our working hypothesis assumes that a full understanding
is due to the
character of inductions and computations
of spatial organization will not be reached until separative
put
Prof. Dr. Roger BRUNET. editor of L’ESPACE G~OGRAPHIQU~, lnstitut de G&mph& Universitede Reims, 57 rue Pierre Taittinger, F-51084 Reimscadex, France.
t
95
The gravity models, the models of Christaller and Losch, of van. Thiinen and all their variants help us understand certain spatial distributions but not the existence of regional wholes.
Fig. 1 A general made1 of spatial systems. Ein allgemeines Mod&l raumlicher Systeme. Un mod&k g&Gral des systemes sparG3ux.
studies are integrated
into a global study of structures and
systems. But as the hope of grasping totality
is unrealistic,
it becomes necessary to find ruling principles.
(31 The energizing system-except
for the theoreticaf
‘isolate’ cases, which are indeed rare, if not absent-is
an
open system.
Geographical space seems to be divided into whoies,t whose dimensions are regrouped into a certain number of levels, and whose appearance is the landscape: everyone has an intuitive knowledge of it. The important thing is to explain it,
(41 It is based on the interaction of four forms of energy whose very ‘existence’ is determined solely in and by these interactions: papulation,
capital, information,
resources.$
(5) These four forms define the energetic system. They
Our interpretation
rests upon the following s&es of
hypotheses (Fig.11 whose formalization (BRUNET, 1965,
fS67,196S,
is being pursued
1972).
(1) A spatial structure, defined as the orderinS of the elements and relations present in space, corresponds to
regulate, augment or weaken each other: the second case corresponds to the notion of neguentropy {increase of order or energy), the third to the notion of entropy. (6) Cybernetic regulation of the system is ensured: (a) partly by the very interaction of the four forms of energy, accomplished mainly through the means of
the steady state of an energy system. $ (21 The latter acts on areas through the filter of the social srructum (its own product) and in interaction with the
~ro~~~tion; fb) by its own products: social structures and organization, and spatial structures;
general systems of spatial organization.
(c) by exchanges and interactions with the outer world. (7) The system comes into action when a minimum critical Whole is hare temporarily defined as a minimally caherent space, without reference to its nature. This general term is deliberately meant to be less precise than structure or system. Nations and ragions, for example, are wholes; alsO, probably, a town, etc. It is tampting to liken this energy system to the production system for to the mode of production according to terminofogy]; in our opinion. it transcends the single notion of #reduction. This concept is close to the notion of pr~uction in some theories.
forces employed
mass is reached and proceeds up to a maximum critical mass, both of which determine (and are determined by) the exchange possibilities inside the system: this hypothesis accounts for the relative regularity of the dimensions filled in space by the structures corresponding to the steady state of the systems, according to a hierarchy of levels (BRUNEI-, 19691. These dimensions are distributed around values which may be called ‘optimal sizes’-according economic activity.
to the level of
Geoforum/Volume
G/Number 211975
97
(8) A geographical whole then behaves, in this interpretation, like a system provided with retroactive regulations whose functioning in turn ensures phases of steadiness; but not without distortions, whose accumulation
leads to the passage,
possibly abrupt, from one phase of steadiness to another. Also, the content and even the qoatial extension of these wholes vary in time, but at speeds which differ greatly. Clearly, these hypotheses are somewhat linked to various kinds of theories of general systems-obviously as’methodologies, not as a metaphysics.
considered
. .(HARVEY,
1969).
