- Email: [email protected]
Specialty education for student pharmacists and PharmD graduates in U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning ] (2015) ]]]–]]]
Research
http://www.pharmacyteaching.com
Specialty education for student pharmacists and PharmD graduates in U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy Mohammed A. Islam, RPh, PhDa,*, Seher A. Khan, PhDb, Simi Gunaseelan, PhDc, Rahmat Talukder, RPh, PhDc a
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Coast University School of Pharmacy, Los Angeles, CA b Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine School of Pharmacy, Erie, PA c Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Ben and Maytee Fisch College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX
Abstract Objective: To discuss the current status of dual degree and graduate certification programs offered by U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy. Methods: The websites of individual pharmacy colleges and schools were accessed, pertinent sections on dual degree and graduate certificate programs were identified, retrieved, and analyzed. Results: A total of 63 colleges or schools pharmacy are offering 125 dual degree programs for 2014–2015 academic year. Master of Business Administration (MBA) constitutes 37% of the total dual degrees followed by Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) (23%), Master of Public Health (MPH) (18%), Master of Science (MS) degrees in different areas of specialization (18%), and others (4.0%). A total of 30 graduate certificate programs which include regulatory affairs, clinical research design, patient safety, global health, etc. are offered by 12 colleges and schools. Admission requirements and curricular framework of these specialty programs vary by program types and institutions. Conclusion: Dual degrees and graduate certification programs with a wide array of specialties are emerging, which allow PharmD students/graduates to acquire new competencies and expertise along with PharmD degree. While there are positive outcomes documented for some of the programs, further study is required to evaluate the impact of these programs on students’ academic and career advancements. r 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Pharmacy; Dual degrees; Graduate certificate
Introduction The competency framework of U.S. entry-level Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) education integrates knowledge, skills, and values required to achieve expected educational
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. * Corresponding author: Mohammed A. Islam, RPh, PhD, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Coast University School of Pharmacy, 590 N Vermont Ave, Los Angeles, CA 90004. E-mail: [email protected] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cptl.2015.12.001 1877-1297/r 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
outcomes in four major domains: (1) patient-centered care, (2) health system management, (3) health and wellness, and (4) promotion of population-based care.1 In this context, the accreditation standards of Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE),1 the educational outcomes of the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) Center for the Advancement of Pharmacy Education (CAPE),2 and North American Pharmacist Licensure Examination (NAPLEX) blueprint for PharmD education3 align well with each other to address contemporary practice of pharmacy. With the evolving nature of
M.A. Islam et al. / Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning ] (2015) ]]]–]]]
2
Methods
MD
JD
MS
MPH
PhD
MBA 0
10
20 30 Number of dual degree programs
40
50
Fig. Dual degree programs in U.S. pharmacy schools/colleges. (MBA, Master of Business Administration; PhD, Doctor of Philosophy; MPH, Master of Public Health; MS, Master of Science; JD, Juris Doctor; and MD, Doctor of Medicine).
the pharmacy profession, the roles of pharmacists are expanding toward achieving a model of care determined by the broad spectrum of patient care and societal needs.4,5 In recent years, proliferation of new pharmacy programs has caused a surplus of pharmacists in certain regions of the country.6 Knapp and Cultice7 estimated that by 2020, there will be a 29% increase in the pharmacy workforce from 2007. With the current workforce environment, attaining full-time employment will continue to be more competitive for PharmD graduates. U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy are offering alternative educational pathways including dual degrees and graduate certification programs to expand career options for students in a rapidly changing health care field. In 2009, AACP Research and Graduate Affairs Committee looked into the structures and roles of dual degree programs offered by U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy.8 Colleges and schools of pharmacy have introduced dual or joint degrees such as PharmD/MBA, PharmD/MPH, and PharmD/PhD, PharmD/MS in geriatrics, PharmD/MS in health informatics, etc. with the goal of enhancing career opportunities as well as allowing specialization in an area of interest. The number of colleges and schools offering PharmD/MBA programs increased to 36 in 2009–2010 from 18 in 2001–2002.8 The offerings of PharmD/PhD dual degree followed same trend over the last decade.8 The prevalence and characteristics of PharmD/ MPH and PharmD/PhD programs have been reported.9,10 Previously, the PharmD/MBA, PharmD/MPA, and PharmD/ MS programs offered by a school/college of pharmacy have been described.11 The aim of this study is to describe the current status of dual degree and graduate certificates programs offered by U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy and their impact on students’ career pathways.
