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Sport and Mental Health
Sport and Mental Health P Chelladurai, Troy University, Troy, AL, USA M Anderson, Hill Air Force Base, Utah, USA r 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Glossary Anomie It is the sense of alienation, lack of purpose, and feeling socially adrift. Athlete identity It is said to be associated with academic commitment and performance, teamwork, and collective achievement. Egalitarian sport Egalitarian sport (variously called mass sport or participant sport) refers to pursuit of pleasure in sport. It is fundamentally a gregarious activity engaged in for the pleasure derived from that activity. Elite sport It refers to pursuit of excellence in sport and is restricted to persons of high ability. It is characterized by
The term sport has been used to include all forms of physical activity. For instance, the Council of Europe in declaring its European Sports Charter defines sport as follows: Sport means all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organized participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels (Council of Europe, European Sports Charter, 1992).
In North America, however, the terms human kinetics, kinesiology, and physical activity are used to refer to all physical activities including sport. For the purposes of the present article and this Encyclopedia, we distinguish between physical activity and sport by defining sport as a form of physical activity involving skills exhibited in competitions governed by rules, and engaged in for the pleasure of participation or in pursuit of excellence in that sport or for witnessing sporting excellence in action. The above description of sport implies three different domains of sporting activity – egalitarian sport, elite sport, and entertainment sport (Chelladurai, 2012). Egalitarian sport (variously called as mass sport or participant sport) is fundamentally a gregarious activity engaged in for the pleasure derived from that activity. It is more closely related to the notion of “play” which Huizinga (1955) defined as “a free activity…outside ordinary life and being not serious but that nevertheless absorbs the participant completely. It is an activity connected with no material interest, and no profit can be gained by it. It proceeds within its own proper boundaries of time and space according to fixed rules and in an orderly manner (Chelladurai, 2012, p. 336).
high dedication, huge sacrifices, and extraordinary effort over a prolonged period of time. Entertainment sport Entertainment sport (also labeled spectator sport) is based on the popularity of a sport in a country and the excellence of the contestants. Jock identity Jock identity is associated with deemphasizing academics, self-promotion and glory seeking, vanity, and bullying. Team identification It refers to one’s emotional attachment and commitment to a sport team. It facilitates social connections with others identifying with the focal team.
In contrast to egalitarian sport which includes everyone irrespective of their ability, elite sport is restricted to persons of high ability with a determination to excel in the activity. High dedication, huge sacrifices, and extraordinary effort over a long time are required to excel in an activity. Thus, in contrast to egalitarian sport which is play in essence, elite sport is a serious business involving deliberate practice and progressively challenging competitions. It is an exclusionary process wherein those who do not meet the standards are eliminated at successive levels leaving only the best at the top. The third segment of the sport industry is entertainment sport. The popularity of a sport is the basis for the entertainment value of that sport. Thus, cricket has great entertainment value in India and football (the American version) is relatively unknown in that country. The reverse is true in the United States. In addition, the excellence exhibited by the contestants is another factor of appeal – greater the excellence the greater the appeal. The following sections outline the relationship between each of the domains of sport and mental health defined as “a state of well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to her or his community” (World Health Organization, 2013). It is important to note that the World Health Organization also specifies that “mental health is not just the absence of mental disorder.” Accordingly, this article deals with the general well-being of persons without focusing on any specific mental disorder.
Mental Health and Egalitarian Sport It must also be noted that the term ‘sport’ is derived from the French word desporter which means a diversionary activity to carry away from work and whose purpose is maximizing pleasure for both participants (Keating, 1964). The emphasis here is the pleasure inherent in such activity.