However we should recall that these theories, more an outline than a real elaboration
in the field of physical or
biological systems, cannot be applied to systems involving human activity without first undergoing substantial adaptations. Neither the processes, nor the relations, nor the measurements and refinement possibilities of knowledge are of the same nature: concepts from a totally different subject cannot simply be transposed. This kind of hypothesis cannot be verified unless their formalization
is continuously
refined and applications are
sought, and until measurements can be taken: to put some light in these black-boxes is a large task, but seems possible. The diagram in Fig. 1, which is put forward as a general model, represents an attempt at formalization. interpretation
A detailed
entailing lengthy developments cannot be
presented here*. The purpose of this article is to suggest a schema of a logical and deductive model; and how it can be applied to a geographical whole, in this case, Champagne region. Neither the state of theoretical reflections, nor the state of the studies on the chosen example, nor even the state of the available data enables us to give a quantified
Fig. 2 Functioning of the model. A-Area (geographical whole); C-Capital; E-Energy system; G-General systems of space organization (gravity, etc.); H-Heritage: history, hysteresis phenomenon; I-Information; L-Landscape; M-Means of production; N-Nature: its structures and organization; P-Population; R-Resources; S-Social structures and organization; U-Universe: cosmic energy; W-Outer world: the metasystems including E and the other systems of type E. The model’s general functioning is set forth in Section 2, and its application to Champagne is presented in Section 3.
analysis other than by some indices.t Moreover, mathematical language does not perforce apply to all systems, or all parts of systems, as L. von BERTALANFFV (BERTALANFFY.
himself
admits
1968).
Funktionsweise des Modells. A-Region (als geographisches Ganzes); C-Kapital-System; E-Krlftefeld; G-Allgemeine Systeme rtiumlicher Organisation (GravitBt etc.); H-Erbe:
2. Elements and Relations in the Model (Fig. 2): The Structure of the System
Geschichte, fortwirkende
I-Information;
L-Landschaft;
ihre Strukturen
und
Energie;
N-Natur:
P-BevGlkerung;
R-Ressourcen;
Organisation;
S-Sozialstrukturen
und
W-Metaphysis
Ph?momene;
M-Produktivmittel;
-organisation;
U-Universum:
einschlieRlich
E und Systemvarianten
kosmische
dawn.
2.1.
The Main Parts
Fijr die theoretische
A (area) is a geographical whole (in the wide sense of the word region), basic subject-matter it an isoschematic whole (BRUNET,
of the geographer. We call 19691, since only one
structure is apparent in this portion of space. The dimensions
Anwendung
Fonctionnement A-Aire
G-SystBme
But
it will
t
be included in our book Geographical to be published in 1975.
Wholes
and
Systems,
Only the most significant ones shall be dealt with here. Additional information may be found in the ChampagneArdenne regional Atlas, (Reims, ARERS, 1973-1975).
siehe
Kapitel
Kapitel
2, fiir die
3.
traces
S-Structures
et organisation W-Monde
les autres
syst6mes
Le fonctionnement
g&v?ral
d’energie;
Igravite,
etc);
d’hys&r&sis;
de production;
P-Population;
sociales;
ext&rieur: du type
ph6nomBne
M-Moyens
at son organisation;
E-SystBme
de I’espace
de I’histoire,
L-Paysage;
cosmique;
C-Capital;
d’organisation
ses structures
son application
siehe
g4ographique):
g&v%aux
I-Information;
Space
des Modells
du mod&e.
(ensemble
H-RBmanences:
l
Erkltirung
auf die Champagne
N-Nature:
R-Ressources;
U-Univers,
les m&tasyst&mes
Bnergie incluant
E et
E; du mod6le
g la Champagne
est expose
est p&en&
au chapitre
au chapitre
3.
2,
G/Number 211975
GeoforumlVolume
98
contribute to the reproduction of the system, through social practice.
of these spatial structures seem to be organized into six hierarchical levels: neighbourhood (IO1 - IO2 km’),
(French: quartier)
district (French: pays) (103), region
(104), province (lo’),
IR stands for the detection of resource and perhaps creation
domain (106), zone (10’).
of some new resources, as new ‘values’ (cultural, touristic,
. ).
idolatry of nature, etc.
L (landscape) is the appearance, the reflection of A: it discloses only a part of it and with some distortions; it includes relics from the old structures, by way of hysteresis (H).
RC stands for the production of goods.
