St. Vincent and the Grenadines

PII:

Marine Pollution Bulletin Vol. 42, No. 12, pp. 1208±1220, 2001 Ó 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain 0025-326X/01 $ - see front matter S0025-326X(01)00237-5

St. Vincent and the Grenadines ALAN P. MILLS Conservation and Fisheries Division, Government of the Virgin Islands, P.O. Box 3323, Road Town, Tortola, British Virgin Islands, W.I. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines conjures up images of a yachting haven and a quiet tourists' paradise. The con¯icting demands of a growing population, a middle-income economy dominated by ®shing, plantation agriculture and tourism, and environmental and social concerns, all contribute to marine stress on the limited, precious, but internationally important resources. While the vision exists to manage e€ectively coastal and o€shore resources, the institutional, ®nancial and social capital to achieve that vision is limited. Development of the ¯edgling partnerships between local communities, national governmental structures and the international research, government and donor organisations seems the best hope to conserve the environment and coastal livelihoods of the islands. Ó 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: St. Vincent and the Grenadines; marine resources; International co-operation; pollution.

The De®ned Region St. Vincent and the Grenadines (SVG) lies between St. Lucia and Grenada in the Windward Islands chain of the Eastern Caribbean (Fig. 1) and is comprised of six major and numerous other islands (Fig. 2). The country is a dichotomy. The largest island, St. Vincent, is steeply shelved and volcanic in origin, densely populated with widespread plantation agriculture, while the archipelago of Grenadine Islands have small populations, little agriculture and a reliance on tourism for its income. In both parts, the conservation of the natural facets o€shore, the beaches, reefs and channels is vital. Fishing in particular helped form the culture and historical economy of both St. Vincent and the Grenadines. St. Vincent lies at the northern end of the group, and is composed of mainly eroded remnants of several volcanoes, only one of which is classi®ed as active (Soufriere; 1234 m). The island is approximately 35 km long and 15 km wide. The steep slopes on land extend into

E-mail addresses: [email protected], wich.ac.uk (A.P. Mills).

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a.p.mills@green-

the sea with a very narrow shelf on the leeward (western) side and a slightly wider shelf on the windward (eastern) side. The chain of smaller Grenadine Islands stretches some 70 miles south west of St. Vincent and is made up of submerged and re-emerged volcanic formations and reef structures in shallow seas (Fig. 2). There is a de®ned Economic Exclusion Zone (EEZ) of 200 miles (320 km) to the west and equidistant of 50±100 km between SVG and Barbados to the east, St. Lucia to the north and Grenada to the south (Fig. 2). Formation of the SVG chain The eastern edge of the Caribbean Plate is a subduction zone where the adjoining North American Plate passes underneath into the mantle and melts. The molten magma formed by this has raised the islands of the Lesser Antilles. Although to the east of these the rising of the crust in the subduction zone has formed Barbados, Antigua and other islands, all the SVG islands have been formed within this volcanic zone (CCA, 1991). The formation of the islands has been complicated by a sequence of volcanic events, followed by periods of isostatic or eustatic movements. The Grenadines are an older volcanic formation than St. Vincent, currently emergent due to Pleistocene uplifting of the seabed (CCA, 1991). Bathymetry The islands lie on a shelf, extensive in the Grenadines but narrow around St. Vincent itself, The Grenadines' shelf extends up to three times further to the east of the main chain of islands than to the west (see Fig. 3). This shelf is not uniformly shallow (Wells, 1988), but is marked by a ridge on its eastern margin of some relic reef system (D'Anglejan and Mountjoy, 1973). St. Vincent is separated from the Grenadines by the deep water Bequia Channel (13°050 N, 61°150 W). Shallower and less extensive channels, rarely more than 40 m deep, lie between most of the islands. Although a deep basin (>150 m) lies just west of Mustique, most of the southern Grenadines are on a wide shallow shelf, conducive to the formation of many coral reefs. The bottom then slopes away rapidly after

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Fig. 1 Location of St. Vincent and the Grenadines, showing the approximate extent of de®ned Economic Exclusion Zone.

the 50 m depth contour. This highly erosive environment often exposes hard rock faces.

Seasonality, Currents, Natural Environmental Variables Climate St. Vincent lies in the path of the northeast trade winds, which blow throughout the year, and has a tropical maritime climate. Rainfall and temperature vary with altitude. Average annual rainfall ranges from about 1500 mm on the coast to 3800 mm in the central mountains. The climate is reported to be the healthiest in the West Indies, with an average temperature of 25.6°C (78°F). The temperature at Kingstown averages between 18 and 32°C. Although the islands are south of the main storm track, hurricanes and tropical storms occasionally pass across SVG. They su€ered severely in 1780, 1898, and 1980 (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2001; www.britannica.com) and more recently, SVG was close to the track of Hurricane Lenny (1999), which was unusual because it originated in the Caribbean rather than the Atlantic, and caused reef damage on leeward shores. The dry season on St. Vincent lasts from January to May, but both topography and El Nino/La Nina events form seasonal and microclimatic anomalies. Tides and currents Tides throughout the islands are semi-diurnal. There is a predominant current ¯ow from east to west of up to three knots (Parsler, 1989), which brings seasonal in¯uxes of surface fresh water from the Amazon and Orinoco estuaries. This prevailing ¯ow is reversed by a weaker, shorter duration west to east ¯ow every day.

Localised currents and topography signi®cantly e€ect the tidal stream. Currents tend to suppress the east-going stream and enhance the west-going stream, while narrow channels strengthen the west-going streams (UK Hydrographic Oce, 2000). The seasonal variation in salinity in the SVG waters is between 34.5% and 36.5% (UNEP/CEPAL, 1979). A ®sh kill in SVG and the south-eastern Caribbean in 1999 occurred at the same time as the intrusion of a fresh water lens from the Orinoco River but no causal link has been established (Anon, 1999; www.uncwil.edu/isrs). Regional sediment plumes and currents are discussed comprehensively in Agard and Gobin (2000). Due to the prevailing north easterly winds, the sea often breaks at depths of less than 9 m on the eastern side of the island chain. These prevailing winds can produce rough weather in Bequia Channel, which is exacerbated when the tidal stream is set against the wind. In sharp contrast, the sea state on the western side of the islands, tends to be calm (UK Hydrographic Oce, 2000). Rivers and the e€ects of watersheds Only St. Vincent contains permanent rivers and the high rainfall means they have a signi®cant e€ect on coastal habitats (CCA, 1991). Watercourses on several other islands are seasonal because rainfall is so much lower on the Grenadines.

