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Special issue of 16th PAMS Meeting: Recent advances in the oceanography of Pacific-Asian Marginal Seas
Progress in Oceanography 121 (2014) 1–6
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Progress in Oceanography journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pocean
Preface
Special issue of 16th PAMS Meeting: Recent advances in the oceanography of Pacific-Asian Marginal Seas 1. Introduction The Pacific-Asian Marginal Seas (PAMS) comprise the Indonesian Seas, the South China Sea, the East China Sea, the Yellow/Bohai Sea, the East Sea (Sea of Japan), and the Sea of Okhotsk (Fig. 1). The large coastal population, industrial development, the exploitation of fisheries and the presence of the Kuroshio, one of the world ocean’s great western boundary currents, contribute to the exceptional importance and sensitivity of this area. The Kuroshio in particular has profound effects on local climate and the ecosystem and is closely linked to exchanges through the straits connecting marginal seas to the open Pacific. Environmental risks abound, including for example, the danger to shipping and coastal areas due to typhoons, which have been intensively studied in recent years (D’Asaro et al., 2011). Changes in sea level exhibit greater variability in PAMS than elsewhere and long-term sea level predictions have important implications for Asia’s coastal mega-cities. These and related concerns motivate a broad range of research including the links between ocean circulation and tropical cyclones, the East Asian monsoons, the role of air–sea interaction, regional oceanography, coastal dynamics and the ecosystem. The annual PAMS Meeting provides a premier scientific platform for scientific discussion of recent advances of these topics. Following the 15th PAMS Meeting (23–25 April 2009) at Busan, Korea, the 16th was held in Taipei, Taiwan during 21–23 April 2011. This issue concentrates on the following four general areas constituting the major focus of the meeting: (1) Nonlinear internal wave dynamics, their evolution, interaction with prominent topography and dissipation; (2) Regional current systems and their variability due to climate change; (3) Typhoon behavior and its influence on and response to the upper ocean thermal structure; (4) Physical–biological interactions, their relevance to changing ocean conditions and the potential for incorporation of new knowledge into fishing practice. 2. Internal wave dynamics in PAMS The internal tides and nonlinear internal waves radiated from Luzon Strait into the South China Sea are among the largest in the world ocean and form oceanographic signatures readily observable from space. New in situ measurement approaches and remote sensing, increasing computational power and improved numerical simulation have added greatly to our knowledge of these features. Intensive observations in Luzon Strait and the northern South China Sea over the past decade, together with numerical modeling, have shown that energetic internal tides are primarily generated over the meridional ridges in Luzon Strait 0079-6611/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2013.10.006
(Ramp et al., 2004; Duda et al., 2004; Niwa and Hibiya, 2004; Jan et al., 2008; Farmer et al., 2011, among others). There are several interesting aspects to the internal tide generation, including a meridional gradient in the frequency response due to variation in the ridge spacing and seasonal density structure, leading to primarily semi-diurnal internal tides radiating westwards from northern Luzon Strait and mixed diurnal/semi-diurnal internal tides radiating from the center and southern part of the strait. Moreover the generation area has recently been shown to be a source of intense turbulence. Nevertheless, the internal tides radiating away from the strait, while of large amplitude, can be approximated as resulting from a linear generation mechanism. As they propagate across the deep basin west of the strait they steepen nonlinearly, displaying the alternating ‘A’ and ‘B’ characteristics resulting from the distinctive modulation of diurnal and semi-diurnal forcing over the Luzon Strait ridges, accompanied by nonlinear steepening. The steepening, however, is constrained by rotational dispersion, further influencing their evolution (Li and Farmer, 2011). They refract around Dongsha Atoll and dissipate on the continental shelf south of China after a journey of over 500 km and more than 4 days (Simmons et al., 2011). A great deal of observational, theoretical, and modeling effort has been directed toward understanding and predicting these waves and their effects on the oceanography of the northern South China Sea. Guo and Chen (2014) summarize the dynamics of internal wave generation and their properties, propagation, nonlinear evolution, and dissipation, drawing attention to the influence of time-varying Kuroshio intrusions across Luzon Strait. Dramatic internal waves occur not only in the northern South China Sea but also in the Pacific Ocean east of Luzon Strait and around some sections of the continental shelf break of the East China Sea along the Kuroshio path (e.g. off the northeastern coast of Taiwan). As a modest effort to evaluate the Kuroshio’s influence, Li (2014) uses a twodimensional Cartesian x–z plane, non-hydrostatic model, to suggest that the westward inflow due to the Kuroshio intrusion tends to reduce the amplitude of internal tides in the South China Sea, weakening the generation of internal solitary waves. The complicated influences of environmental factors on internal wave dynamics comprise not only the seasonal variation of the Kuroshio intrusion but also meso-scale eddies and typhoon-induced upper ocean changes. They cause not only physical effects in the open ocean but also biological consequences in semi-enclosed bays and submarine canyons of the northern South China Sea, large scale seafloor sand waves east of Dongsha Plateau, changes in the acoustical environment, and strong turbulence and mixing in and around Luzon Strait.
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Preface / Progress in Oceanography 121 (2014) 1–6
Fig. 1. Chart of the Pacific-Asian Marginal Seas (PAMS).
Many outstanding problems remain. These include resolution of the dynamic role of the Kuroshio in modulating internal tide generation, enhancement of turbulence over ridges, generation of higher-mode components, dissipation and re-generation of internal waves from Luzon Strait impinging on Dongsha Plateau, and the role internal waves play in biological productivity. To these we suggest further challenging research topics related to multidisciplinary problems in PAMS:
The energy cascade from surface tides to turbulence and changes of water mass properties due to enhanced turbulence in Luzon Strait. The role of internal tides in changing typhoon strength in the northern South China Sea. Influences of internal waves on sound propagation and transmission loss. Processes of internal waves affecting coral growth.
Internal wave energy trapping or reflection caused by the Kuroshio along the continental shelf break of the East China Sea. Internal wave properties, propagation, and dissipation east of Luzon Strait. The role of meso-scale eddies in modulating internal waves in the South China Sea.
Interest in these problems in PAMS transcends their local importance. Achieving long-term, high spatial and temporal resolution, broad scale and interdisciplinary observations present a great challenge, which will undoubtedly add to our understanding of these interesting phenomena and continue to attract attention from the broader international oceanographic community.