CP stands for income and thus consumption (including
A is the product of the combined action of E, S, G and N.
social expenditures), which guarantees the upkeep and development of the population; the distribution
E is the energy (or production)
system acting upon the
of income is
ensured by the interaction of social structure with the
space A.
political organizations linked to it (SE). A distinction
S (social structure and organization)
is a product of E (ES)
in interaction with E by feedback (SE). The influence of E
) and
can be made between entrepreneur income (CP, wage-earner income (CPz I.
upon A (EA) acts through it: S operates as a filter. S also
The system is set in motion by themeans ofproduction
retains traces of the old systems (by H).
The latter include the firms, the work force of entrepreneurs
) and wage-earners (PM, ); financial means and invest-
G corresponds to the whole of the laws and mechanisms of
(PM,
spatial distribution,
ments (CM), including means of communication,
all of which are related, in some way, to
(M).
etc.;
gradients; it includes every type of gravity phenomenon-
technology (IM). Resources development is undertaken
expressed in the gravity, proximity,
through M (MR). One way of measuring M is through
models, etc.
polarization
and decision
. These mechanisms are linked to the laws of
the universe (UG) and to world organization (W), in which the system under study (WG) is included.
productivity. The functioning of the system is ensured by the whole of the decisions (d) which are themselves maintained by
N corresponds to the types of physical space organization,
information,
which are themselves a product of the universe (UN).
tion of the labour forces (PM), the utilization
and which intervene especially in the applicaof capital, the
development of resources (via MI, and also in the regulations 2.2. Structure of E
(SE). Some d, obviously, comes from W. These sets of
The energetic (or production)
system is composed of the
whole of the interactions among the four forms of energy P (population),
I (information),
R (resources), C (capital).
It is an open system: there is a continuous interaction,
relations
include
immaterial
The resources
more
or less intense and uneven, between this system and the outer world (W). Pi, Ii, Ri, Ci are the energy inputs, and P,, Ior R,, Co the outputs. Nevertheless, the flow between P, I, R and C shows that the system comprises a cyclical closing.
include
not only material
works
(R) are a product
those resources
(biology),
(minerals),
through
resources or linked
products
but also
services.
of the universe
renewable
non-renewable
(coal, oil for example) earth
production,
and all the requisite
(U). They
photosynthesis
of past photosynthesis
to the composition
of geotectonic
forces
of the
(slopes,
internal heat of the earth, etc.) and of the atmosphere-all of these data which finally pertain to cosmic energy in all its guises. They can be linked to the location phenomena
This system exists at a given level of a hierarchical scale: it
which disclose the
proximity of resources.
includes the subsystems of inferior level and is included in the metasystems of superior level (i.e. W), which exert a 2.3.
strong regulation power (WE).
Regulations
We admit that the four forms of energy belong to the same
The interactions
conceptual level. But, according regions, one form forces)
can dominate:
in underdeveloped
in highly
industrialized
here, a basis for a taxonomy
i.e. population
(working
But regulations are ensured by:
information
and capital
-exchanges with the outside P;, C;
professional
regulation
and even mental
to the effects
voluntary
models.
.;
-social structures of the system (SE) and of metasystems
of regions.
training,
.and P,, C,
etc.; perhaps we have,
PI and IP correspond
education,
(PI,
IR, RC, CP and transitions through M) can be cumulative.
(WE): social reproductions, The connections
of the energy system
types of
countries, countries,
of the elements
to the different
of ideas,
institutions,
planning
political
power,
laws and
etc.;
demographic
They include all the
Iearnings, and the elaboration of mental models which
-spatial
structure
functioning
itself, which
of the system
facilitates
(AE)
or impedes
the
and also plays a part in
GeoforumlVolume
G/Number 211975
99
the ‘outer’ world (AW) of which it is a component; thus,
eastern and middle part of the Basin, the full significance
spatial structure is not only a projection of social structures
of which shall be seen later on.
on space, but constantiy interacts, as a part of the total Lastly, it is in turn divided into subsystems which are
system.
distinct yet linked together. As a preliminary assumption, we can distinguish: the cities of the northern Champagne 24. Change
‘triangle’; the Troyan group; the Chalky plain (which groups several districts of similar structure); the Wine district.