Encyclopedia of Mental Health, Volume 4
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2005 Youth Risk Behavior Survey elicited data from 13 857 high school students on (1) their sense of hopelessness and suicidality, (2) their level of physical activity, and (3) their extent of
doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-397045-9.00224-X
215
216
Sport and Mental Health
participation in sport teams. In analyzing this data set, Taliaferro et al. (2008) found that males participating in sport teams experienced significantly lower rates of hopelessness and suicidality than nonathletes. The results for females were similar except that the difference between female athletes and female nonathletes was not as wide as among males. This effect was more pronounced after controlling for physical activity. Further, those who engaged in multiple sports exhibited much less hopelessness and suicidality. Based on these findings, the authors speculated that such protection against adolescent suicidality stems from sport providing social support and social integration with teammates, coaches, family, and community. This view is consistent with earlier research which suggested that youth who perceived social support exhibited less hopelessness and reduced suicide risk. Eime et al. (2010) show that participation of 818 women in rural Australia in club sports (predominantly netball and tennis) was associated significantly more with mental health benefits than participation in fitness activities in a gym or walking. These health and mental health benefits were physical role functioning, vitality, social functioning, and mental health as measured by four subscales of the Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36) – and summary scores for mental health and life satisfaction. They suggested that these enhanced benefits from participation in club sports may result from social connectedness, social support and peer bonding, life satisfaction, and self-esteem. Miller and Hofmann (2009) studied the relationship among sport participation (both team and individual sports), athlete identity and jock identity, and depression and suicidal behavior among 791 undergraduate students. Their results showed that participation in a team sport and athlete identity were associated with lower depression scores. Miller and Hoffman argued that organized sports facilitate the involvement of individuals in a social network wherein frequent interactions with peers, coaches, and health professionals strengthen social bonds. Individuals in such a network may be less alienated and socially adrift and may feel less hopelessness. As for identity, Miller and Hoffman recommend the inclusion of the subjective dimension of sport-related psychosocial identities – athletic identity or jock identity. Athlete identity is said to be associated with academic commitment and performance, teamwork, and collective achievement. In contrast, jock identity is associated with deemphasizing academics, self-promotion and glory seeking, vanity, and bullying. Those with athletic identity were expected to be more socially integrated and thus protected from anomie and consequent mental disorders. This proposition was supported in Miller and Hoffman’s research which found that athlete identity was significantly and negatively associated with both depression and suicidal behavior. Although jock identity did not predict depression scores, it was positively associated with odds of a suicide attempt. The findings support the notion of a ‘toxic jock’, meaning a merger of sports involvement and a brand of masculinity which subscribes to risk-taking, substance use, and sexual aggression. Additionally, they refer to studies suggesting a curvilinear relationship in the association between the extent of sports participation and depression. They note that intense and
prolonged training could be isolating the individual from social interactions rather than contributing to socializing. We note here that ‘intense and prolonged training’ is more characteristic of elite sport than egalitarian sport. Asztalos et al. (2009) analyzed the data collected by the Flemish Policy Research Center Sport employing the Flemish Physical Activity Computerized Questionnaire (FPACQ) which included demographics and physical activities of 1919 working and unemployed people. The five types of physical activity included were sports participation, housework, leisure active transportation, biking to/from work, and walking to/ from work. The data set also included perceived stress measured with the Perceived Stress Scale and psychological distress measured by the General Health Questionnaire. Based on their findings, they concluded that “sports participation and no other type of physical activity included in the study was consistently associated with significantly less stress and less distress” (p. 471). They argue further that sports participation is a freely chosen leisure time activity for recreation, enjoyment, and social interaction which have been associated with psychological well-being, whereas other forms of physical activity are based on necessity as in household work and active transportation which entail compulsion to some extent.