Preface / Progress in Oceanography 121 (2014) 1–6
3. Climate change impacts on regional current systems in PAMS Inter-annual variability in mass and heat transport due to ocean currents plays an essential role in feedbacks between the atmosphere and ocean in PAMS. This is particularly true of the Kuroshio (Kwon et al., 2010) which transports large quantities of heat from the tropical to the extra tropical ocean (Zhang et al., 2002). Heat transport by the Kuroshio and other currents through coastal straits determines the heat distribution and its variations in marginal seas (see Fig. 2 for the major current system in PAMS). These cause some major variations in the global climate system. Based on current measurements, hydrographic data and Argo observations in Luzon Strait, Yuan et al. (2014) used a diagnostic model with a modified inverse method to study the circulation in Luzon Strait. This is the deepest passage linking the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean and new features of the circulation were found. For example, both observed and modeled currents show Kuroshio intrusions northwestward through Luzon Strait into the South China Sea in the upper 400 m during July 2009. In addition to the surface flow, there was also an intrusion at 1000 m. It was found that the Joint Effect of Baroclinity and Relief (JEBAR) and the b-effect were two important mechanisms acting on the intrusion at that time. The intrusion resulted from the weaker upstream Kuroshio transport during the 2009 summer (an El Niño initiating period). It was concluded that both seasonal variability due to the monsoon winds and the ENSO related inter-annual variation of upstream Kuroshio transport significantly affected the Kuroshio intrusion across Luzon Strait. These new findings also receive support from Kuroshio transport estimates near the World Ocean Circulation Experiment moored current meter array (PCM-1) east of Taiwan (Shen et al., 2014). The Kuroshio transport was established using satellite altimetry data from 1993 to 2010 via three different methods with relationships based on the observed Kuroshio transport at PCM-1 and its surrounding sea surface height difference. Two major processes were found to affect transport at this location: the annual averaged transport was influenced by the northern branch of the North Equatorial Current, primarily responding to ENSO events, and the Kuroshio transport anomaly was dominated by mesoscale eddies east of Taiwan resulting from the influence of the West Pacific teleconnection pattern. Correlation analysis confirmed that the long-term Kuroshio transport in the PCM-1 line conveys not only the ENSO signal but also the West Pacific teleconnection, thus linking the tropic and extratropic dynamics. These results further indicate that both tropical and extratropical (mid-latitude) climate patterns may affect Kuroshio variability at various time scales. In the tropics, the dominant tropical climate forcing is ENSO (Qiu and Chen, 2010a; Solomon, 2010). At mid-latitudes the West Pacific pattern controls the major mid-latitude winter variability and connects with eddy strengths generated from the Sub-Tropical Counter Current (Qiu and Chen, 2010b). The Kuroshio east of Taiwan will significantly affect the regional circulation in the southern East China Sea (ECS). Moon and Hirose (2014) examined the seasonal change of the southern ECS shelf water due to the Kuroshio and its connection with the Taiwan Strait throughflow water. They confirmed that the Kuroshio water intrudes farther shoreward in the southern ECS in response to the weakened Taiwan Strait throughflow from fall to winter based on the regional model results. However, the Taiwan Strait throughflow may extend further offshore in the southern ECS from spring to summer in association with the seaward retreat of the Kuroshio water. Their results with passive tracer experiments suggested the volume transport may play a more important role than the winddriven surface Ekman transport on the seasonal variation of the southern ECS shelf water.
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Regional bottom currents and circulation are usually difficult to track and monitor. Radon is commonly used to trace ocean circulation and mode water formation. The excess 222Rn is a good chemical tracer for estimating short-term water movement and eddy diffusion within a few hundred meters of the sea floor due to its chemical inertness and short half-life. Gamo (2014) measured excess 222Rn profiles for the first time in the bottom layer of the Japan Sea, the vertical characteristics of which are known to be quite homogeneous. He found all 222Rn profiles showed a mid-depth maximum, suggesting strong effects due to horizontal advection of 222Rn-rich waters. These observations imply the existence of short-term lateral bottom current systems in the Japan Sea bottom layer. That short-term lateral currents are generated due to topographic features in controlling bottom water dynamics and geochemical cycles in the Japan Sea remains a mystery. 4. Weather and climate impacts of ocean heat content and thermal structure Ocean heat content and its thermal structure play an important role in modulating the global weather and climate through air–sea interaction. As described earlier, the Kuroshio transports large quantities of heat. Over a time scale of weeks, the upper ocean thermal structure has a critical influence on the intensity of tropical cyclones. Despite its importance, ocean heat transport and content have not been precisely quantified due to the scarcity of direct observations and a poor understanding of regional ocean circulation. No study has examined long-term trends and variability in heat transport in the northwest Pacific marginal seas. Moreover, most previous studies have focused on locally limited heat transport, which is not adequate for understanding the entire heat budget of the marginal seas. These constraints have limited progress of heat budget analysis in PAMS. In this area heat exchange among major straits is of primary importance. Seo et al. (2014) generated a high-resolution reanalysis dataset of heat transport in PAMS for the 30-year period: January 1980—December 2009. This dataset is very useful for understanding the mean and temporal variations in ocean heat transport within the major PAMS straits. They estimate the mean heat transport in the Korea/Tsushima Strait and onshore transport across the shelf break in the East China Sea, Taiwan Strait, Tsugaru Strait, and Soya Strait. The long-term trends in heat transport through the Korea/Tsushima Strait and Tsugaru Strait and onshore transport across the shelf break of the East China Sea increased during this period, whereas the heat transport through Taiwan Strait was decreased. There was little long-term change in heat transport in the Soya Strait. These long-term changes in heat transport through the Korea/Tsushima Strait, across the shelf of the East China Sea, and through the Taiwan Strait may be related to increased northeasterly wind stress in the East China Sea, which drives Ekman transport across the shelf break and onto the shelf. With 20–30 tropical cyclones formed and intensified each year, PAMS is the most energetic and hazardous basin in the world threatening a billion people with annual economic activities in Asia of US $5 billion (Peduzzi et al., 2012; Mendelsohn et al., 2012). Despite notable improvement in track prediction, tropical cyclone intensity forecasts have improved little over the past few decades (Rappaport et al., 2012). The ocean is the energy source for cyclone formation and intensification. Improved characterization of ocean thermal structure and air–sea coupling processes remains essential to achieving improved forecasts of cyclone intensity (Lin et al., 2013). As tropical cyclones interact not only with the ocean surface but also to depths of 200–300 m, accurate observation of upper ocean
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Fig. 2. Schematic chart showing the main current system in PAMS. The North Equatorial Current, the Kuroshio, and the Mindanao Current are indicated by light blue lines. The modeled annual mean velocity vectors in the upper 50 m layer are superimposed (modified from Shen et al., 2014).