This system is by no means a machine.
(Fig. 3). The mere reproduction
of the system implies change. Any
reproduction entails the accumulation and magnification differences: it is never a perfect reproduction.
of
It includes
Reims and Chllons, to which can be added Epernay and
innovation, another source of change. It calls decision into
small satellite towns, owe their specific activities to a wide
play and the latter, being human, can never be perfectly
range of average-sized industrial establishments (typically:
rational: it acts therefore as a source of modification
200 to 800 jobs) of great diversity, of rather rudimentary
in
the system. All these causes of change, included in the
production (mostly assembly work), usually controled from
system and inherelot in its very functioning, are more or less
the outside. Another specific activity resides in its trading
controled by the regulations (SE and especially WE)-which
function as is indicated by the important part played by
also contribute to change. Beyond a certain threshold, the change is so great that we are dealing with another structure. Far from being static, this model integrates change. The functioning of the system therefore produces goods (material and other), social relations, spaces. .
. and history.”
3. A Case Study: The Champagne Region 31. ~fini~ion
of Spatial Structure
Champagne is truly a geographical whole. It once was a feudal unity and it is now an administrative division: although its borders have varied considerably, its central area retains true individuali~,
as can be seen from the
landscape and the activities. With or without its margins, it stands out among neighbouring wholes. It comprises, for the main part, a broad portion of a densely cultivated and sparsely populated chalky halo extending east of Paris, at a distance of 100-290
km, and its edges: to
Fig.3
the west lies the top of the tertiary plateaus with their
The main figures of Champagne spatial organization.
viticultural
(1 I Chalky halo; (2) Vineyards; (3) Tertiary plateaus; (4) Forested
rim and to the east are the well-timbered
secondary plateaus. It is traversed by the routes connecting Paris with the middle Rhine and in it lie cities undergoing relatively rapid development, the most populated of which are Reims (pop. 200,000)
in the north, Troyes {pop. ~40,000~
in the south, Chilons-sur-Marne 70,000)
(regional chief-town,
pop.
in the centre. In this space live a total of 900,000
plateaus; (5) Northern Champagne triangle; (6) Troyan sub system; 17) Principal axis and motorway under construction; (8) Chief towns: (9) Entering of manpower. Die Hauptglieder der raumlichen Organisation der Champagne. (1) Kreide-Ring; (2)*Rebkulturen;
(3) Tertiar-Becken;
(4) Sewaldete Schichtkamme; (5) Das Dreieck der niirdlichen
inhabitants in an area of 15,000 km’. Clearly, we are
Champagne; (6) Das SubSystem von Troyes; (7) Hauptachse und
dealing with a whole located at the fourth level of the
Autobahnen fim Sau); (8) Wichtige Stadte: (9) Arbeitskraft-
spatial scale (BRUNEI-,
Zustrom.
1969). This whole itself is a sub
system of the Paris Basin (third level), but situated in the Les traits essentiels de I’organisation de I’espace champenois# (1) Aureole crayause; (2) Vignoble; (3) Plateaux tertiaires; l
We think this model can be applied to various kinds of geographical wholes and can provide a basis for larger dweiopments in social sciences; but here vve consider only regional phenomena.
(4) Plateaux b&s&; (5) Triangle nerd-champenois; 16) Soussysteme troyen; (7) Grandes liaisons et autoroute (197678); (8) Villes principales; (9) Entr$es de main d’oeuvre.