The Major Shallow Marine and Coastal Habitats Coral St. Vincent has poor reef development relative to the Grenadines, which is thought to be due to continuous 1209

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Fig. 3 Generalised bathymetry showing extent of shallow reef, sharp drop o€ on both sides and the schismatic Bequia Channel between Bequia and St. Vincent. Fig. 2 St. Vincent and the Grenadines, major islands and settlements. Numbers refer to other places mentioned in text. Admiralty Bay, 19; Argyle, 6; Arnos Vale, 9; Battowia Island, 25; Blue Lagoon (Calliaqua Bay), 13; Buccament Valley, 4; Campden Park, 7; Cane Garden, 10; Catholic Island, 31; E.T. Joshua Airport, 8; Friendship Bay, 20; Horseshoe Reef, 29; Industry Bay, 17; Isle de Quatre, 23; Johnson Point, 14; Mayreau Island, 32; Mesopotamia, 5; Milikin Bay, 16; Paget's Farm, 21; Petit Canouan, 27; Petit Nevis, 22; Pigeon Island, 24; Prune (Palm) Island, 33; Rabacca Dry River, 2; Sail Rock, 30; Sandy Bay, 1; Savan Island, 26; Sharps Bay, 15; Spring Bay, 18; The Carenage Hotel, 28; Villa, 12; Wallilabou, 3; Young Island, 11.

volcanic activity throughout the late Pleistocene and Recent periods (Adams, 1968). Fringing reefs are a major characteristic of this region. Walls of coral are known to exist o€ the St. Vincent coast, with small ¯anks occurring on shallow rubble aprons around rock headlands (Adams, 1968). Reef also exists in isolated patches on both leeward and windward coasts, with a small salt pond containing restricted reef growth at Owia in the far north of the island (CCA, 1991). The reef extents are limited by sediment ¯ux from the island (particularly in the east) and by the narrowness of the shelf on both leeward and windward coasts (Adams, 1968). The most extensive reef structures are in a series of bays and islands at the south-eastern corner of the island. Five zones of growth were discernible at Indian Bay, near Villa, built on a Porites porites framework, being: 1. growth on beach rock; 2. growth on rubble; 3. predominantly Millepora; 1210

4. predominantly Porites; 5. Alcyonaria±Porifera mix (Adams, 1968) and are still reported to have small amounts of organic growth (REEFBASE, 2001). Nearby Dove Bay has a similar reef community to Indian Bay but has no true reef structure (Wells, 1988). Johnson Point has reef based on a curved basalt dike extending from the point, with a signi®cant portion separated from its distal end by a deep channel (REEFBASE, 2001). Sharps Bay is a non-reef coral community and the easternmost occurrence of vigorous coral growth on St. Vincent. Diverse assemblages of reef building organisms occur on the ¯anks of submerged headlands (REEFBASE, 2001). Bequia has several bays where coral reefs abound. Friendship Bay on the southern side is one of the largest areas, the coral protecting a sizeable area of Thalassia. Spring Bay and Industry Bay too have some small areas of coral. Large fringes of reef can be found throughout the Port Elizabeth area, in Princess Margaret Bay, Long Bay and Admiralty Bay. However, much of the coral is dead and covered with a thin ®lm of macroalgae. The principal cause of death for these areas of reef is probably sewage discharged from boats moored at the reef (Parsler, 1989), although residential and tourist development along the coast may also be contributing to this. Only a few small headland areas appear to have any live coral in this area. In recent surveys in Port Elizabeth, 95% of the coral was thought to be dead, usually covered in a thin veneer of macroalgae or submerged below

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sediments as a result during the passage of Hurricane Lenny (M. Hastings, pers. comm.). Mustique has an extensive submerged shelf beyond the limit of satellite detection, but which can be picked out by aerial photography taken in 1999. Although conducive to reef growth it lacks coral (Adey and Burke, 1976). Canouan Island has a major reef on its eastern side, with reef has large tracts of coralline-dominated spur and groove formation and incipient coralline-Millepora mounds and ridge sections (REEFBASE, 2001). Tobago Cays has been most studied of all reef in SVG. Lewis (1975) gave a detailed description of the fauna and ¯ora o€ Horseshoe Reef and other cays. A recent AGRRA report (Deschamps and Desrochers, 2000) showed the Horseshoe Reef, the largest in the Grenadines, was composed of three main coralline species; 31% Montastraea annularis, 23% Porites astreoides and 23% Porites porites, with smaller percentages of Millepora complanata and Montastraea faveolata. Some dead Acropora palmata were seen in shallow sites. Horseshoe Reef is generally healthy but has had a signi®cant recent history of disturbance (Deschamps and Desrochers, 2000). Smith et al. (1998) goes further, suggesting that storm damage, white band and other diseases have caused the reef health to deteriorate. Union Island, Prune Island and Petit St. Vincent all have extensive areas of reef in relatively good health. Mangrove Mangrove is not a widespread resource in the country. In St. Vincent, only a small fringe of white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa) at Milikin Bay is thought important (CCA, 1991). Union Island has the largest mangrove stand in the entire country in the 25 ha Lagoon Swamp next to Ashton Harbour (CCA, 1991). The mangroves in this region have been depleted by the incomplete construction of a marina and further a€ected by excavation of silt in anticipation of a proposed coastguard base on Union Island. Another stand in Richmond Bay on Union Island contains about 10 ha of red, white and black mangrove (Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa and Avicennia germinans, respectively). Several small reserves exist on Mustique, and there is a small stand near the large salt pond on Mayreau. Mangroves were removed from Prune Island during the construction of the island resort (Parsler, 1989). Sand St. Vincent's beaches are mainly black volcanic sand except along its southern tip where some coralline sand beaches exist. In the Grenadines, the sand is mainly coralline. Large areas of surface sand occur in several reefs around the area, and the further south one goes the more sand at shallow depth exists. Tobago Cays in particular have several noticeable shallow sand banks.