Mental Health and Elite Sport Weigand et al. (2013) studied the extent of depression among current and former athletes at the level of the NCAA Division I. They expected that former athletes would succumb to more depression because of the change in their lifestyles and loss of personal identity. But they found that the current athletes’ depression level was significantly higher than that of former athletes. They explained this finding by referring to the negative effects of stressors such as overtraining, pressure to perform, lack of free time, or stress from schoolwork which might have contributed to increased susceptibility to depressive symptoms. Armstrong and Oomen-Early (2001) advance two perspectives on the relationship between athletic participation and mental health. In the negative perspective, athletes represent a high-risk population because of the stressors of injuries, overtraining, lack of sleep, and feeling of exhaustion which are associated with depression. In the positive perspective, athletes are protected from depression because of their lifestyles that involve regular exercise, increased selfesteem, social support, and connectedness. Their study of NCAA Division I athletes and nonathletes in a small university showed that athletes exhibited significantly higher levels of self-esteem and social connectedness and significantly lower levels of depression. They opined that social network and team support may protect the athlete from depression. Athletes are more likely than the general population to be predisposed to depression because of the physical and psychological demands of the pursuit of excellence and the concomitant stress which is associated with depression (Mummery, 2005). Even though exercise is said to reduce depression, its effect seems to be dependent on the volume, duration, and intensity of training. Existing research indicates a curvilinear relationship between the volume of exercise and
Sport and Mental Health
health benefits. Beyond a certain limit, excessive exercise may lead to psychological dysfunction (Mummery, 2005). As highlevel athletes spend more than 15 h a week almost throughout the year, they are prone to staleness, stress, burnout (physical or emotional exhaustion), and depression. Depression and depressive symptoms in athletes might be related to high volumes and intensities of training, to maladaptive cognitions in relation to sport and competition, or to a combination of both. To understand and address the issues that underlie depression and depressive symptoms in athletes, therefore, the relative contribution made by the amount of training and the mind-set of the participant needs to be established. Psychosocial issues, relating to burnout and depression, require a different form of attention and treatment than do mood disturbances caused by physical overload or exhaustion (Mummery, 2005, p. 537).
Apparently, mental health problems appear to be common among American intercollegiate athletes. The growing concern with these mental health problems has prompted the National Association of Athletic Trainers and the National Collegiate Athletic Association to announce a set of recommendations to be followed by athletic trainers, coaches, physicians, administrators and others who work with the athletes (Burnsed, 2013).
Mental Health and Entertainment Sport There are not that many studies that delved into relationship between spectating at sport events and mental health issues. However, there has been a steady stream of studies supporting Wann’s (2006) Team Identification-Social Psychological Health Model, which posits that team identification facilitates social connections which, in turn, contributes to social psychological health. Social psychological health is manifested in personal self-esteem, positive emotions and is negatively associated with depression, alienation, and negative affect. The basic premise of Wann’s model is that humans derive important psychological benefits from fulfilling their inherent need to identify and associate with others. The identification with others is greatly facilitated by attaching oneself to significant organizations such as sport teams which, in turn, results in the development of a social network. Being part of such a social network has been shown to provide psychological support making the individual mentally healthier meaning lower rates of depression, anxiety, loneliness, and the like. Wann also distinguishes between two different routes to enhance their well-being. The first route is where sport fans attach themselves to successful teams and revel in the teams’ achievements to enhance their social identity. The second route reflects the level of a fan’s identification with a team. Sport identification refers to a fan’s “psychological connection to a team, that is, the extent to which the fan views the team as an extension of his or herself” (p. 273). Identification with a team leads to increased interactions among others of the same cadre and consequent well-being reflected in increased personal selfesteem, social self-esteem, lower levels of loneliness, depression, alienation, and lower levels of anger, tension, and confusion. All of these mental health benefits accrue to the individual not because of team identification per se, but rather, because identification
217
can lead to important connections with others…Only when the role of team follower leads to a sense of belongingness to and camaraderie with others would one expect to find psychological benefits related to the identification (Wann, 2006, p. 275).
A cautionary note is in order here. Although considerable research support is there for the relationship between team identification and mental health benefits, Wann alerts us to the fact that high levels of identification can in some circumstances lead to spectator violence and aggression.