A thorough search of websites of 132 U.S. pharmacy colleges and schools as described by other researchers12,13 was conducted to identify information regarding dual degrees and graduate certificate programs available for PharmD students and graduates. The search was conducted in November 2013 through June 2014 by the principal investigator. Two approaches were used for searching the websites of individual colleges or schools of pharmacy. The first approach was to search pages within the website related to PharmD curriculum, current students, and prospective students. Then, in some cases, intranet search of the websites was required to obtain information pertaining to dual degrees or graduate certificate programs. Key terms used in the search process included “dual degrees,” “joint degrees,” “combined degrees,” and “graduate certificates.” The AACP Pharmacy School Admission Requirements (PSAR2013-2014)14 were also accessed and reviewed. In addition, searches of PubMed (http://www.pubmed.gov), Google search engine (http://www.google.com/), Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.com/), and the websites of the American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education were conducted to identify any relevant published studies. Document analysis and data extraction from electronic documents were performed utilizing a systematic approach.15 All data were recorded in Microsoft Excels worksheets. This research was granted exempt status by the Institutional Review Board of West Coast University. Results Dual degrees A total of 63 out of 132 U.S. pharmacy colleges and schools are offering 125 dual degree programs (Fig.). The predominant dual degree is PharmD/MBA (n ¼ 46; 37%) followed by PharmD/PhD (n ¼ 29; 23%), PharmD/MPH (n ¼ 23; 18%), and PharmD/MS (n ¼ 22; 18%). Table 1 lists the diverse specific areas of PharmD/MS programs offered by 11 colleges and schools. There are four colleges and schools offering PharmD/JD and one program offering PharmD/MD. There are seven accelerated PharmD programs (block or quarter system) offering dual degrees. Each dual degree program is focused with achieving competencies as required by the respective accreditation standards for each degree component. Admission to the non-pharmacy component of dual degree programs occur after a student has been admitted into the PharmD program and has satisfactorily completed 2–3 semesters of the PharmD program. In most instances, the requirement of baccalaureate degree appears to be waived for dual degree programs as completing the first or second year of PharmD credits can be considered equivalent to a baccalaureate degree. However, there are a few exceptions. Admission into the PharmD/MBA dual degree programs at the University of Southern
M.A. Islam et al. / Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning ] (2015) ]]]–]]] Table 1 Dual doctor of pharmacy (PharmD)/MS degrees in diverse areas of pharmacy and health care areas Non-PharmD components of PharmD/MS dual degrees
No. of university offeringa
MS health informatics MHS in regulatory services MS in global medicine (MSGM) MS HCDA (health care decision analysis) MHS health services MA in communication MA in industrial/organizational psychology MS in pharmaceutical sciences MS in clinical leadership and health care management MS in clinical research MS in education MS in research MS in industry MS in ageing (gerontology) MS in pharmaceutical outcome research and policy MS in public administration (MPA) MS in clinical and translational science
3 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
a A total of 11 universities offer dual PharmD/MS degrees. Some universities offer multiple MS degrees.
California, East Tennessee State University, and Shenandoah University requires completion of baccalaureate degree. In most dual degree programs, it is also required that a cumulative GPA of 3.0 maintained throughout the P1 year. Admission to a PhD component of the dual degree program is controlled by the university’s graduate school and requires a separate admission application. Most PharmD/PhD programs require completion of a baccalaureate degree or its equivalent before admission into the program. The first of its kind, the new ten-year PharmD/MD dual degree program, developed by joint collaboration between Rutgers University Robert Wood Johnson Medical School and Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, was launched in the fall of 2014. Students apply for admission to medical school during spring semester of P2 year and formally admitted before beginning of P3 year. The program expects three to five students to enroll annually. The admission is highly competitive and applicants should have a GPA of 3.5 or better that needs to be maintained throughout the remainder of the PharmD program. Total program duration for PharmD/MBA, PharmD/ MPH ranges from four to six years and for PharmD/PhD, it is typically seven plus years. The curricular structures of dual degree programs involve stop–start model and credit sharing strategies and summer/evening coursework. In a stop–start model, students stop progressing in the PharmD program for a year, typically at the fourth professional year,
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and take full-course loads for the non-PharmD degree component. Table 2 shows core courses offered by the non-PharmD component of dual degrees that complement the PharmD courses. Dual degree students utilize selected coursework from the non-PharmD components such as public health, business, public administration, or clinical research to account for PharmD elective requirements. Similarly, selected PharmD coursework also accounts for electives in the non-PharmD component. One or more elective APPEs in the final PharmD professional year also accounts for an experiential requirement for the non-PharmD component (such as MPH or MBA). The PharmD/MD dual degree program enables students to conceptualize and carry out research projects and participate Table 2 Examples of core courses of non-PharmD component of dual degrees (PharmD/MBA, PharmD/MPH, and PharmD/JD) MBA core courses Managerial economics Managerial accounting Managerial finance Business law and corporate responsibility Marketing concepts and practice Management information system Communications technology Corporate finance Ethical leadership Accounting for decision making Economics of competitive strategy Marketing strategy Business strategy Operations management Managing corporate integrity Managerial statistics Managers and legal environment MPH Core Courses Health system and Policy Principles and methods of epidemiology Environmental and occupational health Biostatistics Health education and behavioral science in public health Health Foundations of public health Public health ethics Introduction to health promotion and disease prevention Prevention Introduction to the US health care system Global environmental health Health services administration Urban health assessment JD core courses Legal analysis and writing Criminal law Written and oral advocacy Intro to legal research Civil procedure: litigation process Civil procedure: jurisdiction/judgments Constitutional law I: governance
M.A. Islam et al. / Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning ] (2015) ]]]–]]]
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Table 3 Characteristics and structures of graduate certificate programsa Credit hours Graduate certificate programs
Total numbers offered
Didactic courses b
Experiential/field work/research projects
Regulatory affairs
7
6–14
Patient safety Clinical research/trials Drug discovery and development Health/pharmacoeconomics Food safety Consumer health advocacy Type 2 translational research Global health Geriatric pharmacy Health policy
4 4 1
9–15 12–17
0–3 (Research project) 0–2 (Research project)
2 1 1 1 1 2 1
14 12 12 11–12 8 8–14b 6
0 0 0 3 1 6 3
a b
0–3 (Case study—thesis)
Curricular delivery/duration Blended (online and on-campus)/12 months Up to 24 months Up to 24 months
Online Blended (online and on-campus) (Project 2 and seminar 1 credit) On-campus/24 months (Global heath field experience) 24 months (APPE) (Case study—thesis) Online/412 months
Other graduate certificate programs include health economics, medicinal chemistry, business administration, pharmacy education, and pharmacy sciences. Course credits from one-quarter system (3 quarters) program (credit hours adjusted to semester hours).
in interdisciplinary clinical rotations and clerkships. Students receive a dual degree concurrently or at different times when the requirements for each degree are completed. In PharmD/PhD dual degree programs, students earn their PharmD degree prior to the PhD research components that usually take additional three or more years to complete.