thermal structure is pre-requisite to accurate forecasting. This is especially true in PAMS due to the complexity of the environment and the presence of numerous mesoscale eddies that modulate tropical cyclone–ocean interaction processes (Lin et al., 2008). In situ observations are limited in space and time and therefore ocean thermal structure derived from satellite sea surface temperature and altimetry observations is currently the most effective synoptic observational approach. Existing derivation, however, is based on a simple two-layer method with only two isotherms providing a coarse characterization of the thermal structure (Shay et al., 2000; Pun et al., 2007). Improvement in vertical resolution so as to enhance ocean characterization is highly desirable. Pun et al. (2014) present a new approach, replacing the two subsurface isotherms with high vertical-resolution ocean thermal structure with up to 26 isotherms for much improved representation of ocean thermal structure. With over two decades of altimetry available for generating high-resolution ocean thermal structure over the Western North Pacific, this approach has application to various climate related issues including tropical cyclone interactions with the ocean. 5. Physical–biological interaction and its impact on fishing Oceanic conditions may play an important role in the success of fishing activities (Aps et al., 2010), in the analysis of biological and radioactive tracers and in studies of the ocean ecosystem. Physi-
cal–biological interaction is readily apparent in PAMS, particularly near the continental shelves. For example, the interannual variability of ocean currents may affect annual Japanese eel recruitment, which can in turn be used as a good bio-tracer for monitoring variability in ocean circulation (Han et al., 2012). Oceanic conditions related to good fishing are crucial factors for coastal fisheries and will be influenced by climate change such as global warming. The search for good fishing grounds is time-consuming and requires experience. An accurate ocean prediction system can significantly help fishing activity in coastal areas and minimize operational risks and energy loss. Nakada et al. (2014) presents a real-time, high-resolution ocean prediction system which synergizes in situ continuous observations measured on fishing boats in collaboration with the fishing industry. This is a new approach for smart coastal fishing (Ape et al., 2010) from both sustainability and economical considerations. A large number of temperature profiles can also be obtained using sensors attached to trawl nets. It is clear that this integrated approach can bring fishers and oceanographers together so as to gain further insights on both ocean dynamics and opportunities for efficient fishing. In addition, an observing network in collaboration with the coastal fishing community and a real-time, high resolution operational prediction system can be established. With respect to the ocean ecosystem, recent studies indicate that global warming, eutrophication and intensive fisheries might have dramatically shifted the size structure of marine
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communities. PAMS is important in terms of its high environmental heterogeneity and high level of anthropogenic impact. The size structure is a useful indicator for monitoring overall ecosystem status. For example, plankton communities are predicted to shift toward dominance by smaller sized individuals in response to warming (Daufresne et al., 2009). García-Comas et al. (2014) investigated the size structure of mesozooplankton communities in the East China Sea, which extends over a large continental shelf. Various theoretical models have used the size distribution of plankton communities to explain tropic structure and functioning. Tests of different hypotheses showed that the size spectral slope bears no relationship with temperature or food availability. However size diversity decreases with food although exhibiting no relationship with temperature. These results suggest that zooplankton size structure is more sensitive to food availability than temperature in the East China Sea. Monitoring environmental forcing on communities using size structure in highly dynamic ecosystems should be evaluated with caution. 6. Summary The papers appearing in this issue are representative of the rapidly increasing scientific interest in the oceanography of PacificAsian Marginal Seas. The topics span multiple disciplines and a broad range of scales from local processes to global interactions between atmosphere and ocean. While the motivations for research are varied and include such practical needs as security through improved typhoon prediction and the integration of oceanographic knowledge into fishing practice, the underlying requirement remains the need for improved scientific understanding. The extensive international participation and the presence of many enthusiastic and interested young scientists and students in this 16th PAMS meeting bodes well for future oceanographic research in this important and deeply fascinating environment. Acknowledgements Taiwan’s National Science Council, Ministry of Education, and National Taiwan University sponsored the 16th PAMS Meeting. We thank the participants of the meeting for the stimulating discussions, and the authors and reviewers for their support and understanding of issues relating to the publication of this special issue. References Aps R., Fetissov, M., Lassen, H., 2010. Smart management of the Baltic Sea fishery system: myth or reality? Baltic International Symposium (BALTIC), 2010. IEEE/ OES US/EU, 1–9. doi:10.1109/BALTIC.2010.5621645. D’Asaro, E., Black, P., Centurioni, L., Harr, P., Jayne, S., Lin, I.-I., Lee, C., Morzel, J., Mrvaljevic, R., Niiler, P.P., Rainville, L., Sanford, T., Tang, T.Y., 2011. Typhoonocean interaction in the western North Pacific: Part 1. Oceanography 24 (4), 24– 31, http://dx.doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2011.91. Duda, T.F., Lynch, J.F., Irish, J.D., Beardsley, R.C., Ramp, S.R., Chiu, C.-S., Tang, T.-Y., Yang, Y.-J., 2004. Internal tide and nonlinearinternal wave behavior at the continental slope in the northern SouthChina Sea. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering 29 (4), 1105–1130. Daufresne, M., Lengfellner, K., Sommer, U., 2009. Global warming benefits the small in aquatic ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106, 12788–12793. Farmer, D.M., Alford, M.H., Lien, R.-C., Yang, Y.J., Chang, M.-H., Li, Q., 2011. From Luzon Strait to Dongsha Plateau: stages in the life of an internal wave. Oceanography 24 (4), 64–77, http://dx.doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2011.95. Gamo, T., 2014. Excess 222Rn profiles in the bottom layer of the Japan Sea and their implication for bottom water dynamics. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 94– 97. García-Comas, C., Chang, C.-Y., Ye, L., Sastri, A. R., Lee, Y.-C., Gong, G.-C., Hsieh, C.-H., 2014. Mesozooplankton size structure in response to environmental conditions