Concluding Remarks The sparse literature on the effects of sport participation on mental health indicates that participation in egalitarian sport does contribute positively to mental health. The freedom and spontaneity of participation in egalitarian sport and the sense of belonging to a group and the social interactions thereof are said to be reasons for the positive effects on mental health. However, it must be noted that the studies reviewed were cross sectional and the results were not derived from experimental designs where participants were allocated to different treatments. In other words, there were no interventions. Therefore, reverse correlation (meaning that mentally healthy people participated more in sports) cannot be ruled out. The issues of causation aside, Miller and Hoffman (2009) invoke Durkheim’s (1897/1966) exposition on social integration, alienation, anomie (feeling socially adrift), and suicidal tendencies for their argument that participation in sports teams reduces the sense of alienation and anomie and thus enhances the mental health of those participants. Berkman et al. (2000) argue that social networks (i.e., sports teams in the present context) influence individual behaviors through (1) provision of social support, (2) social influence, (3) social engagement, and (4) access to resources and material goods. Of interest to us is that these influences affect one’s mental health in the form of self-efficacy, self-esteem, coping effectiveness, reduced depression/distress, and sense of well-being. Eime et al. (2010) also emphasize the social aspects of club sports and the enjoyment of playing sports as the reasons for higher scores of clubs sports participants on mental health scores. The issue here is that social networks may be operative even in the context of exercise or walking groups. In fact, exercise psychologists have found that social support facilitates adherence to exercise (e.g., Buckworth and Dishman, 2007). Thus, in so far as the influences of social networks may be operative in any group setting (exercise or sport), the added advantages experienced by participants in sports teams may stem from not only individual characteristics and group dynamics but also from factors inherent in and unique to egalitarian sports. There are two additional factors that distinguish sports participation from fitness activities and walking. They are (1) the mastery and exhibition of skills in a sport and (2) competition. For instance, tennis and netball require participants to exhibit skills that they are not naturally endowed with as in walking, stretching, bending, and/or lifting weights.
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Acquisition and mastery of such skills lead to a higher sense of competence and self-esteem. Further, the head-to-head competition inherent in such sports impels the participants to exert themselves maximally to score a point. It must be noted that the exertion to win a point is a necessary condition to enjoy the kinesthetic pleasures of sport participation. However, the outcome of that effort is immaterial in egalitarian sport while it is critical in elite sport where one can establish excellence by winning points and games (Chelladurai, 2012). Future research need to investigate the relationships among the unique features of egalitarian sports and mental health in general and the alleviation of specific mental disorders.
See also: Awe and the Natural Environment. Burnout. Exercise, Physical Activity, and Mental Health. Play Therapy. Self-Esteem. Stress
References Armstrong, S., Oomen-Early, J., 2001. Social connectedness, self-esteem, and depression symptomatology among collegiate athletes versus nonathletes. Journal of American College Health 57 (5), 521–526. Asztalos, M., Wijndaele, K., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., et al., 2009. Specific associations between types of physical activity and components of mental health. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 12, 468–474. Berkman, L.F., Glass, T., Brissette, I., Seeman, T.E., 2000. From social integration to health: Durkheim in the new millennium. Social Science and Medicine 51, 843–857.