Graduate certificate programs According to our data, 12 colleges and schools of pharmacy offer a total of 30 graduate certificate programs (Table 3). Common specializations of graduate certificate programs include regulatory affairs, clinical research design, patient safety, geriatrics, health policy and management, and global health, among others. These programs are open to PharmD students, practicing pharmacists, and other health sciences students/graduates for enrollment. Some programs are available online in addition to onsite offerings. Admission into these programs requires a minimum overall GPA of 3.0 on a 4.0 scale. Programs differ in curricular requirements for required and elective didactic credits. A graduate certificate program requires completion of a total of 9–20 credits of didactic and experiential/field work/ research projects within nine months to two years. There is a GPA requirement of 2.7 or above depending on the program for completion of graduate certificate courses. There are several graduate certificate programs jointly administered by the school/colleges of pharmacy and other colleges in the university. At the University of Wisconsin– Madison, five graduate certificate programs namely, consumer health advocacy, global health, fundamentals of clinical research, type two translational research, and patient
safety are collaboratively offered by the Schools of Pharmacy, Medicine and Public Health, Nursing, Veterinary Medicine, College of Engineering, and the Division of International Studies. Each of the graduate certificate programs includes a wide array of core and elective graduate level courses that complement the PharmD program and prepare students for a specialized field of health care or pharmacy practice. For example, the curriculum of global health certificate program focuses on international health care systems, health policy, epidemiology, health promotion, prevention and management of disease outbreaks, environmental health, or other interdisciplinary topics. In addition to didactic courses, the global health certificate requires global health field experience in an international setting.
Discussion Dual degree programs have emerged as alternative educational pathways for PharmD graduates. The numbers of dual degree programs offered by colleges and schools of pharmacy have been expanding.8 In 2009–2010, AACP Research and Graduate Affairs Committee used the 2009– 2010 edition of PSAR and identified 41 colleges and schools that were offering 51 dual degrees.8 However, a later study involving pharmacy college and school website research documented 52 colleges and schools offering dual degrees in the academic year of 2010–2011.16 Dual degree programs prepare students for potential career opportunities in specialized areas of pharmacy practice and other health care arenas.16 A recent study conducted at the School of Pharmacy—Boston at Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences
M.A. Islam et al. / Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning ] (2015) ]]]–]]]
(MCPHS) University showed that PharmD students were interested in pursuing an additional advanced degree to complement or supplement their evolving career endeavors. In that study, MBA was found to be the most favored degree followed by MD, MS, and/or PhD.17 PharmD/MBA, the most prevalent dual degree, is highly regarded for its wide applications in health care arenas such as institutional and community pharmacies, pharmaceutical industry, managed care, and academia.18,19 Pharmacists with an MBA or MS degrees are equipped with enhanced leadership and management skills that can help address the anticipated leadership gap in the pharmacy profession.20 Similarly, other dual degrees allow graduates to advance the roles of pharmacists on various professional or societal needs. For instance, a PharmD/PhD dual degree prepares graduates with knowledge, skills, and research expertise to serve in academic pharmacy or in pharmaceutical research areas.10 The PharmD/MPH dual degree programs provide advanced knowledge and expertise in areas such as statistics, epidemiology, and data analysis. In addition, the curricula of PharmD/MPH programs greatly emphasize health promotion, disease prevention, and public health services. While pharmacists with PharmD/MPH are uniquely qualified to serve in all domains of public health, questions remain unanswered about their career trajectory. A PharmD/JD program equips its graduates with specialized knowledge and competencies in legal and regulatory affairs in pharmacy practice and diverse health care arenas such as health care policy development and consultation, policy analysis, and the health care reform process. The PharmD/ MD dual degree program has been designed to generate interdisciplinary practitioners who will be the leaders in collaborative clinical practice, academic research, and pharmaceutical industry. The curriculum for dual degrees is structured in such a way that students are simultaneously enrolled in two different degree programs. Sharing course credits between two components of a dual degree facilitates completion of both the degrees in a shorter time frame than if one completed the two degrees separately. Often the nonPharmD component of the dual degree program is offered by another college/school within the university, but in some instances, by a college/school in another university. Graduate certificate programs, recognized and approved by university graduate schools, are relatively uncommon in colleges and schools of pharmacy, with only 9% of colleges and schools of pharmacy offering graduate certificate programs in several specialized pharmacy practice and other health care areas.8 A graduate certificate program has potential to provide graduates with advanced knowledge and skills and instill interest toward a particular field of pharmacy or health care as career option. However, there are no published data on the career paths of pharmacists with graduate certificates. Graduate certificate programs are also available to professionals from pharmacy and other health professions.