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in the East China Sea: how much does size spectra theory fit empirical data of a dynamic coastal area? Progress in Oceanography, 121, 141–157. Guo, P., Chen, X., 2014. A review of internal solitary wave dynamics in the northern South China Sea. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 7–23. Han, Y.-S., Zhang, H., Tseng, Y.H., Shen, M.L., 2012. Larval Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) as sub-surface current bio-tracers on the East Asia continental shelf. Fisheries Oceanography 21 (4), 281–290. Jan, S., Lien, R.-C., Ting, C.-H., 2008. Numerical study of baroclinic tides in Luzon Strait. Journal of Oceanography 64 (5), 789–802. Kwon, Y.-O., Alexander, M.A., Bond, N.A., Frankignoul, C., Nakamura, H., Qiu, B., Thompson, L.A., 2010. Role of the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio–Oyashio systems in large-scale atmosphere–ocean interaction: a review. Journal of Climate 23, 3249–3281. Li, Q., Farmer, D.M., 2011. The generation and evolution of nonlinear internal waves in the deep basin of the South China Sea. Journal of Physical Oceanography 41 (7), 1345–1363. Li, Q., 2014. Numerical assessment of factors affecting nonlinear internal waves in the South China Sea. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 24–43. Lin, I.-I., Wu, C.-C., Pun, I.-F., Ko, D.-S., 2008. Upper-Ocean Thermal Structure and the Western North Pacific Category 5 Typhoons. Part I: Ocean Features and the Category 5 Typhoons’ Intensification. Monthly Weather Review 136, 3288– 3306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2008MWR2277.1. Lin, I.-I., Black, P., Price, J.F., Yang, C.-Y., Chen, S.S., Lien, C.-C., Harr, P., Chi, N.-H., Wu, C.-C., D’Asaro, E.A., 2013. An ocean coupling potential intensity index for tropical cyclones. Geophysics Research Letter 40 (9), 1878–1882. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1002/grl.50091. Mendelsohn, R., Emanuel, K., Chonabayashi, S., Bakkensen, L., 2012. The impact of climate change on global tropical cyclone damage. Nature Climate Change 2, 205–209. Moon, J.-H., Hirose, N., 2014. Seasonal response of the southern East China Sea shelf water to wind-modulated throughflow in the Taiwan Strait. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 74–82. Nakada, S., Hirose, N., Senjyu, T., Fukudome, K.-I., Tsuji, T., Okei, N., 2014. Operational ocean prediction experiments for smart coastal fishing. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 125–140. Niwa, Y., Hibiya, T., 2004. Three-dimensional numerical simulation ofM2 internal tides in the East China Sea. Journal of Geophysical Research 109, C04027. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003JC001923. Peduzzi, P., Chatenoux, B., Dao, H., De Bono, A., Herold, C., Kossin, J., Mouton, F., Nordbeck, O., 2012. Global trends in tropical cyclone risk. Nature Climate Change 2, 289–294. Pun, I.F., Lin, I.-I., Wu, C.R., Ko, D.S., Liu, W.T., 2007. Validation and application of altimetry-derived upper ocean thermal structure in the western North Pacific ocean for typhoon intensity forecast. IEEE Transaction on Geosciences Remote Sensor 45, 1616–1630. Pun, I.F., Lin, I.-I., Ko, D.S., 2014. New generation of satellite-derived ocean thermal structure for the Western North Pacific typhoon intensity forecasting. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 109–124. Qiu, B., Chen, S., 2010a. Interannual-to-Decadal Variability in the Bifurcation of the North Equatorial Current off the Philippines. Journal of Physical Oceanography 40, 2525–2538. Qiu, B., Chen, S., 2010b. Interannual variability of the North Pacific Subtropical Countercurrent and its associated mesoscale eddy field. Journal of Physical Oceanography 40, 213–225. Ramp, S.R., Tang, T.-Y., Duda, T.F., Lynch, J.F., Liu, A.K., Chiu, C.-S., Bahr, F.L., Kim, H.R., Yang, Y.-J., 2004. Internal solitons in the northeastern South China Sea: Part I. Sources and deep water propagation. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering 29 (4), 1157–1181. Rappaport, E.N., Jiing, J.-G., Landsea, C.W., Murillo, S.T., Franklin, J.L., 2012. The Joint Hurricane Test bed: its first decade of tropical cyclone research-to-operations activities reviewed. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 93, 371– 380. Seo, G. -H., Cho, Y.-K., Choi, B.-J., 2014. Variations of heat transport in the Northwestern Pacific marginal seas inferred from a high-resolution reanalysis. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 98–108. Shay, L.K., Goni, G.J., Black, P.G., 2000. Role of a warm ocean feature on Hurricane Opal. Monthly Weather Review 128, 1366–1383. Shen, M.-L., Tseng, Y.-H., Jan, S., Young, C.-C., Chiou, M.-D., 2014. Long-term variability of the Kuroshio transport east of Taiwan and the climate it conveys. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 60–73. Simmons, H., Chang, M.-H., Chang, Y.-T., Chao, S.-Y., Fringer, O., Jackson, C.R., Ko, D.S., 2011. Modeling and prediction of internal waves in the South China Sea. Oceanography 24 (4), 88–99, http://dx.doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2011.97. Solomon, A., 2010. Interannual ENSO variability forced through coupled atmosphere-ocean feedback loops. Geophysical Research Letters 37, L02706. Yuan, Y., Lian, G., Yang, C., Liu, Z., Chen, H., Wang, Z.-G., 2014. Summer Kuroshio Intrusion through the Luzon Strait confirmed from observations and a diagnostic model in summer 2009. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 44– 59. Zhang, D., Johns, W.E., Lee, T.N., 2002. The seasonal cycle of meridional heat transport at 24°N in the North Pacific and in the global ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research 107 (C7). http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2001JC001011.
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⇑
David Farmer Graduate School of Oceanography, Univ. of Rhode Island, USA ⇑ Corresponding author. Present address: School of Earth & Ocean Sciences, University of Victoria, BC, Canada. Tel.: +1 778 426 4115. E-mail address: [email protected] Sen Jan 1 Institute of Oceanography, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei 10617, Taiwan E-mail address: [email protected] Yu-heng Tseng 2 Climate and Global Dynamics Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research, NCAR/CGD, P.O. Box 3000, Boulder, CO 80307-3000, USA E-mail address: [email protected] Dongliang Yuan 3 CAS Key Lab of Ocean Circulation and Waves, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266071, China E-mail address: [email protected] SangHo Lee 4 Department of Oceanography, Kunsan National University, Miryong-Dong San 68, Kunsan, Jeonbuk 573-701, South Korea E-mail address: [email protected] Available online 28 October 2013
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Tel.: +886 2 33669874; fax: +886 2 23626049. Tel.: +1 303 497 1346; fax: +1 303 497 1700. Tel./fax: +86 532 82898510. Tel.: +82 63 469 4603; fax: +82 63 469 4990.