Buckworth, J., Dishman, R.K., 2007. Exercise adherence. In: Tenenbaum, G., Eklund, R.C. (Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology, third ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 509–536. Burnsed, B., 2013. NATA, NCAA and others announce mental health recommendations. NCAA News, p.3 (25.09.13). Chelladurai, P., 2012. Leadership and manifestations of sport. In: Murphy, S. (Ed.), The Handbook of Sport and Performance Psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 328–342. Chapter 17. Council of Europe, 1992. European Sports Charter. Available at: https://wcd.coe.int/ ViewDoc.jspRef=Rec(92)13&Sector=secCM&Language=lanEnglish&Ver= rev&BackColorInternet=9999CC&BackColorIntranet=FFBB55&BackColorLogged= FFAC75 (accessed 14.11.13). Durkheim, E., 1897/1966. Suicide: A Study in Sociology. New York, NY: Free Press. Trans. J. A. Spaulding and G. Simpson. Eime, R.M., Harvey, J.T., Brown, W.J., Payne, W.R., 2010. Does sports club participation contribute to health-related quality of life? Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 42 (5), 1022–1028. Keating, J.W., 1964. Sportsmanship as a Moral Category. Ethics 75, 25–35. Miller, K.E., Hoffman, J.H., 2009. Mental well-being and sport-related identities in college students. Sociology of Sport Journal 26, 335–356. Mummery, K., 2005. Depression in sport. Lancet 366, 536–537. Taliaferro, L.A., Rienzo, B.A., Miller, M.D., Pigg, R.M., Dodd, V.J., 2008. High school youth and suicide risk: exploring protection afforded through physical activity and sport participation. Journal of School Health 78 (10), 545–553. Wann, D.L., 2006. Understanding the positive social psychological benefits of sport team identification. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice 10 (4), 272–296. Weigand, S., Cohen, J., Merenstein, D., 2013. Susceptibility for depression in current and retired student athletes. Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach 5, 263–266. World Health Organization, 2013. What is mental health? Available at: http://www. who.int/features/qa/62/en/index.html (accessed 01.11.13)
Glossary Anomie It is the sense of alienation, lack of purpose, and feeling socially adrift. Athlete identity It is said to be associated with academic commitment and performance, teamwork, and collective achievement. Egalitarian sport Egalitarian sport (variously called mass sport or participant sport) refers to pursuit of pleasure in sport. It is fundamentally a gregarious activity engaged in for the pleasure derived from that activity. Elite sport It refers to pursuit of excellence in sport and is restricted to persons of high ability. It is characterized by
The term sport has been used to include all forms of physical activity. For instance, the Council of Europe in declaring its European Sports Charter defines sport as follows: Sport means all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organized participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels (Council of Europe, European Sports Charter, 1992).
In North America, however, the terms human kinetics, kinesiology, and physical activity are used to refer to all physical activities including sport. For the purposes of the present article and this Encyclopedia, we distinguish between physical activity and sport by defining sport as a form of physical activity involving skills exhibited in competitions governed by rules, and engaged in for the pleasure of participation or in pursuit of excellence in that sport or for witnessing sporting excellence in action. The above description of sport implies three different domains of sporting activity – egalitarian sport, elite sport, and entertainment sport (Chelladurai, 2012). Egalitarian sport (variously called as mass sport or participant sport) is fundamentally a gregarious activity engaged in for the pleasure derived from that activity. It is more closely related to the notion of “play” which Huizinga (1955) defined as “a free activity…outside ordinary life and being not serious but that nevertheless absorbs the participant completely. It is an activity connected with no material interest, and no profit can be gained by it. It proceeds within its own proper boundaries of time and space according to fixed rules and in an orderly manner (Chelladurai, 2012, p. 336).
high dedication, huge sacrifices, and extraordinary effort over a prolonged period of time. Entertainment sport Entertainment sport (also labeled spectator sport) is based on the popularity of a sport in a country and the excellence of the contestants. Jock identity Jock identity is associated with deemphasizing academics, self-promotion and glory seeking, vanity, and bullying. Team identification It refers to one’s emotional attachment and commitment to a sport team. It facilitates social connections with others identifying with the focal team.