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These programs can be combined with the PharmD so that students can graduate with a combined PharmD/graduate certificate. Dual degree and graduates certificate programs provide interprofessional education and teamwork opportunities. For example, PharmD/MPH programs typically allow pharmacy students learning together with medical and nursing students. The PharmD/MD students at the Rutgers University participate in research or community project activities with medical students. Moreover, during the P4 year, students select APPE rotations in specialized clinical clerkships emphasizing interprofessional collaboration with physicians and medical students. At the University of Wisconsin–Madison, graduate certificate programs are collaboratively offered by the Schools of Pharmacy, Medicine and Public Health, Nursing, and Veterinary Medicine providing opportunities for interprofessional education and practice.21 A survey of students and graduates from PharmD/MBA, PharmD/MPA, and PharmD/MS programs at the University of Kentucky rated the opportunity to interact with students from disciplines outside of pharmacy as a valuable benefit of dual degree programs. Students indicated that they improved skills such as problem solving, communication, and leadership in these interdisciplinary programs.11 The policy statements approved by the AACP House of Delegates support interdisciplinary and interprofessional education for health professions education.22 Similarly, interprofessional education and practice are important components of a pharmacy education as described in Standard 11 of ACPE Standards 2016.1 Several colleges and schools of pharmacy have documented positive outcomes in regards to the dual degree graduates’ academic performance and success in their career paths. In 2008, a survey conducted among PharmD/MBA graduates of the South Carolina College of Pharmacy found that graduates showed high level of satisfaction and performed better academically than students who completed only one component (PharmD or MBA).23 Dual PharmD/ MBA graduates received more job opportunities, as well as higher compensations.18,23 A survey study in 2004 has shown that 47% of PharmD/PhD dual degree graduates entered academia and 43% in pharmaceutical industry.10 There are no published data on the potential career paths and monetary outcomes for the uniquely trained PharmD/MPH graduates. Despite the growth of dual degree in U.S. pharmacy colleges and schools, there has been very little information in published literature regarding the quality assessment, barriers, and challenges to development and implementation of a dual degree program. Developing a dual degree program requires careful planning and enormous problem solving. In 2009 AACP document on successful practices in Academic Pharmacy, two colleges and schools of pharmacy identified a number of challenges in implementation of dual degrees.24 From an administrator’s point of view, development of curricular framework, course sequencing and schedule adaptations, identifying overlapping courses
M.A. Islam et al. / Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning ] (2015) ]]]–]]]
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including electives, faculty commitment, building relationships between participating programs, and creating mechanism to communicate effectively between programs are critical in the development and implementation of dual degree programs. From a student’s perspective, demands of an enhanced academic workload with rigorous graduate level coursework, and additional tuition cost may appear as barriers to complete both the degrees. Although pharmacy colleges and schools have offered dual degrees for over 30 years, there is little information on the student enrollment and attrition rates in these programs. A survey of U.S. PharmD/PhD programs revealed that 86% of the responding colleges and schools had less than five students enrolled in the program.10 Attrition rates in these programs ranged from 20% to 60%. The challenges in student recruitment for PharmD/PhD programs have been the lack of funding.10 The strength of this study is that it provides a comprehensive picture of the specialty education available to the student pharmacists as well as graduate pharmacists. Moreover, this descriptive study may provide a useful guidance to pharmacy colleges and schools that are planning to expand programs. One limitation of our study is that the websites provided limited information on current enrollment, number of students graduated, and career outcomes for the different specialty programs.
2.
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Conclusion The trend to offer dual degree and graduate certificate programs by colleges and schools of pharmacy has increased and the areas of concentration have widened to permit graduates to broaden their employment opportunities. Colleges and schools of pharmacy need to continue to expand such specialty programs to enrich the evolving profession of pharmacy. Besides PharmD/MBA, MPH, PhD, opportunities exist to expand dual degree programs in health system management, health informatics, public administration, pharmacy law, and medicine. Similarly, there are opportunities for colleges and schools of pharmacy to explore offering combined PharmD/graduate certificate programs. While dual degrees and graduate certificate programs provide additional training and expertise in areas of pharmacy practice not adequately covered in the PharmD curriculum, future research is needed to assess the outcomes of these programs in regard to career paths.
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Acknowledgments 16.
The authors would like to thank Dr. Fred Farris for critically reading this article. References 1. Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE). Accreditation Standards and Key Elements for the Professional
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Program in Pharmacy Leading to the Doctor of Pharmacy Degree. ACPE Standards 2016. Available at 〈https://www. acpe-accredit.org/pdf/Standards2016FINAL.pdf〉; Accessed December 27, 2015. Medina MS, Plaza CM, Stowe CD, et al. Center for the advancement of pharmacy education (CAPE) 2013 educational outcomes. Am J Pharm Educ. 2013;77(8): Article 162. NAPLEX Blueprint Revised Competency Statements . Available at 〈http://www.nabp.net/programs/examination/naplex/naplexblueprintrevised〉; Accessed December 27, 2015. Paolini N, Rouse MJ. Scope of contemporary pharmacy practice: roles, responsibilities, and functions of pharmacists and pharmacy technicians executive summary. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2010;67(12):1030–1031. Schlaifer M, Rouse MJ. Scope of contemporary pharmacy practice: roles, responsibilities, and functions of pharmacists and pharmacy technicians. J Manag Care Pharm. 2010;16(7): 507–508. American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP). Academic Pharmacy’s Vital Statistics. 〈http://www.aacp.org/ about/Pages/Vitalstats.aspx〉; Accessed December 27, 2015. Knapp KK, Cultice JM. New pharmacist supply projections: lower separation rates and increased graduates boost supply estimates. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2007;47(4):463–470. Crismon ML, Albright FS, Canney DJ, et al. The role of dualdegree programs in colleges and schools of pharmacy: the report of the 2008–09 research and graduate affairs committee. Am J Pharm Educ. 2009;73(suppl):S6. Gortney JS, Seed S, Borja-Hart N, et al. The prevalence and characteristics of dual PharmD/MPH programs offered at US colleges and schools of pharmacy. Am J Pharm Educ. 2013;77 (6): Article 116. Gourley DR, Rowell C, Wingate L, et al. Status of PharmD/ PhD programs in colleges of pharmacy: the University of Tennessee dual PharmD/PhD program. Am J Pharm Educ. 2006;70(2): Article 44. Senft SL, Thompson C, Blumenschein K. Dual degree programs at the University of Kentucky College of Pharmacy. Am J Pharm Educ. 2008;72(1): Article 12. Santee J, Mead T, Garavalia L, Fincham J. Variety and quantity of professional electives. Am J Pharm Educ. 2012;76(10): Article 195. Thrasher K, O’Connor SK, Joyner PU. Rural health in pharmacy curricula. Am J Pharm Educ. 2012;76(9): Article 180. Pharmacy School Admission Requirements (PSAR 2013– 2014). Available at 〈http://www.aacp.org/resources/student/ pharmacyforyou/admissions/admissionrequirements/Docu ments/Table%204.pdf〉; Accessed December 27, 2015. Systematic reviews. CRD’s Guidance for Undertaking Review’s in Healthcare. Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, University of York 2009:28–29. Shannon SB, Bradley-Baker LR, Truong HA. Pharmacy residencies and dual degrees as complementary or competitive advanced training opportunities. Am J Pharm Educ. 2012;76 (8): Article 145. Migliore MM, Costantino RC, Campagna NA. Jr., Albers DS. Educational and career goals of pharmacy students upon graduation. Am J Pharm Educ. 2013;77(9): Article 187. Chumney EC, Ragucci KR, Jones KJ. Impact of a dual PharmD/MBA degree on graduates’ academic performance,
M.A. Islam et al. / Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning ] (2015) ]]]–]]] career opportunities, and earning potential. Am J Pharm Educ. 2008;72(2): Article 26. 19. Alkhateeb FM, Clauson KA, Latif DA. Availability and perceived value of masters of business administration degree programs in pharmaceutical marketing and management. Am J Pharm Educ. 2012;76(4): Article 64. 20. Oakley RS, Bradham DD, Kimberlin CL. An evaluation of the education of hospital pharmacy directors. Am J Pharm Educ. 1985;49(3):277–281. 21. Certificate Programs. University of Wisconsin–Madison School of Pharmacy. Available at 〈http://pharmacy.wisc.edu/ education/certificate-programs〉; Accessed December 27, 2015.