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Progress in Oceanography journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pocean
Preface
Special issue of 16th PAMS Meeting: Recent advances in the oceanography of Pacific-Asian Marginal Seas 1. Introduction The Pacific-Asian Marginal Seas (PAMS) comprise the Indonesian Seas, the South China Sea, the East China Sea, the Yellow/Bohai Sea, the East Sea (Sea of Japan), and the Sea of Okhotsk (Fig. 1). The large coastal population, industrial development, the exploitation of fisheries and the presence of the Kuroshio, one of the world ocean’s great western boundary currents, contribute to the exceptional importance and sensitivity of this area. The Kuroshio in particular has profound effects on local climate and the ecosystem and is closely linked to exchanges through the straits connecting marginal seas to the open Pacific. Environmental risks abound, including for example, the danger to shipping and coastal areas due to typhoons, which have been intensively studied in recent years (D’Asaro et al., 2011). Changes in sea level exhibit greater variability in PAMS than elsewhere and long-term sea level predictions have important implications for Asia’s coastal mega-cities. These and related concerns motivate a broad range of research including the links between ocean circulation and tropical cyclones, the East Asian monsoons, the role of air–sea interaction, regional oceanography, coastal dynamics and the ecosystem. The annual PAMS Meeting provides a premier scientific platform for scientific discussion of recent advances of these topics. Following the 15th PAMS Meeting (23–25 April 2009) at Busan, Korea, the 16th was held in Taipei, Taiwan during 21–23 April 2011. This issue concentrates on the following four general areas constituting the major focus of the meeting: (1) Nonlinear internal wave dynamics, their evolution, interaction with prominent topography and dissipation; (2) Regional current systems and their variability due to climate change; (3) Typhoon behavior and its influence on and response to the upper ocean thermal structure; (4) Physical–biological interactions, their relevance to changing ocean conditions and the potential for incorporation of new knowledge into fishing practice. 2. Internal wave dynamics in PAMS The internal tides and nonlinear internal waves radiated from Luzon Strait into the South China Sea are among the largest in the world ocean and form oceanographic signatures readily observable from space. New in situ measurement approaches and remote sensing, increasing computational power and improved numerical simulation have added greatly to our knowledge of these features. Intensive observations in Luzon Strait and the northern South China Sea over the past decade, together with numerical modeling, have shown that energetic internal tides are primarily generated over the meridional ridges in Luzon Strait 0079-6611/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2013.10.006
(Ramp et al., 2004; Duda et al., 2004; Niwa and Hibiya, 2004; Jan et al., 2008; Farmer et al., 2011, among others). There are several interesting aspects to the internal tide generation, including a meridional gradient in the frequency response due to variation in the ridge spacing and seasonal density structure, leading to primarily semi-diurnal internal tides radiating westwards from northern Luzon Strait and mixed diurnal/semi-diurnal internal tides radiating from the center and southern part of the strait. Moreover the generation area has recently been shown to be a source of intense turbulence. Nevertheless, the internal tides radiating away from the strait, while of large amplitude, can be approximated as resulting from a linear generation mechanism. As they propagate across the deep basin west of the strait they steepen nonlinearly, displaying the alternating ‘A’ and ‘B’ characteristics resulting from the distinctive modulation of diurnal and semi-diurnal forcing over the Luzon Strait ridges, accompanied by nonlinear steepening. The steepening, however, is constrained by rotational dispersion, further influencing their evolution (Li and Farmer, 2011). They refract around Dongsha Atoll and dissipate on the continental shelf south of China after a journey of over 500 km and more than 4 days (Simmons et al., 2011). A great deal of observational, theoretical, and modeling effort has been directed toward understanding and predicting these waves and their effects on the oceanography of the northern South China Sea. Guo and Chen (2014) summarize the dynamics of internal wave generation and their properties, propagation, nonlinear evolution, and dissipation, drawing attention to the influence of time-varying Kuroshio intrusions across Luzon Strait. Dramatic internal waves occur not only in the northern South China Sea but also in the Pacific Ocean east of Luzon Strait and around some sections of the continental shelf break of the East China Sea along the Kuroshio path (e.g. off the northeastern coast of Taiwan). As a modest effort to evaluate the Kuroshio’s influence, Li (2014) uses a twodimensional Cartesian x–z plane, non-hydrostatic model, to suggest that the westward inflow due to the Kuroshio intrusion tends to reduce the amplitude of internal tides in the South China Sea, weakening the generation of internal solitary waves. The complicated influences of environmental factors on internal wave dynamics comprise not only the seasonal variation of the Kuroshio intrusion but also meso-scale eddies and typhoon-induced upper ocean changes. They cause not only physical effects in the open ocean but also biological consequences in semi-enclosed bays and submarine canyons of the northern South China Sea, large scale seafloor sand waves east of Dongsha Plateau, changes in the acoustical environment, and strong turbulence and mixing in and around Luzon Strait.
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Fig. 1. Chart of the Pacific-Asian Marginal Seas (PAMS).
Many outstanding problems remain. These include resolution of the dynamic role of the Kuroshio in modulating internal tide generation, enhancement of turbulence over ridges, generation of higher-mode components, dissipation and re-generation of internal waves from Luzon Strait impinging on Dongsha Plateau, and the role internal waves play in biological productivity. To these we suggest further challenging research topics related to multidisciplinary problems in PAMS:
The energy cascade from surface tides to turbulence and changes of water mass properties due to enhanced turbulence in Luzon Strait. The role of internal tides in changing typhoon strength in the northern South China Sea. Influences of internal waves on sound propagation and transmission loss. Processes of internal waves affecting coral growth.
Internal wave energy trapping or reflection caused by the Kuroshio along the continental shelf break of the East China Sea. Internal wave properties, propagation, and dissipation east of Luzon Strait. The role of meso-scale eddies in modulating internal waves in the South China Sea.
Interest in these problems in PAMS transcends their local importance. Achieving long-term, high spatial and temporal resolution, broad scale and interdisciplinary observations present a great challenge, which will undoubtedly add to our understanding of these interesting phenomena and continue to attract attention from the broader international oceanographic community.