In contrast to egalitarian sport which includes everyone irrespective of their ability, elite sport is restricted to persons of high ability with a determination to excel in the activity. High dedication, huge sacrifices, and extraordinary effort over a long time are required to excel in an activity. Thus, in contrast to egalitarian sport which is play in essence, elite sport is a serious business involving deliberate practice and progressively challenging competitions. It is an exclusionary process wherein those who do not meet the standards are eliminated at successive levels leaving only the best at the top. The third segment of the sport industry is entertainment sport. The popularity of a sport is the basis for the entertainment value of that sport. Thus, cricket has great entertainment value in India and football (the American version) is relatively unknown in that country. The reverse is true in the United States. In addition, the excellence exhibited by the contestants is another factor of appeal – greater the excellence the greater the appeal. The following sections outline the relationship between each of the domains of sport and mental health defined as “a state of well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to her or his community” (World Health Organization, 2013). It is important to note that the World Health Organization also specifies that “mental health is not just the absence of mental disorder.” Accordingly, this article deals with the general well-being of persons without focusing on any specific mental disorder.
Mental Health and Egalitarian Sport It must also be noted that the term ‘sport’ is derived from the French word desporter which means a diversionary activity to carry away from work and whose purpose is maximizing pleasure for both participants (Keating, 1964). The emphasis here is the pleasure inherent in such activity.
Encyclopedia of Mental Health, Volume 4
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2005 Youth Risk Behavior Survey elicited data from 13 857 high school students on (1) their sense of hopelessness and suicidality, (2) their level of physical activity, and (3) their extent of
doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-397045-9.00224-X
215
216
Sport and Mental Health
participation in sport teams. In analyzing this data set, Taliaferro et al. (2008) found that males participating in sport teams experienced significantly lower rates of hopelessness and suicidality than nonathletes. The results for females were similar except that the difference between female athletes and female nonathletes was not as wide as among males. This effect was more pronounced after controlling for physical activity. Further, those who engaged in multiple sports exhibited much less hopelessness and suicidality. Based on these findings, the authors speculated that such protection against adolescent suicidality stems from sport providing social support and social integration with teammates, coaches, family, and community. This view is consistent with earlier research which suggested that youth who perceived social support exhibited less hopelessness and reduced suicide risk. Eime et al. (2010) show that participation of 818 women in rural Australia in club sports (predominantly netball and tennis) was associated significantly more with mental health benefits than participation in fitness activities in a gym or walking. These health and mental health benefits were physical role functioning, vitality, social functioning, and mental health as measured by four subscales of the Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36) – and summary scores for mental health and life satisfaction. They suggested that these enhanced benefits from participation in club sports may result from social connectedness, social support and peer bonding, life satisfaction, and self-esteem. Miller and Hofmann (2009) studied the relationship among sport participation (both team and individual sports), athlete identity and jock identity, and depression and suicidal behavior among 791 undergraduate students. Their results showed that participation in a team sport and athlete identity were associated with lower depression scores. Miller and Hoffman argued that organized sports facilitate the involvement of individuals in a social network wherein frequent interactions with peers, coaches, and health professionals strengthen social bonds. Individuals in such a network may be less alienated and socially adrift and may feel less hopelessness. As for identity, Miller and Hoffman recommend the inclusion of the subjective dimension of sport-related psychosocial identities – athletic identity or jock identity. Athlete identity is said to be associated with academic commitment and performance, teamwork, and collective achievement. In contrast, jock identity is associated with deemphasizing academics, self-promotion and glory seeking, vanity, and bullying. Those with athletic identity were expected to be more socially integrated and thus protected from anomie and consequent mental disorders. This proposition was supported in Miller and Hoffman’s research which found that athlete identity was significantly and negatively associated with both depression and suicidal behavior. Although jock identity did not predict depression scores, it was positively associated with odds of a suicide attempt. The findings support the notion of a ‘toxic jock’, meaning a merger of sports involvement and a brand of masculinity which subscribes to risk-taking, substance use, and sexual aggression. Additionally, they refer to studies suggesting a curvilinear relationship in the association between the extent of sports participation and depression. They note that intense and
prolonged training could be isolating the individual from social interactions rather than contributing to socializing. We note here that ‘intense and prolonged training’ is more characteristic of elite sport than egalitarian sport. Asztalos et al. (2009) analyzed the data collected by the Flemish Policy Research Center Sport employing the Flemish Physical Activity Computerized Questionnaire (FPACQ) which included demographics and physical activities of 1919 working and unemployed people. The five types of physical activity included were sports participation, housework, leisure active transportation, biking to/from work, and walking to/ from work. The data set also included perceived stress measured with the Perceived Stress Scale and psychological distress measured by the General Health Questionnaire. Based on their findings, they concluded that “sports participation and no other type of physical activity included in the study was consistently associated with significantly less stress and less distress” (p. 471). They argue further that sports participation is a freely chosen leisure time activity for recreation, enjoyment, and social interaction which have been associated with psychological well-being, whereas other forms of physical activity are based on necessity as in household work and active transportation which entail compulsion to some extent.