Seagrass The only recent survey of seagrass in St. Vincent was carried out from 1999 satellite imagery. Despite inherent spatial errors and identi®cation issues, large areas of seagrass were detected o€ most reef-protected sandy shorelines in the Grenadines. Seagrass was particularly noted around Pagets Farm, Friendship Bay and Admiralty Bay on Bequia and there were large beds in Canouan, Mayreau and Union. These initial observations are currently being updated using aerial photographic interpretation with ground survey. Seagrass species in St. Vincent are predominantly Thalassia tesudinum with Syringodium ®liforme. Blow holes are common, some of which have been formed from irresponsible anchorage, and others from overgrazing by turtles or storm damage (Dey and Smith, 1989). Macroalgae The expansion of areas of macroalgae is alarming some conservationists in the archipelago. Covering both reef rubble (perhaps caused by recent hurricane events such as Lenny) and in some places the sand, it is becoming intrusive into delicate reef resource areas. Fauna Plankton. In the absence of signi®cant upwelling or a wide coastal shelf, most primary productivity derives from reef and other inshore systems (Parsler, 1989). Fish. Very limited knowledge of ®sh stocks is available in St. Vincent and The Grenadines and most of this is derived from estimations based on catch (Ryan, 1999). There is a need to develop better knowledge of the ®sheries, both resident and migrant populations. Like many reef systems, there is a wealth of ®sh species in St. Vincent coral habitats and at present they seem to be persisting even where coral is dead or dying. Of shallow shelf and reef ®shes, hinds (Serranidae), parrot®shes (Scaridae), squirrel®shes (Holocentridae), surgeon®shes (Pamadosydae) and trigger®shes (Balistidae) are the target species. For coastal pelagics, jacks (Carangidae), herrings (Clupeidae), silversides (Atherinidae), anchovies (Engraulidae) and ballyhoo (Hemiramphus spp) are most common (Ryan, 1999). Birds. Important breeding sites of cli€ nesting seabirds and game species, such as the red-necked pigeon (Columba squamosa), exist around the cli€ habitats of northern Grenadines of Bequia, Battowia (near Baliceux), and Pigeon Island (o€ Bequia). There are at least 12 internationally important bird species breeding in the Grenadines (CCA, 1991). Reptiles. Four species of turtles occur in SVG waters; the hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), green (Chelonia mydas), loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and leatherback (Dermochelys coraica). Hawksbill turtles are the most common nester throughout the islands, but few data are available on the locations and extent of egg laying sites. It has been reported that green turtles repeatedly crop areas of Thalassia tesudinum to maintain the low lignin, 1211

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nutrient rich young shoots, and the extensive beds around both St. Vincent and the Grenadines chain can support substantial populations. Loggerheads have only been documented as nesting on Palm and Mahualt beach on Canouan (CEP, 1993). Leatherbacks are known to nest frequently on the windward coast of St. Vincent, and less frequently on the leeward coast and selected Grenadines beaches (CEP, 1993). Numerous factors are changing the turtles' ecology and habits. Apart from the ®shing, the destruction of beaches (e.g. in the creation of new hotel developments, airstrips or beachfront development), or their modi®cation (e.g. placing of electric lighting which disorientates nesting females) have reduced potential foraging and nesting habitats. Litter and littoral pollution from land and ships can cause problems such as when turtles attempt to ingest plastic bags or oil-coated food (CEP, 1993). Noise from cruise ships and tourist activities (night-time beach parties for example) can also dissuade turtles from nesting.

Vincent Island. Bequia has a population of ca. 5000 and the other ®ve inhabited islands have relatively small populations. Emigration is signi®cant from SVG (net emigration of 7.7 per thousand; CIA, 2000), mainly to larger islands in the region (CCA, 1991) and to selected high-income small islands (e.g. British Virgin Islands), but the overall growth rate of the population still stands around 0.8% per annum, concentrated on St. Vincent. SVG is the most densely populated country of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) (CCA, 1991) with most people concentrated around the southern coastal plain and coastal fringe on St. Vincent. This is in close proximity to the most valuable coastal resources on the island (see the Major Shallow Marine and Coastal Habitats). Nearly 90% of people live and work within 3 km of the coast of SVG, and most new development continues to be along the coastal fringe.

O€shore Systems

Agriculture is a major activity on St. Vincent, with banana plantations dominating several valleys. Arrowroot is also locally important. Most agriculture is found in the southern valleys (e.g. Mesopotamia) and on the coastal fringe along the Leeward and Windward Highways. The north-western part of the island is almost completely wild, although several small communities are there growing informal crops. Indeed, in 1984, it was estimated that St. Vincent still had 38% of its land area forested (CCA, 1991). On the Grenadines there are small numbers of cattle and goats but very little other agriculture. Small plantations on Bequia are now disused, or have changed to residential or tourist locations. Soil erosion is a major problem on St. Vincent as a result of the combination of steep unstable slopes on unconsolidated friable volcanic soils and high rainfall. Major rivers give an out¯ow rich in sediment into the coastal waters (CCA, 1991). Agriculture is not the sole cause of the erosion as a large number of construction sites exist, including road improvements and areas of new buildings, and soils on steep slopes can be exposed for long periods, even through the potentially hazardous hurricane season.

Fish stocks are the major o€shore system of importance in SVG. No oil or mineral exploration has occurred o€ the banks. Fish Large pelagic species important to SVG include tunas (Scombroidei), bill®shes (Istiophoridae), dolphin®sh (Coryphaena hippurus), wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri) and sword®sh (Xiphias gladius), most of which are highly migratory (Ryan, 1999). Yellow®n tuna (Thunnus albacares) are thought to be most numerous o€shore. Mammals A wealth of cetaceans can be found in the waters of St. Vincent and the Grenadines. Humpback whales, sperm whales, pilot whales, bottlenose dolphins, and spinner dolphin, among others, frequent the waters (CCA, 1991). Controversially, Bequia is one of a handful of locations where whale hunting is still permitted by the International Whaling Commission. A cull of two whales each year is permitted as part of Ôaboriginal subsistence huntingÕ but there have been numerous uncon®rmed infractions of this allowance; for example, it is not permitted to take a mother and calf. The present agreement was meant to be in place until the last remaining whaler, Othniel Olliviere, retired. He died recently but 2000 saw another two whales taken. Whales are hauled up on to the hard at Petit Nevis, about 2 km south of Bequia Island, and all products are widely distributed among the country's markets.

Populations A€ecting the Area The population of SVG was estimated at 115 461 in 2000 (CIA, 2000), of which the majority live on St. 1212

Rural Factors

Coastal Erosion and Land®ll Although there are natural erosion cycles occurring throughout the islands, no monitoring is conducted, and only in the area of sand mining, which is of critical concern to SVG, has there been signi®cant work. Sand mining Some evidence of sand mining was present in Calliaqua Bay in 1988 (CCA, 1991; Wells, 1988) and general beach erosion has been noted as a serious problem on Bequia (Parsler, 1989). However, a lack of understand-

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E€ects of Urban and Industrial Activities

Fig. 4 Coastal erosion is an issue in some parts of SVG, as here at Sandy Bay where destruction of the beach-line palms in the centre of the picture has eroded a playing ®eld in 20 years into the rock rubble that can be seen today in the breaking waves (A.P. Mills).

ing of the dynamics of beach nourishment in the region, particularly the e€ects of hurricane events, means more long term observation and measurement is necessary. Other human activity at the high tide mark is also contributing to erosion (Fig. 4). In a study conducted by the OECS Natural Resources Management Unit (NRMU) in the Buccament Valley on the leeward side of St. Vincent, it was found that the removal of beach sand had left a decreased area for hauling boats or seine ®shing and some increase in ¯ood risk (OECS/NRMU, 1999). Sand consumption doubled between 1985 and 1990 (COSALC, 1996). Traditional extraction sites such as beaches and the Rabacca Dry River (near Georgetown) have provided the principal source of construction sand, resulting in severe beach erosion, ¯ooding of coastal areas and loss of dunes and other habitats. In December 1994, imported sand from Guyana was seen as a solution for the construction industry, but the expected increased construction costs from the implementation of the ruling meant that in the period following the government announcement, there was massive stockpiling of sand. In a two month period the volume of sand mined from the beaches was 2.5 times the annual volume, causing serious erosion which was further accentuated by Tropical Storm Iris in August 1995 (Porter, 1996).