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3. Climate change impacts on regional current systems in PAMS Inter-annual variability in mass and heat transport due to ocean currents plays an essential role in feedbacks between the atmosphere and ocean in PAMS. This is particularly true of the Kuroshio (Kwon et al., 2010) which transports large quantities of heat from the tropical to the extra tropical ocean (Zhang et al., 2002). Heat transport by the Kuroshio and other currents through coastal straits determines the heat distribution and its variations in marginal seas (see Fig. 2 for the major current system in PAMS). These cause some major variations in the global climate system. Based on current measurements, hydrographic data and Argo observations in Luzon Strait, Yuan et al. (2014) used a diagnostic model with a modified inverse method to study the circulation in Luzon Strait. This is the deepest passage linking the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean and new features of the circulation were found. For example, both observed and modeled currents show Kuroshio intrusions northwestward through Luzon Strait into the South China Sea in the upper 400 m during July 2009. In addition to the surface flow, there was also an intrusion at 1000 m. It was found that the Joint Effect of Baroclinity and Relief (JEBAR) and the b-effect were two important mechanisms acting on the intrusion at that time. The intrusion resulted from the weaker upstream Kuroshio transport during the 2009 summer (an El Niño initiating period). It was concluded that both seasonal variability due to the monsoon winds and the ENSO related inter-annual variation of upstream Kuroshio transport significantly affected the Kuroshio intrusion across Luzon Strait. These new findings also receive support from Kuroshio transport estimates near the World Ocean Circulation Experiment moored current meter array (PCM-1) east of Taiwan (Shen et al., 2014). The Kuroshio transport was established using satellite altimetry data from 1993 to 2010 via three different methods with relationships based on the observed Kuroshio transport at PCM-1 and its surrounding sea surface height difference. Two major processes were found to affect transport at this location: the annual averaged transport was influenced by the northern branch of the North Equatorial Current, primarily responding to ENSO events, and the Kuroshio transport anomaly was dominated by mesoscale eddies east of Taiwan resulting from the influence of the West Pacific teleconnection pattern. Correlation analysis confirmed that the long-term Kuroshio transport in the PCM-1 line conveys not only the ENSO signal but also the West Pacific teleconnection, thus linking the tropic and extratropic dynamics. These results further indicate that both tropical and extratropical (mid-latitude) climate patterns may affect Kuroshio variability at various time scales. In the tropics, the dominant tropical climate forcing is ENSO (Qiu and Chen, 2010a; Solomon, 2010). At mid-latitudes the West Pacific pattern controls the major mid-latitude winter variability and connects with eddy strengths generated from the Sub-Tropical Counter Current (Qiu and Chen, 2010b). The Kuroshio east of Taiwan will significantly affect the regional circulation in the southern East China Sea (ECS). Moon and Hirose (2014) examined the seasonal change of the southern ECS shelf water due to the Kuroshio and its connection with the Taiwan Strait throughflow water. They confirmed that the Kuroshio water intrudes farther shoreward in the southern ECS in response to the weakened Taiwan Strait throughflow from fall to winter based on the regional model results. However, the Taiwan Strait throughflow may extend further offshore in the southern ECS from spring to summer in association with the seaward retreat of the Kuroshio water. Their results with passive tracer experiments suggested the volume transport may play a more important role than the winddriven surface Ekman transport on the seasonal variation of the southern ECS shelf water.
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Regional bottom currents and circulation are usually difficult to track and monitor. Radon is commonly used to trace ocean circulation and mode water formation. The excess 222Rn is a good chemical tracer for estimating short-term water movement and eddy diffusion within a few hundred meters of the sea floor due to its chemical inertness and short half-life. Gamo (2014) measured excess 222Rn profiles for the first time in the bottom layer of the Japan Sea, the vertical characteristics of which are known to be quite homogeneous. He found all 222Rn profiles showed a mid-depth maximum, suggesting strong effects due to horizontal advection of 222Rn-rich waters. These observations imply the existence of short-term lateral bottom current systems in the Japan Sea bottom layer. That short-term lateral currents are generated due to topographic features in controlling bottom water dynamics and geochemical cycles in the Japan Sea remains a mystery. 4. Weather and climate impacts of ocean heat content and thermal structure Ocean heat content and its thermal structure play an important role in modulating the global weather and climate through air–sea interaction. As described earlier, the Kuroshio transports large quantities of heat. Over a time scale of weeks, the upper ocean thermal structure has a critical influence on the intensity of tropical cyclones. Despite its importance, ocean heat transport and content have not been precisely quantified due to the scarcity of direct observations and a poor understanding of regional ocean circulation. No study has examined long-term trends and variability in heat transport in the northwest Pacific marginal seas. Moreover, most previous studies have focused on locally limited heat transport, which is not adequate for understanding the entire heat budget of the marginal seas. These constraints have limited progress of heat budget analysis in PAMS. In this area heat exchange among major straits is of primary importance. Seo et al. (2014) generated a high-resolution reanalysis dataset of heat transport in PAMS for the 30-year period: January 1980—December 2009. This dataset is very useful for understanding the mean and temporal variations in ocean heat transport within the major PAMS straits. They estimate the mean heat transport in the Korea/Tsushima Strait and onshore transport across the shelf break in the East China Sea, Taiwan Strait, Tsugaru Strait, and Soya Strait. The long-term trends in heat transport through the Korea/Tsushima Strait and Tsugaru Strait and onshore transport across the shelf break of the East China Sea increased during this period, whereas the heat transport through Taiwan Strait was decreased. There was little long-term change in heat transport in the Soya Strait. These long-term changes in heat transport through the Korea/Tsushima Strait, across the shelf of the East China Sea, and through the Taiwan Strait may be related to increased northeasterly wind stress in the East China Sea, which drives Ekman transport across the shelf break and onto the shelf. With 20–30 tropical cyclones formed and intensified each year, PAMS is the most energetic and hazardous basin in the world threatening a billion people with annual economic activities in Asia of US $5 billion (Peduzzi et al., 2012; Mendelsohn et al., 2012). Despite notable improvement in track prediction, tropical cyclone intensity forecasts have improved little over the past few decades (Rappaport et al., 2012). The ocean is the energy source for cyclone formation and intensification. Improved characterization of ocean thermal structure and air–sea coupling processes remains essential to achieving improved forecasts of cyclone intensity (Lin et al., 2013). As tropical cyclones interact not only with the ocean surface but also to depths of 200–300 m, accurate observation of upper ocean
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Fig. 2. Schematic chart showing the main current system in PAMS. The North Equatorial Current, the Kuroshio, and the Mindanao Current are indicated by light blue lines. The modeled annual mean velocity vectors in the upper 50 m layer are superimposed (modified from Shen et al., 2014).