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22. Cumulative Policies 1980–2014. American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy House of Delegates. Available at 〈http:// www.aacp.org/governance/HOD/Documents/Cumulative%20Pol icy%201980-2014.pdf〉. Accessed December 27, 2015. 23. Chumney EC, Ragucci KR. Student satisfaction and academic performance in a dual PharmD/MBA degree program. Am J Pharm Educ. 2006;70(2): Article 29. 24. Successful Practices in College/School Involvement in Offering Dual-Degree Programs. Pharmaceutical Education 2009. Available at 〈http://www.aacp.org/resources/education/Docu ments/Successful%20Practices%20in%20Dual%20Degree% 20Final.pdf〉; Accessed December 27, 2015.
Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning ] (2015) ]]]–]]]
Research
http://www.pharmacyteaching.com
Specialty education for student pharmacists and PharmD graduates in U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy Mohammed A. Islam, RPh, PhDa,*, Seher A. Khan, PhDb, Simi Gunaseelan, PhDc, Rahmat Talukder, RPh, PhDc a
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Coast University School of Pharmacy, Los Angeles, CA b Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine School of Pharmacy, Erie, PA c Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Ben and Maytee Fisch College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX
Abstract Objective: To discuss the current status of dual degree and graduate certification programs offered by U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy. Methods: The websites of individual pharmacy colleges and schools were accessed, pertinent sections on dual degree and graduate certificate programs were identified, retrieved, and analyzed. Results: A total of 63 colleges or schools pharmacy are offering 125 dual degree programs for 2014–2015 academic year. Master of Business Administration (MBA) constitutes 37% of the total dual degrees followed by Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) (23%), Master of Public Health (MPH) (18%), Master of Science (MS) degrees in different areas of specialization (18%), and others (4.0%). A total of 30 graduate certificate programs which include regulatory affairs, clinical research design, patient safety, global health, etc. are offered by 12 colleges and schools. Admission requirements and curricular framework of these specialty programs vary by program types and institutions. Conclusion: Dual degrees and graduate certification programs with a wide array of specialties are emerging, which allow PharmD students/graduates to acquire new competencies and expertise along with PharmD degree. While there are positive outcomes documented for some of the programs, further study is required to evaluate the impact of these programs on students’ academic and career advancements. r 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Pharmacy; Dual degrees; Graduate certificate
Introduction The competency framework of U.S. entry-level Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) education integrates knowledge, skills, and values required to achieve expected educational
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. * Corresponding author: Mohammed A. Islam, RPh, PhD, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Coast University School of Pharmacy, 590 N Vermont Ave, Los Angeles, CA 90004. E-mail: [email protected] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cptl.2015.12.001 1877-1297/r 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
outcomes in four major domains: (1) patient-centered care, (2) health system management, (3) health and wellness, and (4) promotion of population-based care.1 In this context, the accreditation standards of Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE),1 the educational outcomes of the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) Center for the Advancement of Pharmacy Education (CAPE),2 and North American Pharmacist Licensure Examination (NAPLEX) blueprint for PharmD education3 align well with each other to address contemporary practice of pharmacy. With the evolving nature of
M.A. Islam et al. / Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning ] (2015) ]]]–]]]
2
Methods
MD
JD
MS
MPH
PhD
MBA 0
10
20 30 Number of dual degree programs
40
50
Fig. Dual degree programs in U.S. pharmacy schools/colleges. (MBA, Master of Business Administration; PhD, Doctor of Philosophy; MPH, Master of Public Health; MS, Master of Science; JD, Juris Doctor; and MD, Doctor of Medicine).
the pharmacy profession, the roles of pharmacists are expanding toward achieving a model of care determined by the broad spectrum of patient care and societal needs.4,5 In recent years, proliferation of new pharmacy programs has caused a surplus of pharmacists in certain regions of the country.6 Knapp and Cultice7 estimated that by 2020, there will be a 29% increase in the pharmacy workforce from 2007. With the current workforce environment, attaining full-time employment will continue to be more competitive for PharmD graduates. U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy are offering alternative educational pathways including dual degrees and graduate certification programs to expand career options for students in a rapidly changing health care field. In 2009, AACP Research and Graduate Affairs Committee looked into the structures and roles of dual degree programs offered by U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy.8 Colleges and schools of pharmacy have introduced dual or joint degrees such as PharmD/MBA, PharmD/MPH, and PharmD/PhD, PharmD/MS in geriatrics, PharmD/MS in health informatics, etc. with the goal of enhancing career opportunities as well as allowing specialization in an area of interest. The number of colleges and schools offering PharmD/MBA programs increased to 36 in 2009–2010 from 18 in 2001–2002.8 The offerings of PharmD/PhD dual degree followed same trend over the last decade.8 The prevalence and characteristics of PharmD/ MPH and PharmD/PhD programs have been reported.9,10 Previously, the PharmD/MBA, PharmD/MPA, and PharmD/ MS programs offered by a school/college of pharmacy have been described.11 The aim of this study is to describe the current status of dual degree and graduate certificates programs offered by U.S. colleges and schools of pharmacy and their impact on students’ career pathways.