Economic activity in St. Vincent and the Grenadines is based on agriculture, tourism and the government sector. The distribution of these industries is dichotomous, with a heavy dependence on tourism in the Grenadines, while agriculture is almost exclusively the preserve of Vincentians (CCA, 1991). However, in comparison with other small Caribbean islands, St. Vincent has a moderately large industrial capacity, centred on manufacturing, electricity, water, mining, construction and quarrying. No published studies have examined the e‚uent discharges from the various light industries, but the major areas of concern amongst local stakeholders are Kingstown, the Arnos Vale district to the east of the capital near the airport, and the rum distillery in Georgetown. CCA (1991) described the incomplete nature of the Kingstown domestic sewerage system and its dilapidated outfall into the harbour. Other areas were relying at the time on septic tanks, some of which were overburdened. The coast around Villa was noted to be under severe stress from sewage in 1991 (CCA, 1991). Land®ll sites are unprotected in both the area near Arnos Vale and Argyle. Fly tipping is a major nuisance on St. Vincent. Tipping also occurred o€ the edge of the cli€ on a coast road in Cane Garden, east of Kingstown. Not visible from land, it is the ®rst impression a tourist receives as a cruise ship enters Kingstown Harbour. Not only is it unsightly, but the litter is irretrievable, the cli€ being too steep and unstable to clear. Piecemeal litter is accumulating in the harbours, and unmeasured leaching is occurring from concentrations of refuse into the coastal waters (P. Lampkin, pers. comm.). Tourism SVG is classi®ed as an emerging tourist destination (Pantin, 1999). Numbers of tourists and facilities continue to expand, although SVG is some way behind other islands in the region, such as St. Lucia and Barbados (see Pantin, 1999). St. Vincent itself has a relatively novel tourist industry, and is being developed around ecotourism and cultural lines. Beach holidays are not a major activity in St. Vincent, save for the region between Kingstown and Villa in the south of the island. In contrast, the tourism activity in the Grenadines is far more established. Bequia is seen as a yachting paradise, and exclusive resorts in Mustique, Petit St. Vincent and Prune Island help to entrench this luxury Elysian image. Although a signi®cant number of hotels are small, often family-run establishments on the islands, one development, the Carenage in Canouan is the closest the Grenadines come to a large resort hotel on the lines of The Bahamas or Jamaica. Opened in 1999, with 178 rooms (St. Vincent and the Grenadines Tourism Department, 1999), it also has a golf course, swimming pools and water sports. It occupies a large bay on the north-eastern side of the 1213

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island, and could be seen as both a signi®cant drain on limited resources as well as causing pollution from its outputs. Concern has been raised about the small desalination plant which provides potable drinking water and freshwater for the resort's gardens. The out¯ow of salt water from this may be changing subtle balances in salinity in the littoral and benthic zones, although no measurements exist to quantify these risks. St. Vincent has become a major cruise ship destination in recent years. Only after the opening of a deepwater cruise terminal on the eastern side of Kingstown harbour (delayed until 1999 because of damage caused by Hurricane Lenny), were the largest cruise ships able to enter the harbour. With some controversy, one cruise line company pulled out of St. Vincent in 2000 because it felt the tourist trade was not suciently developed to cope with the large in¯uxes of tourists, but despite this, the SVG Government still see the expansion of cruise trade as a major income earner. In the rest of the Grenadines, small cruise ships do call at major bays and moorings, for example in Bequia in Admiralty Bay and around Tobago Cays. Yachting has a much larger impact on the Grenadines than on St. Vincent. In St. Vincent, only a few areas are suitable for mooring large numbers of boats. Kingstown harbour is almost exclusively commercial, as is the deepwater terminal at Campden Park (1 km west of Kingstown). Yacht havens can however be found along the coast to the east from Kingstown, corresponding with the major St. Vincent hotel region and reef habitat (Villa, Young Island, and Blue Lagoon), see Fig. 5. In the Grenadines there are many potential anchorage sites around most islands, and very little protection or enforcement to keep people away from any areas. Tobago Cays National Park encourages responsible and controlled anchoring in sand bottoms because of the potential damage to seagrass and coral habitats elsewhere. Mooring buoys are provided for dinghies on the reef and on Mayreau, to keep yachts at a low density and conserve the environments (K. Cordice, pers. comm.).

Fig. 5 Kingstown Harbour shows the greatest concentration of human interaction with the coastline in SVG, with urban, light industrial, transport and marine pollution inputs (A.P. Mills).

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Neither cruise ships nor yachts should be dumping waste inshore, but there is some evidence of this occurring. While this is not illegal for yachts at present, the installation of holding tanks will become an issue soon (K. Cordice, pers. comm.). Development Construction is a major part of SVG life, be it new residential, tourism, amenity or transport infrastructure developments. Both during construction and once the new development has been completed, there are many e€ects on the littoral and marine environments. In Kingstown harbour, signi®cant e€ort has been made to improve the deep-water facilities for both cargo and cruise ships. To the west, a further deep water harbour has been constructed at Campden Park. The natural environments in these areas have been heavily modi®ed (Fig. 5). Much of the water frontage in Kingstown has been reclaimed in the past 15 years. As already mentioned, the Arnos Vale/Villa region contains industrial and airport development, and a signi®cant concentration of larger hotels in SVG. Major residential development also occurs here, and pressure on nearby key reef resources around Young Island and mainland bays is of concern to government departments and conservationists alike (Fig. 6). The SVG Government sees better transport infrastructure as a panacea for under-development. On St. Vincent, there is a proposed expansion of the airport facilities to enable longer distance international ¯ights to enter the country. At present, ¯ights landing at E.T. Joshua International Airport in Arnos Vale are limited to 40-seater propeller planes from Barbados, Trinidad, Grenada, Antigua or St. Lucia where there are further intercontinental connections. Development of either of the two proposed sites currently under consideration will have an impact on the coast. The ®rst is an exten-

Fig. 6 The coast of St. Vincent, east of Kingstown and Arnos Vale, showing the high density of residential properties in the Villa area, including several resort hotels, the luxury Young Island Resort and the major yachting haven at Calliaqua Bay (often called Blue Lagoon). Even at this scale, the reef areas around Indian Bay, Young Island and elsewhere are apparent, showing the close proximity of both the major resources of this area and the potential problems from pollution, development and interference.