Geoforum/Volume
100
transport and redistribution
firms: trucking, chain-companies
resulting, in combination
G/Number
2/1975
with intense professional training
distribution of metal works (PUM, the largest firm in Reims,
(IP), in the high qualification
supplies more than 1 Mt of steel in sheet-metal, girders, etc.
information
of farmers. Incoming of
(Ii) with the new industries arriving from the
cut on request). Two other functions relate to agriculture
outside or after their take-over by the outside. But loss of
(concentration
information
and shipping of agricultural products) and to
services provided to farmers as well as to the regional population.
abroad (I,),
Troyes fulfils similar functions, although they are less developed in the field of trading; but industrial activity of the northern Champagne type, although present, has far from dethroned the traditional
rule of hosiery (25% of the
through the emigration of qualified persons
(I, and P,), the transfer of industrial authority to Paris or and, for the hosiery in Troyes, due to the lack
of renewal (strong entropy of a nearly closed system), as was the case for the wool industry in Reims between 1880 and 1950. On the whole, a high level for agriculture and trade but weaker for industry.
french output). Resources (R): Complete reversal in the utilization Farming on a large scale prevails in Chalky Champagne:
two main resources: (I
of the
1the position with regard to Paris,
concentrated on the production of cereals, sugar-beets and
to the connection Paris-East
lucerns with variably sized complements in contract-farming
to the important centres of Rhinish Europe: a cause of
and North Sea-Mediterranean,
(peas) and calf-bull fattening, it has sound operating
blockingup
structures at its disposal (the typical farm has 150 hectares,
Champagne served as a protective glacis for Paris against
and an annual turnover of about 5100,000).
threats coming from the Rhine; but inversely the position
utilizes little
if not of entropy, from 1860 to 1945, when
manpower (60 hectares per worker), considerable but
is now an excellent one, considering the proximity
reasonable equipment
important markets and the low cost of a scarcely populated
(80 hectares per tractor) and a lot of
chemical fertilizer.
and not very rugged area favourable to traffic: whence, the
The Vineyard profits fully from champagne’s exceptional and international farm-operators,
of
prestige. With 20,000 hectares and 13,000 it represents undoubtedly
one of the richest
arrival of agricultors from rich but overflowing neighbouring areas, the ‘untightening’ of Parisian industries (decentralization), the wealth of foreign investments;
regions of France: the average vine-grower, with 2 hectares,
(2) the chalky soils, which appeared to be poor up until
has an annual turnover of about $36,000.
1950, have proven to be excellent for cultivation,
and there-
fore very attractive, thanks to the progress of information (IR), as long as machinery and fertilizer
3.2. The Energy System
(MR) are available.
There are no other resources, especially in the subsoil:
This structure, of which only the main elements have been described, is of recent formation:
it was not really set up
the greater part of the raw-materials of industry are imported (Ri); hence there is no visible exportation
of
before the 196Os, when radical changes were introduced
resources either but it can be borne in mind that Champagne
into the system. How can we define the latter?
‘sells’ its space, that is, its now excellent position (R,). Capital (C): The exploiting of these resources provides an
Population (P): We can quote here: low densities (IO-15
important production (RC). French regional accountancy
inh./km’),
is not very useful in understanding it well. But the average
except in the vineyards (80). well suited to the
production systems, apart from an excess in the eastern
output of an hectare of Chalky Champagne is about $800,
margins due to the entropy of their production systems;
that of an hectare of vineyard 518,000,
strong natural dynamism (+lO”/oo
inputs: these are very high figures. On the whole, the region
yearly) and sound age
structures (44% are under 25); recent entering (Pi) of entrepreneurs (mostly agricultural),
and of manpower
for rather moderate
falls into the first third of the French regions as far as the GNP/inh.
is concerned (6th rank; total products $2.5
(Ardennes, Aisne) into the cities; exit (P,) of skilled labour
billions). There is a large entry of capital (Ci) considering
of which the actual system makes insufficient use.
company takeovers,
parisian and foreign investments, the
arrival of neighbouring agricultors and the important Information
(I): A high level of information
in the commer-
public
subsidies (housing, equipment) obtained by active pressure groups [retroaction AW (through S-WE)]. On the other
cial field, accumulated by the merchant class (Champagne
hand, a considerable part of the profits from industry and
fairs in the Middle Ages, international
trade leaves the region (C,).