thermal structure is pre-requisite to accurate forecasting. This is especially true in PAMS due to the complexity of the environment and the presence of numerous mesoscale eddies that modulate tropical cyclone–ocean interaction processes (Lin et al., 2008). In situ observations are limited in space and time and therefore ocean thermal structure derived from satellite sea surface temperature and altimetry observations is currently the most effective synoptic observational approach. Existing derivation, however, is based on a simple two-layer method with only two isotherms providing a coarse characterization of the thermal structure (Shay et al., 2000; Pun et al., 2007). Improvement in vertical resolution so as to enhance ocean characterization is highly desirable. Pun et al. (2014) present a new approach, replacing the two subsurface isotherms with high vertical-resolution ocean thermal structure with up to 26 isotherms for much improved representation of ocean thermal structure. With over two decades of altimetry available for generating high-resolution ocean thermal structure over the Western North Pacific, this approach has application to various climate related issues including tropical cyclone interactions with the ocean. 5. Physical–biological interaction and its impact on fishing Oceanic conditions may play an important role in the success of fishing activities (Aps et al., 2010), in the analysis of biological and radioactive tracers and in studies of the ocean ecosystem. Physi-
cal–biological interaction is readily apparent in PAMS, particularly near the continental shelves. For example, the interannual variability of ocean currents may affect annual Japanese eel recruitment, which can in turn be used as a good bio-tracer for monitoring variability in ocean circulation (Han et al., 2012). Oceanic conditions related to good fishing are crucial factors for coastal fisheries and will be influenced by climate change such as global warming. The search for good fishing grounds is time-consuming and requires experience. An accurate ocean prediction system can significantly help fishing activity in coastal areas and minimize operational risks and energy loss. Nakada et al. (2014) presents a real-time, high-resolution ocean prediction system which synergizes in situ continuous observations measured on fishing boats in collaboration with the fishing industry. This is a new approach for smart coastal fishing (Ape et al., 2010) from both sustainability and economical considerations. A large number of temperature profiles can also be obtained using sensors attached to trawl nets. It is clear that this integrated approach can bring fishers and oceanographers together so as to gain further insights on both ocean dynamics and opportunities for efficient fishing. In addition, an observing network in collaboration with the coastal fishing community and a real-time, high resolution operational prediction system can be established. With respect to the ocean ecosystem, recent studies indicate that global warming, eutrophication and intensive fisheries might have dramatically shifted the size structure of marine
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communities. PAMS is important in terms of its high environmental heterogeneity and high level of anthropogenic impact. The size structure is a useful indicator for monitoring overall ecosystem status. For example, plankton communities are predicted to shift toward dominance by smaller sized individuals in response to warming (Daufresne et al., 2009). García-Comas et al. (2014) investigated the size structure of mesozooplankton communities in the East China Sea, which extends over a large continental shelf. Various theoretical models have used the size distribution of plankton communities to explain tropic structure and functioning. Tests of different hypotheses showed that the size spectral slope bears no relationship with temperature or food availability. However size diversity decreases with food although exhibiting no relationship with temperature. These results suggest that zooplankton size structure is more sensitive to food availability than temperature in the East China Sea. Monitoring environmental forcing on communities using size structure in highly dynamic ecosystems should be evaluated with caution. 6. Summary The papers appearing in this issue are representative of the rapidly increasing scientific interest in the oceanography of PacificAsian Marginal Seas. The topics span multiple disciplines and a broad range of scales from local processes to global interactions between atmosphere and ocean. While the motivations for research are varied and include such practical needs as security through improved typhoon prediction and the integration of oceanographic knowledge into fishing practice, the underlying requirement remains the need for improved scientific understanding. The extensive international participation and the presence of many enthusiastic and interested young scientists and students in this 16th PAMS meeting bodes well for future oceanographic research in this important and deeply fascinating environment. Acknowledgements Taiwan’s National Science Council, Ministry of Education, and National Taiwan University sponsored the 16th PAMS Meeting. We thank the participants of the meeting for the stimulating discussions, and the authors and reviewers for their support and understanding of issues relating to the publication of this special issue. References Aps R., Fetissov, M., Lassen, H., 2010. Smart management of the Baltic Sea fishery system: myth or reality? Baltic International Symposium (BALTIC), 2010. IEEE/ OES US/EU, 1–9. doi:10.1109/BALTIC.2010.5621645. D’Asaro, E., Black, P., Centurioni, L., Harr, P., Jayne, S., Lin, I.-I., Lee, C., Morzel, J., Mrvaljevic, R., Niiler, P.P., Rainville, L., Sanford, T., Tang, T.Y., 2011. Typhoonocean interaction in the western North Pacific: Part 1. Oceanography 24 (4), 24– 31, http://dx.doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2011.91. Duda, T.F., Lynch, J.F., Irish, J.D., Beardsley, R.C., Ramp, S.R., Chiu, C.-S., Tang, T.-Y., Yang, Y.-J., 2004. Internal tide and nonlinearinternal wave behavior at the continental slope in the northern SouthChina Sea. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering 29 (4), 1105–1130. Daufresne, M., Lengfellner, K., Sommer, U., 2009. Global warming benefits the small in aquatic ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106, 12788–12793. Farmer, D.M., Alford, M.H., Lien, R.-C., Yang, Y.J., Chang, M.-H., Li, Q., 2011. From Luzon Strait to Dongsha Plateau: stages in the life of an internal wave. Oceanography 24 (4), 64–77, http://dx.doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2011.95. Gamo, T., 2014. Excess 222Rn profiles in the bottom layer of the Japan Sea and their implication for bottom water dynamics. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 94– 97. García-Comas, C., Chang, C.-Y., Ye, L., Sastri, A. R., Lee, Y.-C., Gong, G.-C., Hsieh, C.-H., 2014. Mesozooplankton size structure in response to environmental conditions