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sion of the existing E.T. Joshua Airport, where the plan is to reclaim coastline. The second proposal is to develop a new airport from pristine land at Argyle, some 10 km east of Kingstown. This is one of the few areas of relatively ¯at land on the island, although a whole hillside would have to be demolished in the process of building the airport, as well as the loss of a mix of prime agricultural and building land. It would be expected that the Windward Highway out to Argyle would also have to be improved. Developments at Paget's Farm on Bequia, Canouan and an extension to Union Island Airport have reached into the inshore coastal areas of each island. One unexpected bene®t of these developments can be seen at Paget's Farm, where large imported concrete structures brought in as wave breaks around the runway seem to have begun coral development. Fishing Although it is culturally very important to the islands, ®shing only directly contributed 2.02% of GDP in 1997. However, it is dicult to assess the overall impact of the ®shing industry in SVG since the statistics aggregate ®shing with other primary industry, and there are elements of the ®sheries industry (construction, marketing, distribution, sport ®shing) which are placed under other sectors (Ryan, 1999). Only 657 people are actively employed in ®shing, (compared with 2198 in administration, 3617 in construction and over 5000 in retail trade), although ®shing for many is a part time, seasonal or subsistence activity, causing undercounting in the ocial statistics. Shallow reef ®sheries are reported to be over-exploited (Ryan, 1999) due to two factors. First, boat size in St. Vincent is generally less than 10 m in length, and only about 69% have engines, restricting range. Second, most ®sherfolk want to ®sh only during the day, and few will either overnight aboard ship or on distant islands. To relieve pressure on these ®sheries, ®sherfolk need to be encouraged to develop the larger o€shore pelagics and deep slope demersal ®sheries, which needs changes in both gear and attitude. The heterogeneity of the inshore ®sheries of small islands such as SVG, in terms of boat size, human pro®le, marketing and target species makes it dicult for the Fisheries Department to plan e€ective management strategies (Cecil, 1988). No direct evidence for over®shing exists, but ®sh sizes in catches are generally small, especially in the Grenadines, and e€ort has shifted in recent years from methods such as pots to more active ®shing such as spearguns. Regulations are in place, but enforcement is dicult with the stang levels in the Fisheries Department. Some progress is made on good ®shing practice (see Fig. 7), but enforcement in remote areas is virtually impossible. No ®gures are available for conch but they are reported to have become scarce in nearshore habitats (Ryan, 1999). Spiny lobster (Panuliris argus) is still

Fig. 7 Artisanal Fishing. Since this photograph was taken in 2000, the practice of selling ®sh on Kingstown quayside has been prohibited by the Fisheries Department. Before this it was a common feature of city life to see hundreds of St. Vincent citizens buying their ®sh as they were landed and without going through the regulated markets (A.P. Mills).

highly prized but anecdotal evidence suggests stocks are declining (Ryan, 1999). Turtle ®shing has been observed in SVG since the 17th century (CEP, 1993), when Carib ®shermen caught numerous large turtles. Live turtles and shell have been exported to Western Europe since this time, and St. Vincent exported to several other Caribbean islands in the early twentieth Century. Declining numbers have been reported since 1901 but the exploitation continues (CEP, 1993). Conservation of turtle stocks is essential for protecting a sustainable catch, for their important role in attracting tourists to the islands and in SVG's custodianship of globally important species. The nature of turtle ®shing is seasonal, and even during the season, it is not the sole occupation of the ®shermen (CEP, 1993), but is broadly opportunistic, especially among younger ®shermen. Despite there being several ®shery regulations in place (e.g. 1987, Section 17) to avoid interference with turtle nests and to protect undersized turtles, in reality the government does not have the resources to enforce this legislation (CEP, 1993). Pollution/sewage Major ecologically damaging pollution events have been reported in the islands, with blame apportioned to natural events (fresh water lenses or sediment) as well as human (e.g. industrial accidents, shipping discharge). However, the steady rise in background pollution probably has a more damaging and long-term e€ect on the state of coastal and marine resources. In terms of natural pollution sources, St. Vincent has a high potential for sediment ¯ows from loose material on steep slopes extending into benthic habitats. Additionally, St. Vincent lies in the transition zone between clear oceanic waters and sediment ®lled continental waters. It is thought that large deluges in the Orinoco river basin over 180 km to the south can cause changes 1215

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in sea transparency and sea colorations in the Grenadines (CCA, 1991). Many pollution issues are common knowledge in the islands, primarily on St. Vincent, but there are few published studies. The e€ects of pesticides and herbicides from the plantation economy in the coastal region is acknowledged in St. Vincent, with e€ects on the abundance of shrimps and crabs, but the wider e€ects on seagrass and coral have not been documented and no quantitative information is known to exist (CCA, 1991). In Buccament Valley, liquid waste and debris in rivers are washing into the coastal zone (OECS/NRMU, 1999). The use of the beach as a toilet facility has also been highlighted. Fishing tackle debris in particular is having an e€ect on beach and ®sh resources. In 1991, CCA noted that much solid waste was not controlled, and both ocial dumps and ad hoc tipping were occurring close to beaches. Several dumps were overburdened and unsanitary. Some changes in solid waste policy have occurred, but there have been no studies of the e€ect on the littoral zone. The Central Water and Sewage Authority (CWSA) now deals with the marine pollution monitoring, but its activities are concentrated around the Kingstown area.