cloth and wine trade
since the 17th century); it has led to the success of chaincompanies and transport firms. Sound information
also in
Productive investment (CM) is at a rather high level, except
the agricultural field: secular accumulation of know-how in
perhaps for the Troyan hosiery; but it is rational and not
the Vineyards, importation
excessive. The distribution of income (CP) through the
(Ii) of information
with the
arrival of cultivators coming from Picardie (and Belgium),
retroaction S-CP
is very uneven. There results an unre-
__~ GeoforumlVolume
strained
G/Number
consumption
Vineyards
211975
on the part of the cultivators
and in Chalky
of trade and industry,
which
in the French
ratios slightly
Champagne
explain
whole,
in the
and of numerous
and a moderate
part of the workers, position
101
consumption
is serviced from
heads
chain-stores,
on the
in France;
an average general
and household
the outside;
owing to the domination
the retail trade and independent
lastly, the exodus
workers
of household
trades than with
under average.
are relatively
anomalous
the high-class and the big farmers
equipment
Structure
of Society,
Spatial
Structure
local ones, and still do partly:
and are unsatisfactory
and Regulations
data are changing, We consider
the structure
time a product
osf the energy
system by feed-back, income,
of society
the labour
of the structure
mental
models
as concerns
the distribution
forces and decision-making. ensured,
On the other
of
disputes
The stability
at least between
because this regulation
behaviour
comprises
is characterized a coherent
functions
well.*
French
regions,
to other
by a truly
of low training,
classes’ are very few. A minimum
different
industry.
assembly
workshops,
management,
results:
It happens
belonging
hand, the ruling classes, in spite of internal
sion, form
cohesive circle which
a remarkably
are outside
have not know
has been mentioned, wage-earners
with
nor that of
of Chalky
Champagne
little or no specialization.
The situation
is
the incomes
are
of transition,
enable
inquiry tyt,
despite
partly through
the good relations
a remarkable
they have
multiform
technique
and perfected
quite sensitive
matters,
cannot
power
period
the
societies,
of development
intenand
to any source of difficulfor the localities,
. . Of course,
etc.
itself of glory
let us mention
and friendly
the ‘creation’
its remarkable
of recovery,
this policy,
if not one of true
avert the more serious clashes; but it is
to social
peace-and
of the system.
while precluding
through
with the higher civil servants.
and leisure facilities
in cultural
very conducive
organizations the first Expansion
either
employers:
housing*,
committees
liberalism
these
directly,
.), either
insurance
good sporting
functioning
the wage-
and none of the old
such as share-cropping,
either
suited to test for alarms and to avert
of mutual
forecasting,
is
the price of land nor the mass equipment
to hope to change category
methods
where
the outside,
etc.
and which has maintained
sive welfare
as possible of
But in both cases, social mobility
earner
have not
Agricole),
in France,
or still through
is especially
conflicts,
from
system,
and management
the Credit
for the Social Christian
reveals
spread out far more.
neither
diversification
power
since the second half of the 19th century,
whose wealth
in the Vineyards
in necessary
even between
Industrial
of Agriculture,
how to maintain
fastening
of a class of farmers,
governed the whole
have even invented
which
personnel:
and of as small a number
almost at a standstill:
They
created
power,
known
how, have
much more complex
of investments
of expan-
is very much
change to the situation.
promotion
(especially
political
process.
sub-system
marriages,
people.
of Commerce,
Committees
in the last 20
unities,
of skilled
through
credit
the
the cause, the result calls to mind a particularly
itself in the juxtaposition
on the methods
of industrial
any fundamental
(Chambers
structure.
to obtain
of large production
either
the
whatever
The production
dispossession
ruling groups control
do not give
with a hiigh proportion
regulation
by numerous
and country
Save for the industries
of simple
factories
efficacious
trade and manufac-
opinions
brought
perfectly
to large firms of which
authorities
between
turing or from differing
and partial
now the new
and research
not been able or have not wanted years the implanting
which
and execu-
used to suffice
And
itself with an identical
that regional
customers
Even when these
changes far more slowly:
arising from disparities
town-dwellers
entrepreneurs
the proliferation
administration
accomodates
incomes.