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in the East China Sea: how much does size spectra theory fit empirical data of a dynamic coastal area? Progress in Oceanography, 121, 141–157. Guo, P., Chen, X., 2014. A review of internal solitary wave dynamics in the northern South China Sea. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 7–23. Han, Y.-S., Zhang, H., Tseng, Y.H., Shen, M.L., 2012. Larval Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) as sub-surface current bio-tracers on the East Asia continental shelf. Fisheries Oceanography 21 (4), 281–290. Jan, S., Lien, R.-C., Ting, C.-H., 2008. Numerical study of baroclinic tides in Luzon Strait. Journal of Oceanography 64 (5), 789–802. Kwon, Y.-O., Alexander, M.A., Bond, N.A., Frankignoul, C., Nakamura, H., Qiu, B., Thompson, L.A., 2010. Role of the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio–Oyashio systems in large-scale atmosphere–ocean interaction: a review. Journal of Climate 23, 3249–3281. Li, Q., Farmer, D.M., 2011. The generation and evolution of nonlinear internal waves in the deep basin of the South China Sea. Journal of Physical Oceanography 41 (7), 1345–1363. Li, Q., 2014. Numerical assessment of factors affecting nonlinear internal waves in the South China Sea. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 24–43. Lin, I.-I., Wu, C.-C., Pun, I.-F., Ko, D.-S., 2008. Upper-Ocean Thermal Structure and the Western North Pacific Category 5 Typhoons. Part I: Ocean Features and the Category 5 Typhoons’ Intensification. Monthly Weather Review 136, 3288– 3306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2008MWR2277.1. Lin, I.-I., Black, P., Price, J.F., Yang, C.-Y., Chen, S.S., Lien, C.-C., Harr, P., Chi, N.-H., Wu, C.-C., D’Asaro, E.A., 2013. An ocean coupling potential intensity index for tropical cyclones. Geophysics Research Letter 40 (9), 1878–1882. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1002/grl.50091. Mendelsohn, R., Emanuel, K., Chonabayashi, S., Bakkensen, L., 2012. The impact of climate change on global tropical cyclone damage. Nature Climate Change 2, 205–209. Moon, J.-H., Hirose, N., 2014. Seasonal response of the southern East China Sea shelf water to wind-modulated throughflow in the Taiwan Strait. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 74–82. Nakada, S., Hirose, N., Senjyu, T., Fukudome, K.-I., Tsuji, T., Okei, N., 2014. Operational ocean prediction experiments for smart coastal fishing. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 125–140. Niwa, Y., Hibiya, T., 2004. Three-dimensional numerical simulation ofM2 internal tides in the East China Sea. Journal of Geophysical Research 109, C04027. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003JC001923. Peduzzi, P., Chatenoux, B., Dao, H., De Bono, A., Herold, C., Kossin, J., Mouton, F., Nordbeck, O., 2012. Global trends in tropical cyclone risk. Nature Climate Change 2, 289–294. Pun, I.F., Lin, I.-I., Wu, C.R., Ko, D.S., Liu, W.T., 2007. Validation and application of altimetry-derived upper ocean thermal structure in the western North Pacific ocean for typhoon intensity forecast. IEEE Transaction on Geosciences Remote Sensor 45, 1616–1630. Pun, I.F., Lin, I.-I., Ko, D.S., 2014. New generation of satellite-derived ocean thermal structure for the Western North Pacific typhoon intensity forecasting. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 109–124. Qiu, B., Chen, S., 2010a. Interannual-to-Decadal Variability in the Bifurcation of the North Equatorial Current off the Philippines. Journal of Physical Oceanography 40, 2525–2538. Qiu, B., Chen, S., 2010b. Interannual variability of the North Pacific Subtropical Countercurrent and its associated mesoscale eddy field. Journal of Physical Oceanography 40, 213–225. Ramp, S.R., Tang, T.-Y., Duda, T.F., Lynch, J.F., Liu, A.K., Chiu, C.-S., Bahr, F.L., Kim, H.R., Yang, Y.-J., 2004. Internal solitons in the northeastern South China Sea: Part I. Sources and deep water propagation. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering 29 (4), 1157–1181. Rappaport, E.N., Jiing, J.-G., Landsea, C.W., Murillo, S.T., Franklin, J.L., 2012. The Joint Hurricane Test bed: its first decade of tropical cyclone research-to-operations activities reviewed. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 93, 371– 380. Seo, G. -H., Cho, Y.-K., Choi, B.-J., 2014. Variations of heat transport in the Northwestern Pacific marginal seas inferred from a high-resolution reanalysis. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 98–108. Shay, L.K., Goni, G.J., Black, P.G., 2000. Role of a warm ocean feature on Hurricane Opal. Monthly Weather Review 128, 1366–1383. Shen, M.-L., Tseng, Y.-H., Jan, S., Young, C.-C., Chiou, M.-D., 2014. Long-term variability of the Kuroshio transport east of Taiwan and the climate it conveys. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 60–73. Simmons, H., Chang, M.-H., Chang, Y.-T., Chao, S.-Y., Fringer, O., Jackson, C.R., Ko, D.S., 2011. Modeling and prediction of internal waves in the South China Sea. Oceanography 24 (4), 88–99, http://dx.doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2011.97. Solomon, A., 2010. Interannual ENSO variability forced through coupled atmosphere-ocean feedback loops. Geophysical Research Letters 37, L02706. Yuan, Y., Lian, G., Yang, C., Liu, Z., Chen, H., Wang, Z.-G., 2014. Summer Kuroshio Intrusion through the Luzon Strait confirmed from observations and a diagnostic model in summer 2009. Progress in Oceanography, 121, 44– 59. Zhang, D., Johns, W.E., Lee, T.N., 2002. The seasonal cycle of meridional heat transport at 24°N in the North Pacific and in the global ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research 107 (C7). http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2001JC001011.
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David Farmer Graduate School of Oceanography, Univ. of Rhode Island, USA ⇑ Corresponding author. Present address: School of Earth & Ocean Sciences, University of Victoria, BC, Canada. Tel.: +1 778 426 4115. E-mail address: [email protected] Sen Jan 1 Institute of Oceanography, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei 10617, Taiwan E-mail address: [email protected] Yu-heng Tseng 2 Climate and Global Dynamics Division, National Center for Atmospheric Research, NCAR/CGD, P.O. Box 3000, Boulder, CO 80307-3000, USA E-mail address: [email protected] Dongliang Yuan 3 CAS Key Lab of Ocean Circulation and Waves, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266071, China E-mail address: [email protected] SangHo Lee 4 Department of Oceanography, Kunsan National University, Miryong-Dong San 68, Kunsan, Jeonbuk 573-701, South Korea E-mail address: [email protected] Available online 28 October 2013
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