Protective Measures A wide range of stakeholders have interests in the coastal zone of SVG. International governmental bodies and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) seek to intervene in SVG's a€airs, either through the national Government departments or directly. The Government has a series of sectoral departments, whose policies and strategies have an impact on the seas, including ®sheries, physical planning, CWSA and tourism. The local administrative unit, the parish or island, have small impacts, and many national non-governmental bodies, down to community level, can take measures to conserve the resources. Interventions range from the establishment of resource status and monitoring programmes through to policy making and institutional organization, and include environmental awareness raising and education. In terms of resource status, at an international level, various protocols for reef evaluation have been applied to SVG. For example, the Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment (AGRRA) protocol attempts to characterize the health of a reef using multiple indicators of the corals±algae±®shes relationships, and one site on Tobago Cays has been used in this procedure (Deschamps and Desrochers, 2000). Their inherent drawback is that they assist in characterising a reef's health in an international context, providing at best summary data, but do little to assist in setting national priorities for reef conservation. The REEFCHECK protocol is similar in its nature, with the structure of the programme leaving little room for analysis by national organisations. 1216

UNEP wrote a Sea Turtle Recovery Action plan for SVG (CEP, 1993), which covered both monitoring and policy. It suggested better protection of habitats, surveys for nesting activity, planning regulations and community enforcement of regulations. Changes in local habits are needed ± away from sand mining, insensitive lighting and development, but even though a budget was suggested, it has proved nearly impossible to actively protect the turtles amongst so many con¯icting priorities in the coastal zone. Several islands in the Eastern Caribbean are part of a ÔCoast and Beach Stability in the Lesser AntillesÕ initiative (ÔCOSALCÕ) and have established a beach-monitoring programme where various agencies survey pro®les on a regular basis. Data from this can be used to determine how the beaches are changing over time, facilitating plans for new coastal developments; the design of coastal development setbacks, sand mining policy, sea defences design and for environmental impact assessments. SVG is a member of this initiative, but COSALC have not received any SVG data. Bequia Community High School has over a year's data for Bequia beaches and a local NGO, Seascape, and Tobago Cays Marine Park are seeking to extend this protocol over the southern Grenadines through a Sea Grant Funded project from the University of Puerto Rico. As a member of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), St. Vincent is a signatory of the OECS St. Georges Declaration (2000), which has a series of guiding principles on how member states should protect the environment for the well being of all its citizens. OECS is one of the few international or regional organisations which develops policies with an intimate understanding of countries' human resource levels. Other OECS measures which impact on the system include a strategy for sustainable tourism (OECS/ NRMU, 1998) which includes, inter alia, measures to support the design of carefully sited and constructed infrastructure to minimize visitor impacts on the environment. It also seeks to undertake further study of the impacts of tourism to improve the information base for planning and decision-making, which includes monitoring of coastal waters which are polluted from point sources of discharge such as treatment facilities at hotels. The National Government of SVG has undertaken to sign many treaties (see Table 1), but has also developed its own national policies, some encapsulating international protocols, others with more local perspectives in their principles. In terms of national policies, the 1987 Wildlife Protection Act in SVG established 23 reserves. These include 19 island or island groups including Tobago Cays, Young Island, Savan Island, Battowia, Sail Rock, Catholic Island, Petit St. Vincent and Petit Canouan. The Act provides protection for all seabirds and many wading birds, but does not have much e€ect on development in the region (CCA, 1991).

Volume 42/Number 12/December 2001 TABLE 1 International participation. Conventions and treaties Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992) Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention, 1983). Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1973) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, 1982) Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife for the Wider Caribbean (SPAW, 1990) Programmes and associations Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA, 1967) Caribbean Environment Programme (CEP, 1981) and its Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife Programme (SPAW, 1990) Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Global Climate Change Project (CPACC, 2001) Coast and beach stability in the Lesser Antilles (COSALC) National ®sheries plan ± aliations and signatories UNCLOS 111 (Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea) MARPOL ± Pollution from ships Protected areas and wildlife (SPAW) Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED). High Seas Fishing agreement (Earth Summit +5) Monitoring Control and Surveillance agreement (MCS) The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT, 2001) International Whaling Commission (IWC) Convention for Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Conventions, treaties, programmes and associations, and aliations of the National Fisheries Plan (from CEP, 1996; Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean/Caribbean Development and Co-operation Committee, 1998; Ryan, 1999).

The National Fisheries Management Plan (Ryan, 1999) has a series of interventions in the system to address, inter alia, low abundance, infringements of restrictions, destructive ®shing practices and habitat degradation and destruction. For the large pelagic ®sh resource, this relies on international planning through the OECS. Few community projects have been documented in published literature but several initiatives are current. For tourism, several of the Grenadines islands have developed their own marketing and communication networks through use of the Internet. Mayreau Environmental Development Organization (MEDO) are creating a major eco-tourism initiative with assistance from the European Union (K. Cordice, pers. comm.) and a similar group in Union Island are now becoming established. Community clean ups (for example at Wallilabou for Earth Day, 2001) both have an impact on the environment and help to publicize environmental principles. Another example comes from a small turtle hatchery established on the east coast of Bequia. Despite good intentions to release new populations of hawksbill and green turtles in the Grenadines, this practice is seen internationally as counter-productive (CEP, 1993) and raises some concern locally. It is feared that being raised away from their natal beaches may mean the young turtles will not return to their release point, that nurture in tanks does not promote full muscular development and that these tanks may be breeding grounds for parasites, algal growth and disease. It is hoped that with better environmental education, the communities can become custodians of at least some local environments. Overall, the number, range and impact of interventions are bewildering for such a small country, but unfortunately they lack e€ectiveness because there is no coherent

strategy which grasps the overall human-environment ecology and prioritizes actions. While attempts at reviewing the current status have been made (e.g. the CCA, 1991), rarely do the legislators look at the management of all resources in a particular area. The management plan for Tobago Cays Marine Park marks a signi®cant step forward in the management of marine resources (see Box 1), as it is the ®rst coherent attempt to manage a whole marine area in the same way as the Buccament Watershed project did on land (OECS/NRMU, 1999). Information Repeatedly, lack of knowledge of the processes in the marine waters, a dearth of monitoring information on key factors, and no joined-up decision making across departments remain signi®cant barriers to e€ective resource management in situ. The integrated nature of all activity on small islands (Chase and Nichols, 1998) means that e€ective management must be cross-departmental and cover all aspects of the system from ridge to reef. Reliable, easily collected information is a prerequisite for this, but has to be balanced against other priorities. The SVG government, in collaboration with the OECS NRMU, has now established a system to share, plan and use information from a wide number of sources; including aerial and satellite imagery, existing maps and monitoring databases, to evaluate the health of the coastal region (Mills, 2000). It is hoped that this system can be extended to a wider marine and landward Islands System Management scheme in the future, and can integrate with regional projects (e.g. REEFCHECK, AGRRA, CPACC). A key element of this system is not to rely on high-technology, resource-intensive data collection programmes, but to ®nd simpler ways of collecting information using the human and institutional capital which is available on the island and interlinking 1217

Marine Pollution Bulletin

Box 1. Tobago Cays Marine Park ± local, national and international management. Kurt Cordice, Park Manager, Tobago Cays Marine Park.

Fig. 8 Tobago Cays: A globally important marine habitat, national treasure and GNP contributor, and a local livelihood resource.