while the ‘middle
systems, at least in the beginning,
essentially
region,
society,
of technicians
tives and a mass of low wage-earners for trade and the textile production
bipolar
group of high-income
and a mass of workers
so, local
for working
are a source of hysteresis.
closed and united For the main part, and compared Champagne
for higher
is high:
Parisian
system and an agent of that
chiefly
is all the better
two ‘revolutions’,
as being at the same
few;
purchases
dealt more with
services and trades cater essentially 3.3.
of
is here one of the best integrated
ultimately
to the
It is a fact that this muffling,
serious malfunctionings
in the system,
have remained
at his disposal. Low-rent
Furthermore
the middle
the production independent *
Certain social
systems
theoricians relations
The
and
state
the
that
is in turn
few:t
industrial
the mode
of production
reproduced
by them.
to
number
firms which
professions,
make
activity reproduces This
is quite
+
housing
region
is one of the
last in France
in these categories.
as
were
was set up as early particular One
of directors.
And
have played
‘easy’
who
solution
Regional their
role,
makes
main
building
patronal’
(compulsary unions
part
the
Association
of
in the relatively
Aeims
(Champex) of people.
of and
sub-
members
textile.
The
the ‘Soci&!tkd’Equipement’,
the same groups
(one
of the century)
the trade
an important
Office,
the two
by the employers
as the beginning
of reconverting
Expansion with
developed; established
use of the ‘1% of them
its board
lndustrialisation
of people
is very
of the Marne
scription).
line of thought.
Champagne-Ardenne
concerns
serving as complement
(services to business firms,
trade:1 are relatively
in the same t
categories
also fulfill
Regional the
Geoforum/Volume
102
G/Number
2/1975
also precludes any real boldness which could greatly
the Mediterranean-North
accelerate progress: progress came from outside changes, well fitted by this efficient regulation.
Middle Ages, then declined when traffic swung to the Paris
However this system is giving way to contradictions,
even
when these ate not imposed from the outside: the expanding of administrative and teaching functions, the effects induced by the overall rise in income and in consumption upon services to the individual-and
ultimately
upon
those to the small business-and upon anomalous trade, the rise in income of the small vine-growers, are expressed
Sea line, which was busy during the
and Rhine routes, and now tends to regain some strength; and which passes east of Paris, in what was, not long ago, the protective zone of the capital, a fact which seriously lessenned its importance up until 1945. Thus a space in limited demand, with scarcely populated and cheap lands, had taken shape: a notable gradient, compared with industrial Europe, that made Champagne a coveted land, almost a land of colonization,
after 1945.
in the gradual smothering of the middle classes, a fact
Present growth, partly as a result of this, has not brought
not without consequential effects upon the social and
profit to all of Champagne equally: the northern part had neither the same production structures nor the same social
political climate.
organization as the south, and is much better serviced by the flow of transport, while the Troyan sub-system has remained slightly apart and is fixed because of the rigid 3.4. Spatial Structure
structure built up around the hosiery. Thus more and more
Both energy systems and the structure of society are
is seen to be in opposition: in the south, a slowly changing
necessary to define and interpret the Champagne whole;
town with only a ‘departemental’
but we must now take spatial organization (N and G)
rapidly-evolving urban group of which the influence is
into consideration.
gradually reaching a ‘regional’ scope, including the
radius; in the north, a
~d~partements’ of the Marne, of the Ardennes and a large We at once find evidence of an aureolar principle, made up of two combined systems. The first one is the ringtype geomorphological organization of the sedimentary basin: however far one may be from a deterministic view, it cannot be dismissed, since Champagne, by definition, comprises the plain of chalk and its margins. The second one is due to the distance from Paris and rests on the first, in so far as the position of the metropolis near the centre
part of the Aisne. In the end one could even foresee, if not forecast, a rapprochement between northern Champagne and Picardie, whose structures are more and more alike, and between southern Champagne and Burgundy: a case of a destructuring and restructuring of the regional wholes of the Paris Basin. For the time being, political and administrative structures of the official regions check this tendency.