Mental Health and Elite Sport Weigand et al. (2013) studied the extent of depression among current and former athletes at the level of the NCAA Division I. They expected that former athletes would succumb to more depression because of the change in their lifestyles and loss of personal identity. But they found that the current athletes’ depression level was significantly higher than that of former athletes. They explained this finding by referring to the negative effects of stressors such as overtraining, pressure to perform, lack of free time, or stress from schoolwork which might have contributed to increased susceptibility to depressive symptoms. Armstrong and Oomen-Early (2001) advance two perspectives on the relationship between athletic participation and mental health. In the negative perspective, athletes represent a high-risk population because of the stressors of injuries, overtraining, lack of sleep, and feeling of exhaustion which are associated with depression. In the positive perspective, athletes are protected from depression because of their lifestyles that involve regular exercise, increased selfesteem, social support, and connectedness. Their study of NCAA Division I athletes and nonathletes in a small university showed that athletes exhibited significantly higher levels of self-esteem and social connectedness and significantly lower levels of depression. They opined that social network and team support may protect the athlete from depression. Athletes are more likely than the general population to be predisposed to depression because of the physical and psychological demands of the pursuit of excellence and the concomitant stress which is associated with depression (Mummery, 2005). Even though exercise is said to reduce depression, its effect seems to be dependent on the volume, duration, and intensity of training. Existing research indicates a curvilinear relationship between the volume of exercise and
Sport and Mental Health
health benefits. Beyond a certain limit, excessive exercise may lead to psychological dysfunction (Mummery, 2005). As highlevel athletes spend more than 15 h a week almost throughout the year, they are prone to staleness, stress, burnout (physical or emotional exhaustion), and depression. Depression and depressive symptoms in athletes might be related to high volumes and intensities of training, to maladaptive cognitions in relation to sport and competition, or to a combination of both. To understand and address the issues that underlie depression and depressive symptoms in athletes, therefore, the relative contribution made by the amount of training and the mind-set of the participant needs to be established. Psychosocial issues, relating to burnout and depression, require a different form of attention and treatment than do mood disturbances caused by physical overload or exhaustion (Mummery, 2005, p. 537).
Apparently, mental health problems appear to be common among American intercollegiate athletes. The growing concern with these mental health problems has prompted the National Association of Athletic Trainers and the National Collegiate Athletic Association to announce a set of recommendations to be followed by athletic trainers, coaches, physicians, administrators and others who work with the athletes (Burnsed, 2013).