One of the `Jewels in the Crown' of the Caribbean is the Tobago Cays in the southern Grenadines. They contain the largest pristine coral reef in the Windward Islands and are seen both nationally and internationally as a draw for visitors, for diving and snorkelling, yachting or to appreciate the marine landscape. The Cays are a vital part of SVG's tourism strategy, which in turn contributes signi®cantly to the country's GNP, and in providing SVG's place internationally as a biodiversity site of global importance. At the same time, the local community members claim rights to use the Cays, for extracting resources (®sh, conch, lobster) or recreational use, and in its ownership and future. Coastal Management initiatives must therefore face an incredible array of local, regional, and international pressure (Fig. 8). Various attempts have been made in the past to create a management plan for the Cays. An initiative funded by the Organization for American States in the early 1980s provided St. Vincent and the Grenadines with a comprehensive management plan for the development of the Tobago Cays National Marine Park. Unfortunately, this plan was not implemented. Later, in the 1990s the French Government supported an initiative from the French Mission for Cooperation. The Mission was instrumental in a second full round of consultations among stakeholders, and in the formation of legislation and an initial management plan. In 1998, local management was hired for the project, and the management plan was revamped once again to include several locally important aspects of the project. At present the park is on the verge of implementation, but is still surrounded by con¯icts in overall goal and management strategies. This con¯ict stems from the unique situation of the Tobago Cays as a site of international tourism importance. When compared to other marine management initiatives in the region (e.g. Soufrere Marine Management Area of St. Lucia, Saba Marine Park, initiatives in the British Virgin Islands), the mixture of international tourism, local dependence and extreme tourism pressure stands out as an unusually complex challenge; a challenge that must be faced by the precedent setting Tobago Cays Marine Park. The development of the Marine Park continues to be an iterative process, and it is not guaranteed to be a success just by the existence of the institution. The park's implementation and operation crosses many traditional government boundaries of management (e.g. Fisheries, Forestry, Planning, Environment, Tourism, Security, Waste Management and more). Therefore, e€orts to smooth relations among these entities must be facilitated by the Marine Park management, and the support from these government organizations will be crucial to the success of the Park. 1218

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Box 1 Continued However, even more important is the support from local individuals who directly use the park, as well as prominent community leaders whose support is greatly needed to gain public co-operation and to develop awareness. This will be the key to the successful park management. Local governmental and community challenges can be faced by the Marine Park and local e€orts. However, the Tobago Cays' unique standing as an internationally important tourism destination brings the challenge to an international level. International assistance is needed but often it at worst ignores, or at best, is condescending to local initiatives. Though this assistance is sometimes helpful, very seldom do international programmes address the true challenges facing local coastal management. People in small island nations are not helpless. Though personnel and funds are limited, there are often local people capable of handling the duties necessary for the development and execution of coastal management plans. Essentially it is solid international political and business support that is needed for local protection e€orts; support that assists local initiatives face the international imperatives that must be faced in the name of Environmental Protection. In the speci®c case of the Tobago Cays, since it is acknowledged as a site of world importance, perhaps the world should help to conserve it. That is why the marine park management is currently seeking permission to pursue the application process for World Heritage Site status. The World Heritage Convention (UNESCO, 1972) o€ers some ®nancial aid and technical assistance when it creates a World Heritage Site, but it has two fundamental elements which match the needs and aspirations of all stakeholders of the marine park. It highlights the international importance of the site, protecting it from local and foreign initiatives which may be deleterious in the long term, but more importantly, it stresses local management. International conventions such as the World Heritage Convention, may be one of the best answers for e€ective protection of many biodiversity sites in the world. with local, national and international communities. Stakeholders are developing ways to share the burden and price of data collection, and can also share in evolving e€ective management strategies. National parks and protected areas There is only one National Park in the marine part of St. Vincent and the Grenadines; this is the Tobago Cays Marine Park, established in 1991 (CEP, 1996). Hendry (1996) created a work plan with a legislative structure for the area. The United Nations Centre for Human Settlement and UNEP followed this (UNEP/CIDA, 1999) by assisting the government of SVG in completing a Local Area Development and Environmental Management Programme for Union Island, Mayreau and Tobago Cays. It had become apparent that the unmanaged development (mainly tourism) on Union Island in particular was damaging the very coral reefs which were attracting the tourists. Although some useful reports came from the study, continual delays in implementation led to its failure and eventually a withdrawal of funding. The current work by the Tobago Cays Marine Park is using some of the lessons learnt.

Conclusions St. Vincent and the Grenadines rely heavily on their coastal resources for economic and social livelihoods and for their tourism image in the rest of the world. As one of the poorest small countries in the Caribbean, SVG is vulnerable to environmental, economic and political risks both internally and internationally. Despite the literature reviewed here being dated and inad-

equate, there is recognition of the nature and scale of the problems the country faces. The whole country is under some threat, but it does little good to ponti®cate at a national level. There are a number of stress points which need immediate attention. The concentration of urban, industrial, tourism, landward and marine activity and the greatest concentration of coral habitat on the main land, near Villa, makes it of prime concern (Fig. 6). Several other hotspots exist, and even where the pressure may not be so apparent, a single new development could destroy the fragile status quo. General measures that can be applied nationwide are necessary together with some concerted e€orts in a few regions. SVG has limited precious resources balanced with a necessity to improve individual and collective livelihoods, a case which will be familiar to many people associated with small islands throughout the world. A small nation such as SVG has disadvantages in the available levels of human and infrastructural resource for taking action, regulation and enforcement, but advantages in its community spirit and in a growing realisation that the whole ecological island system is connected. Small islands cannot cope with their environmental pressures in isolation. While some of the pressures on the seas can be at least ameliorated by the local and national communities, other factors have regional or global sources which must be addressed by the international community. As can be seen in Table 1, senior government ocials enthusiastically sign up to many protocols and treaties, but the infrastructure of their departments lack the resources to sustain e€ective management without outside assistance. As Ryan (1999) 1219