A thorough search of websites of 132 U.S. pharmacy colleges and schools as described by other researchers12,13 was conducted to identify information regarding dual degrees and graduate certificate programs available for PharmD students and graduates. The search was conducted in November 2013 through June 2014 by the principal investigator. Two approaches were used for searching the websites of individual colleges or schools of pharmacy. The first approach was to search pages within the website related to PharmD curriculum, current students, and prospective students. Then, in some cases, intranet search of the websites was required to obtain information pertaining to dual degrees or graduate certificate programs. Key terms used in the search process included “dual degrees,” “joint degrees,” “combined degrees,” and “graduate certificates.” The AACP Pharmacy School Admission Requirements (PSAR2013-2014)14 were also accessed and reviewed. In addition, searches of PubMed (http://www.pubmed.gov), Google search engine (http://www.google.com/), Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.com/), and the websites of the American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education were conducted to identify any relevant published studies. Document analysis and data extraction from electronic documents were performed utilizing a systematic approach.15 All data were recorded in Microsoft Excels worksheets. This research was granted exempt status by the Institutional Review Board of West Coast University. Results Dual degrees A total of 63 out of 132 U.S. pharmacy colleges and schools are offering 125 dual degree programs (Fig.). The predominant dual degree is PharmD/MBA (n ¼ 46; 37%) followed by PharmD/PhD (n ¼ 29; 23%), PharmD/MPH (n ¼ 23; 18%), and PharmD/MS (n ¼ 22; 18%). Table 1 lists the diverse specific areas of PharmD/MS programs offered by 11 colleges and schools. There are four colleges and schools offering PharmD/JD and one program offering PharmD/MD. There are seven accelerated PharmD programs (block or quarter system) offering dual degrees. Each dual degree program is focused with achieving competencies as required by the respective accreditation standards for each degree component. Admission to the non-pharmacy component of dual degree programs occur after a student has been admitted into the PharmD program and has satisfactorily completed 2–3 semesters of the PharmD program. In most instances, the requirement of baccalaureate degree appears to be waived for dual degree programs as completing the first or second year of PharmD credits can be considered equivalent to a baccalaureate degree. However, there are a few exceptions. Admission into the PharmD/MBA dual degree programs at the University of Southern
M.A. Islam et al. / Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning ] (2015) ]]]–]]] Table 1 Dual doctor of pharmacy (PharmD)/MS degrees in diverse areas of pharmacy and health care areas Non-PharmD components of PharmD/MS dual degrees
No. of university offeringa
MS health informatics MHS in regulatory services MS in global medicine (MSGM) MS HCDA (health care decision analysis) MHS health services MA in communication MA in industrial/organizational psychology MS in pharmaceutical sciences MS in clinical leadership and health care management MS in clinical research MS in education MS in research MS in industry MS in ageing (gerontology) MS in pharmaceutical outcome research and policy MS in public administration (MPA) MS in clinical and translational science
3 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
a A total of 11 universities offer dual PharmD/MS degrees. Some universities offer multiple MS degrees.
California, East Tennessee State University, and Shenandoah University requires completion of baccalaureate degree. In most dual degree programs, it is also required that a cumulative GPA of 3.0 maintained throughout the P1 year. Admission to a PhD component of the dual degree program is controlled by the university’s graduate school and requires a separate admission application. Most PharmD/PhD programs require completion of a baccalaureate degree or its equivalent before admission into the program. The first of its kind, the new ten-year PharmD/MD dual degree program, developed by joint collaboration between Rutgers University Robert Wood Johnson Medical School and Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, was launched in the fall of 2014. Students apply for admission to medical school during spring semester of P2 year and formally admitted before beginning of P3 year. The program expects three to five students to enroll annually. The admission is highly competitive and applicants should have a GPA of 3.5 or better that needs to be maintained throughout the remainder of the PharmD program. Total program duration for PharmD/MBA, PharmD/ MPH ranges from four to six years and for PharmD/PhD, it is typically seven plus years. The curricular structures of dual degree programs involve stop–start model and credit sharing strategies and summer/evening coursework. In a stop–start model, students stop progressing in the PharmD program for a year, typically at the fourth professional year,
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and take full-course loads for the non-PharmD degree component. Table 2 shows core courses offered by the non-PharmD component of dual degrees that complement the PharmD courses. Dual degree students utilize selected coursework from the non-PharmD components such as public health, business, public administration, or clinical research to account for PharmD elective requirements. Similarly, selected PharmD coursework also accounts for electives in the non-PharmD component. One or more elective APPEs in the final PharmD professional year also accounts for an experiential requirement for the non-PharmD component (such as MPH or MBA). The PharmD/MD dual degree program enables students to conceptualize and carry out research projects and participate Table 2 Examples of core courses of non-PharmD component of dual degrees (PharmD/MBA, PharmD/MPH, and PharmD/JD) MBA core courses Managerial economics Managerial accounting Managerial finance Business law and corporate responsibility Marketing concepts and practice Management information system Communications technology Corporate finance Ethical leadership Accounting for decision making Economics of competitive strategy Marketing strategy Business strategy Operations management Managing corporate integrity Managerial statistics Managers and legal environment MPH Core Courses Health system and Policy Principles and methods of epidemiology Environmental and occupational health Biostatistics Health education and behavioral science in public health Health Foundations of public health Public health ethics Introduction to health promotion and disease prevention Prevention Introduction to the US health care system Global environmental health Health services administration Urban health assessment JD core courses Legal analysis and writing Criminal law Written and oral advocacy Intro to legal research Civil procedure: litigation process Civil procedure: jurisdiction/judgments Constitutional law I: governance
M.A. Islam et al. / Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning ] (2015) ]]]–]]]
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Table 3 Characteristics and structures of graduate certificate programsa Credit hours Graduate certificate programs
Total numbers offered
Didactic courses b
Experiential/field work/research projects
Regulatory affairs
7
6–14
Patient safety Clinical research/trials Drug discovery and development Health/pharmacoeconomics Food safety Consumer health advocacy Type 2 translational research Global health Geriatric pharmacy Health policy
4 4 1
9–15 12–17
0–3 (Research project) 0–2 (Research project)
2 1 1 1 1 2 1
14 12 12 11–12 8 8–14b 6
0 0 0 3 1 6 3
a b
0–3 (Case study—thesis)
Curricular delivery/duration Blended (online and on-campus)/12 months Up to 24 months Up to 24 months
Online Blended (online and on-campus) (Project 2 and seminar 1 credit) On-campus/24 months (Global heath field experience) 24 months (APPE) (Case study—thesis) Online/412 months
Other graduate certificate programs include health economics, medicinal chemistry, business administration, pharmacy education, and pharmacy sciences. Course credits from one-quarter system (3 quarters) program (credit hours adjusted to semester hours).