Mental Health and Entertainment Sport There are not that many studies that delved into relationship between spectating at sport events and mental health issues. However, there has been a steady stream of studies supporting Wann’s (2006) Team Identification-Social Psychological Health Model, which posits that team identification facilitates social connections which, in turn, contributes to social psychological health. Social psychological health is manifested in personal self-esteem, positive emotions and is negatively associated with depression, alienation, and negative affect. The basic premise of Wann’s model is that humans derive important psychological benefits from fulfilling their inherent need to identify and associate with others. The identification with others is greatly facilitated by attaching oneself to significant organizations such as sport teams which, in turn, results in the development of a social network. Being part of such a social network has been shown to provide psychological support making the individual mentally healthier meaning lower rates of depression, anxiety, loneliness, and the like. Wann also distinguishes between two different routes to enhance their well-being. The first route is where sport fans attach themselves to successful teams and revel in the teams’ achievements to enhance their social identity. The second route reflects the level of a fan’s identification with a team. Sport identification refers to a fan’s “psychological connection to a team, that is, the extent to which the fan views the team as an extension of his or herself” (p. 273). Identification with a team leads to increased interactions among others of the same cadre and consequent well-being reflected in increased personal selfesteem, social self-esteem, lower levels of loneliness, depression, alienation, and lower levels of anger, tension, and confusion. All of these mental health benefits accrue to the individual not because of team identification per se, but rather, because identification
217
can lead to important connections with others…Only when the role of team follower leads to a sense of belongingness to and camaraderie with others would one expect to find psychological benefits related to the identification (Wann, 2006, p. 275).
A cautionary note is in order here. Although considerable research support is there for the relationship between team identification and mental health benefits, Wann alerts us to the fact that high levels of identification can in some circumstances lead to spectator violence and aggression.
Concluding Remarks The sparse literature on the effects of sport participation on mental health indicates that participation in egalitarian sport does contribute positively to mental health. The freedom and spontaneity of participation in egalitarian sport and the sense of belonging to a group and the social interactions thereof are said to be reasons for the positive effects on mental health. However, it must be noted that the studies reviewed were cross sectional and the results were not derived from experimental designs where participants were allocated to different treatments. In other words, there were no interventions. Therefore, reverse correlation (meaning that mentally healthy people participated more in sports) cannot be ruled out. The issues of causation aside, Miller and Hoffman (2009) invoke Durkheim’s (1897/1966) exposition on social integration, alienation, anomie (feeling socially adrift), and suicidal tendencies for their argument that participation in sports teams reduces the sense of alienation and anomie and thus enhances the mental health of those participants. Berkman et al. (2000) argue that social networks (i.e., sports teams in the present context) influence individual behaviors through (1) provision of social support, (2) social influence, (3) social engagement, and (4) access to resources and material goods. Of interest to us is that these influences affect one’s mental health in the form of self-efficacy, self-esteem, coping effectiveness, reduced depression/distress, and sense of well-being. Eime et al. (2010) also emphasize the social aspects of club sports and the enjoyment of playing sports as the reasons for higher scores of clubs sports participants on mental health scores. The issue here is that social networks may be operative even in the context of exercise or walking groups. In fact, exercise psychologists have found that social support facilitates adherence to exercise (e.g., Buckworth and Dishman, 2007). Thus, in so far as the influences of social networks may be operative in any group setting (exercise or sport), the added advantages experienced by participants in sports teams may stem from not only individual characteristics and group dynamics but also from factors inherent in and unique to egalitarian sports. There are two additional factors that distinguish sports participation from fitness activities and walking. They are (1) the mastery and exhibition of skills in a sport and (2) competition. For instance, tennis and netball require participants to exhibit skills that they are not naturally endowed with as in walking, stretching, bending, and/or lifting weights.
218
Sport and Mental Health
Acquisition and mastery of such skills lead to a higher sense of competence and self-esteem. Further, the head-to-head competition inherent in such sports impels the participants to exert themselves maximally to score a point. It must be noted that the exertion to win a point is a necessary condition to enjoy the kinesthetic pleasures of sport participation. However, the outcome of that effort is immaterial in egalitarian sport while it is critical in elite sport where one can establish excellence by winning points and games (Chelladurai, 2012). Future research need to investigate the relationships among the unique features of egalitarian sports and mental health in general and the alleviation of specific mental disorders.
See also: Awe and the Natural Environment. Burnout. Exercise, Physical Activity, and Mental Health. Play Therapy. Self-Esteem. Stress
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