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points out, Ôsmall island states do not have the capacity (institutional, technical and ®nancial) to comply with all the necessary standards imposed by many agreementsÕ. International protocols must have some built-in assistance for small islands to assist them to comply. In the Grenadines particularly, people prize their environment highly. There is a growing realization, partly spread by the OECS (Chase and Nichols, 1998) that the impacts of human activity anywhere in a small island system can have implications countrywide, `from ridge to reef '. Throughout the islands there does exist a pool of people with appropriate technical expertise in monitoring and management of resources, and who are resourceful in their outlook and understanding of environmental issues. It is the mustering of this resource in productive, co-operative and co-ordinated ways that is essential for e€ective natural resource management. Some small-scale community led schemes have been demonstrated in this paper. So have government and international initiatives which have the potential to succeed. Positive integration of these initiatives involving local communities, national government departments and the international community could help save and enhance what is left of the special environment of small islands like St. Vincent, but only if they act in a sustained and open partnership. I would like to acknowledge the assistance of Kurt Cordice of the Tobago Cays Marine Park, Richard Pole, NRI, and Raymond Ryan of the St. Vincent Fisheries Division for their assistance with this paper, and support of Keith Nichols of OECS, NRMU, St. Lucia. Zubran Solamain assisted in the construction of the bathymetry map. Also thanks to Dr. Nick Willoughby at NRI for his helpful comments with the manuscript. Adams, R. D. (1968) The leeward reef of St. Vincent, West Indies. Journal of Geology 76, 587±595. Adey, W. H. and Burke, R.(1976) Holocene bioherms (algal ridges and bank-barrier reefs) of the eastern Caribbean. Geological Society of America Bulletin 87, 95±109. Agard, J. B. R. and Gobin, J. F. (2000) The Lesser Antilles, Trinidad and Tobago. In Seas at The Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation, ed. C. Sheppard, Elsevier, Amsterdam (Chapter 40). Anon (1999) Fish Kill in the South Eastern Caribbean. Part 26. December 1999. http://www.uncwil.edu/isrs. Caribbean Conservation Association (1991) St. Vincent and the Grenadines: Country Environmental Pro®le. 3 May 2000 xxvii+222 pp. Caribbean Environment Programme (1993) Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan for St. Vincent and the Grenadines. CEP Technical Report No. 27. United Nations Environment Programme, 60 pp. http://www.cep.unep.org/pubs/techreports/tr27en/content.html. Caribbean Environment Programme (1996) Country Pro®les: St. Vincent and the Grenadines Technical Report No. 36: Status of Protected Area Systems in the Wider Caribbean Region. http:// www.cep.unep.org/pubs/techreports/tr36en/countries/stvincen.html. Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Global Climate Change Project. www.cpacc.org. Cecil, R. G. (1988) The heterogeneity of Southern Caribbean inshore ®sheries. Caribbean Studies 2 1(1±2), 215±236. Chase, V. and Nichols, K. (1998) Island systems management: a new paradigm for small island states. In Natural Resources Management in the Caribbean, discussion papers, eds. OAS, pp. 6±11. Central Intelligence Agency (2000) The World Factbook 2000. http:// www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/vc.html. Coast and beach stability in the Lesser Antilles, COSALC (1996) http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/info/ pub2_4.htm.

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D'Anglejan, B. and Mountjoy, E. W. (1973) Submerged reef of the eastern Grenadines shelf margin. Geological Society of America Bulletin 84, 2445±2454. Deschamps, A. and Desrochers, A. (2000) St. Vincent Grenadines Horseshoe Reef, Tobago Cays Marine Park. http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/agra/®eld-vincent.html. Dey, S. and Smith, L. (1989) Carbonate and volcanic sediment distribution patterns on the Grenadines bank, Lesser Antilles Island Arc, East Caribbean. Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 37(1). Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean/Caribbean Development and Co-operation Committee (1998) St. Vincent and The Grenadines. http://www.sdnp.undp.org/eclac/CARMIN/ DOCS/svg.htm. Encyclopaedia Britannica (2001) http://www.britannica.com/. Hendry, M. D. (1996) Local Area Development and Environmental Management Plan for Union Island, Mayreau and Tobago Cays (Phase 1): Legal and Institutional framework for coastal management and Phase II work plan. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (United Nations Environment Program, 26+vi pp). ICCAT. 2001. The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (http://www.iccat.es/). Lewis, J. B. (1975) Preliminary Description of coral reefs of Tobago Cays, Grenadines, West Indies. Atoll Research Bulletin 178, 9. Mills, A. P. (2000) Information systems for management of coastal resources in small island developing states, an example from St. Vincent and The Grenadines. In Proceedings of Sixth International Conference on Remote Sensing for Marine and Coastal Environments, Charleston, South Carolina, 1±3 May, Vol. II, pp. 227±234. Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States: Natural Resources Management Unit (1999) A Management Plan for the Buccament Valley, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. Strategy for a Community Based Co-Management Partnership, 84 pp. Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States: Natural Resources Management Unit (1998) OECS Strategy for Sustainable Tourism, 10 pp. Pantin, D. A. (1999) The challenge of sustainable development in small island developing states: case study on tourism in the Caribbean. Natural Resources Forum 23, 221±223. Parsler, J. (1989) Coastal and marine environmental stress in the St. Vincent Grenadines. Environmental Education and Information 8(3), 199±212. Porter, M. (1996) Beach sand mining in St. Vincent and the Grenadines after the Landmark Decision of 1994. In Managing Beach Resources in the Smaller Caribbean Islands, ed. G. Cambers, UNESCO. REEFBASE. 2001. REEFBASE Database: A Global Information System on coral reefs. St. Vincent and the Grenadines: http:// www.reefbase.org/database/CoralReefs.asp? Country ˆ 99. Ryan, R. (1999) St. Vincent and The Grenadines; Fisheries Status Report 1997. Prepared as a country report for the OECS Symposium on Fisheries Management and Development 13±16 April 1999. St. Vincent and the Grenadines Tourism Department (1999) Accommodation Rates, 1999/2000. Lea¯et. Smith, A., Rogers, C. and Bochon, C. (1998) Status of coral reefs in the Lesser Antilles, Western Atlantic. Australian Institute of Marine Science: Status of coral reefs of the world: 1998 (Section 9) www. aims.gov.au/pages/research/coral-bleaching/scr1998/scr-09.html. UNEP/CEPAL. 1979. Overview of Natural Resources for Food and Agriculture in the Wider Caribbean Region. Caribbean Environment Programme Action Plan, Caracas. UNEP/CIDA. 1999. Integrated Coastal Planning and management in the Wider Caribbean Region. Pilot Projects of the Caribbean Environment Programme with the Support of the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, 46 pp. UNESCO. 1972. Convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural heritage adopted by the UNESCO General Conference at its seventeenth session, Paris, 16 November 1972. UNESCO, Paris, France, 59 pp. United Kingdom Hydrographic Oce (2000) West Indies Pilot Volume II. Mona Passage, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, Leeward and Windward Islands from Anguilla to Grenada. Hydrographer of the Navy, Taunton UK. S. M. Wells (ed.) (1988) Coral Reefs of the World, vol. 1, Atlantic and Eastern Paci®c. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya, XI. vii+373 pp., 38 maps.