in interdisciplinary clinical rotations and clerkships. Students receive a dual degree concurrently or at different times when the requirements for each degree are completed. In PharmD/PhD dual degree programs, students earn their PharmD degree prior to the PhD research components that usually take additional three or more years to complete.
Graduate certificate programs According to our data, 12 colleges and schools of pharmacy offer a total of 30 graduate certificate programs (Table 3). Common specializations of graduate certificate programs include regulatory affairs, clinical research design, patient safety, geriatrics, health policy and management, and global health, among others. These programs are open to PharmD students, practicing pharmacists, and other health sciences students/graduates for enrollment. Some programs are available online in addition to onsite offerings. Admission into these programs requires a minimum overall GPA of 3.0 on a 4.0 scale. Programs differ in curricular requirements for required and elective didactic credits. A graduate certificate program requires completion of a total of 9–20 credits of didactic and experiential/field work/ research projects within nine months to two years. There is a GPA requirement of 2.7 or above depending on the program for completion of graduate certificate courses. There are several graduate certificate programs jointly administered by the school/colleges of pharmacy and other colleges in the university. At the University of Wisconsin– Madison, five graduate certificate programs namely, consumer health advocacy, global health, fundamentals of clinical research, type two translational research, and patient
safety are collaboratively offered by the Schools of Pharmacy, Medicine and Public Health, Nursing, Veterinary Medicine, College of Engineering, and the Division of International Studies. Each of the graduate certificate programs includes a wide array of core and elective graduate level courses that complement the PharmD program and prepare students for a specialized field of health care or pharmacy practice. For example, the curriculum of global health certificate program focuses on international health care systems, health policy, epidemiology, health promotion, prevention and management of disease outbreaks, environmental health, or other interdisciplinary topics. In addition to didactic courses, the global health certificate requires global health field experience in an international setting.
Discussion Dual degree programs have emerged as alternative educational pathways for PharmD graduates. The numbers of dual degree programs offered by colleges and schools of pharmacy have been expanding.8 In 2009–2010, AACP Research and Graduate Affairs Committee used the 2009– 2010 edition of PSAR and identified 41 colleges and schools that were offering 51 dual degrees.8 However, a later study involving pharmacy college and school website research documented 52 colleges and schools offering dual degrees in the academic year of 2010–2011.16 Dual degree programs prepare students for potential career opportunities in specialized areas of pharmacy practice and other health care arenas.16 A recent study conducted at the School of Pharmacy—Boston at Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences
M.A. Islam et al. / Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning ] (2015) ]]]–]]]
(MCPHS) University showed that PharmD students were interested in pursuing an additional advanced degree to complement or supplement their evolving career endeavors. In that study, MBA was found to be the most favored degree followed by MD, MS, and/or PhD.17 PharmD/MBA, the most prevalent dual degree, is highly regarded for its wide applications in health care arenas such as institutional and community pharmacies, pharmaceutical industry, managed care, and academia.18,19 Pharmacists with an MBA or MS degrees are equipped with enhanced leadership and management skills that can help address the anticipated leadership gap in the pharmacy profession.20 Similarly, other dual degrees allow graduates to advance the roles of pharmacists on various professional or societal needs. For instance, a PharmD/PhD dual degree prepares graduates with knowledge, skills, and research expertise to serve in academic pharmacy or in pharmaceutical research areas.10 The PharmD/MPH dual degree programs provide advanced knowledge and expertise in areas such as statistics, epidemiology, and data analysis. In addition, the curricula of PharmD/MPH programs greatly emphasize health promotion, disease prevention, and public health services. While pharmacists with PharmD/MPH are uniquely qualified to serve in all domains of public health, questions remain unanswered about their career trajectory. A PharmD/JD program equips its graduates with specialized knowledge and competencies in legal and regulatory affairs in pharmacy practice and diverse health care arenas such as health care policy development and consultation, policy analysis, and the health care reform process. The PharmD/ MD dual degree program has been designed to generate interdisciplinary practitioners who will be the leaders in collaborative clinical practice, academic research, and pharmaceutical industry. The curriculum for dual degrees is structured in such a way that students are simultaneously enrolled in two different degree programs. Sharing course credits between two components of a dual degree facilitates completion of both the degrees in a shorter time frame than if one completed the two degrees separately. Often the nonPharmD component of the dual degree program is offered by another college/school within the university, but in some instances, by a college/school in another university. Graduate certificate programs, recognized and approved by university graduate schools, are relatively uncommon in colleges and schools of pharmacy, with only 9% of colleges and schools of pharmacy offering graduate certificate programs in several specialized pharmacy practice and other health care areas.8 A graduate certificate program has potential to provide graduates with advanced knowledge and skills and instill interest toward a particular field of pharmacy or health care as career option. However, there are no published data on the career paths of pharmacists with graduate certificates. Graduate certificate programs are also available to professionals from pharmacy and other health professions.