of the sedimentary basin is not a result of chance. Thus
The change of structure which Champagne underwent
Champagne lies on portions of several rings which extend
between 1950 and 1965, including a full conversion of
all around Paris and are determined by their distance from
the agricultural and industrial content and of part of the
Paris: the fairly wooded tops of the tertiary plateaus
urban functions, but a still moderate alteration of the social
which separate the first central ring of large-scale farming
structures, also gradually leads to a change in internal
(Soissonnais, Valois, Brie) from the second more recent
relations, settlement structures and, obviously, landscapes.
one (Chalky Champagne); the ‘crown cities’ that form the
Consequently, urban landscapes are profoundly
first large urban relay around Paris; the wooded steps
by the proliferation
which mark the true limits of the Paris Basin.
factories within the town repiaced by large suburbian industrial estates, the elimination
The system of strong polarization towards Paris which includes and transcends these halos exercises its utmost influence, with its historical contradictions:
a long period of
submissiveness and atony in the first half of the twentieth
modified
of large unities, the demolition
of old
of insanitary blocks, the
growth of collective facilities-northern
Champagne being
once more clearly in advance in these matters. The landscape of Chalky Champagne is becoming completely bare and neat, as a result of the clearing of ‘savarts’ (waste), and of pine-wooded patches of the last century: the only
century, and development since then.
exception is the survival of military camps set up 100 years We also find that Champagne is part of northern France, from the demographic point of view (traditionally
high
birth-rates) as well as from the climatic point of view:
ago, at the time of the ‘glacis’ and of the ‘poor’ chalk; the old field-pattern
has been completely altered by consolida-
tion.
northern limit of vine-growing where the best vineyards thrive; reign of the sugar-beet; regularity of cereal yields; recent growth of corn.
The adjustment of settlement to fit the new system is probably more meaningful because rural housing and the
Lastly we find that it belongs to Northern and Eastern
network of small towns have a strong capacity for survival
France, which is especially dynamic
through hysteresis. Here, the old clustered settlement is
(BRUNET,
1973); on
GeoforumIVolume
G/Number
103
211975
unsuited to the system; villages have been emptying for a
signifies that these elements take on meaning only inside
century and now contain only a few families. Actually
the whole system and through their relations with the whole
they
make up a network of scarcely populated hamlets, devoid
of the other elements. These relations, which make up
of shops and services, as these are regrouped in a small
the system, and produce the structures, alter completely
number of centres: despite appearances, this results in a
at times, thus introducing discontinuity
scatteredsettlementstructure,
supported by the con-
struction of modern villas for the farm-operators. basic cell of this structure is not the ‘commune’
The (parish)
of 10 km2 any more, but the ‘canton’ (district) of about 100200
km2. On the other hand, farmers’ travelling
facilities and wealth cripple the growth of the small towns while favouring the larger ones, that alone meet the demand for good service. Obviously, the situation is very different in the Vineyards, where a closely-knit network of large well-equipped villages is maintained by a dense and rich population. Thus we see now the change of system brings about a complete transformation
of the historical legacy,
in the structures of rural settlement as well as in those of the relations between town and country. Champagne gains a stronger internal cohesiveness at a time when its
into history.
On the other hand, the extent of successive systems in space is much more steady, precisely because it is linked to the invariance of N (the chalky plain) and G (the position). Yet, the beginning of a change is also felt, which is conceivable in so far as these two data lose their specificity and their unity: as the very conditions of the position are modified (clearly strengthening the advantages of northern Champagne), and the value of chalk likens it more and more to the fertile lands of the Paris Basin and of Picardie, the cards are dealt with a new way: the Champagne space tends to split in order to merge with neighbouring spaces because its subsystems have become too differentiated. This is an interesting example of the reorganization of a spatial level, a function of the very transformation system, interacting with the transformations
dependency towards the outside is increasing.
of its
of its sub-
systems and of the metasystems of which it is a part.
4. Conclusion The functioning off the system just described shows to
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Basin, France, Western Europe), Champagne finally owes its position.
..
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In semblance these two data seem intangible
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