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These programs can be combined with the PharmD so that students can graduate with a combined PharmD/graduate certificate. Dual degree and graduates certificate programs provide interprofessional education and teamwork opportunities. For example, PharmD/MPH programs typically allow pharmacy students learning together with medical and nursing students. The PharmD/MD students at the Rutgers University participate in research or community project activities with medical students. Moreover, during the P4 year, students select APPE rotations in specialized clinical clerkships emphasizing interprofessional collaboration with physicians and medical students. At the University of Wisconsin–Madison, graduate certificate programs are collaboratively offered by the Schools of Pharmacy, Medicine and Public Health, Nursing, and Veterinary Medicine providing opportunities for interprofessional education and practice.21 A survey of students and graduates from PharmD/MBA, PharmD/MPA, and PharmD/MS programs at the University of Kentucky rated the opportunity to interact with students from disciplines outside of pharmacy as a valuable benefit of dual degree programs. Students indicated that they improved skills such as problem solving, communication, and leadership in these interdisciplinary programs.11 The policy statements approved by the AACP House of Delegates support interdisciplinary and interprofessional education for health professions education.22 Similarly, interprofessional education and practice are important components of a pharmacy education as described in Standard 11 of ACPE Standards 2016.1 Several colleges and schools of pharmacy have documented positive outcomes in regards to the dual degree graduates’ academic performance and success in their career paths. In 2008, a survey conducted among PharmD/MBA graduates of the South Carolina College of Pharmacy found that graduates showed high level of satisfaction and performed better academically than students who completed only one component (PharmD or MBA).23 Dual PharmD/ MBA graduates received more job opportunities, as well as higher compensations.18,23 A survey study in 2004 has shown that 47% of PharmD/PhD dual degree graduates entered academia and 43% in pharmaceutical industry.10 There are no published data on the potential career paths and monetary outcomes for the uniquely trained PharmD/MPH graduates. Despite the growth of dual degree in U.S. pharmacy colleges and schools, there has been very little information in published literature regarding the quality assessment, barriers, and challenges to development and implementation of a dual degree program. Developing a dual degree program requires careful planning and enormous problem solving. In 2009 AACP document on successful practices in Academic Pharmacy, two colleges and schools of pharmacy identified a number of challenges in implementation of dual degrees.24 From an administrator’s point of view, development of curricular framework, course sequencing and schedule adaptations, identifying overlapping courses
M.A. Islam et al. / Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning ] (2015) ]]]–]]]
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including electives, faculty commitment, building relationships between participating programs, and creating mechanism to communicate effectively between programs are critical in the development and implementation of dual degree programs. From a student’s perspective, demands of an enhanced academic workload with rigorous graduate level coursework, and additional tuition cost may appear as barriers to complete both the degrees. Although pharmacy colleges and schools have offered dual degrees for over 30 years, there is little information on the student enrollment and attrition rates in these programs. A survey of U.S. PharmD/PhD programs revealed that 86% of the responding colleges and schools had less than five students enrolled in the program.10 Attrition rates in these programs ranged from 20% to 60%. The challenges in student recruitment for PharmD/PhD programs have been the lack of funding.10 The strength of this study is that it provides a comprehensive picture of the specialty education available to the student pharmacists as well as graduate pharmacists. Moreover, this descriptive study may provide a useful guidance to pharmacy colleges and schools that are planning to expand programs. One limitation of our study is that the websites provided limited information on current enrollment, number of students graduated, and career outcomes for the different specialty programs.
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Conclusion The trend to offer dual degree and graduate certificate programs by colleges and schools of pharmacy has increased and the areas of concentration have widened to permit graduates to broaden their employment opportunities. Colleges and schools of pharmacy need to continue to expand such specialty programs to enrich the evolving profession of pharmacy. Besides PharmD/MBA, MPH, PhD, opportunities exist to expand dual degree programs in health system management, health informatics, public administration, pharmacy law, and medicine. Similarly, there are opportunities for colleges and schools of pharmacy to explore offering combined PharmD/graduate certificate programs. While dual degrees and graduate certificate programs provide additional training and expertise in areas of pharmacy practice not adequately covered in the PharmD curriculum, future research is needed to assess the outcomes of these programs in regard to career paths.
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Acknowledgments 16.
The authors would like to thank Dr. Fred Farris for critically reading this article. References 1. Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE). Accreditation Standards and Key Elements for the Professional
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22. Cumulative Policies 1980–2014. American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy House of Delegates. Available at 〈http:// www.aacp.org/governance/HOD/Documents/Cumulative%20Pol icy%201980-2014.pdf〉. Accessed December 27, 2015. 23. Chumney EC, Ragucci KR. Student satisfaction and academic performance in a dual PharmD/MBA degree program. Am J Pharm Educ. 2006;70(2): Article 29. 24. Successful Practices in College/School Involvement in Offering Dual-Degree Programs. Pharmaceutical Education 2009. Available at 〈http://www.aacp.org/resources/education/Docu ments/Successful%20Practices%20in%20Dual%20Degree% 20Final.pdf〉; Accessed December 27, 2015.