Stamina in later life

So< .%I Mui Vol 21 No Y pp 997 1006 1985 Prmted I” Greait Bnkm All nghr\ re\erved

Copynghl

STAMINA

TN LATER

ELIZABETH

Center

for the Study

of Agmg.

0277-Y53h/XS $3 00 + 0 01) 19X5Pcrgmon Prc\\ Lid

LIFE

COLERICK

Box 3003. Duke Umverslty

MedIcal

Center,

Durham.

NC 27710. U S A

of lmportdnt questlons concerning the paths to successful older mdlvlduals their stdymg power m the fdce of misfortune7 Whdt cduses others to function less elTect]vely when stressed. to resist change’ Clearly, the margin of safety. the degree of elasticity and resihence vdrles across mdlvlduals m the later years This study focuses on event histories and current behawor of 62 elderly men dnd women (Phdse I) dnd reports by their confidants (N = 62, Phase II) A central proposItIon. that stamina m later life depends, m part, on the appraisal of previous events mvolvmg loss IS mvestlgdled usmg d model thdt mcorpordtes aspects of edrlier hfe. cogmtive appraisal and clinically Judged dlmenslons of stamma in old age Multlvdnate (pdrlicularly path dndlytlc) techniques dre used to test the links between vanable foci Results suggest thdt antecedents of stdmmd involve the mterdctlon of social resources and cognitive onentatrons Spec6icdlly, stdrnmd m later life IS contingent, for the most part. on a tnumphant. posttlve outlook dunng periods of adversity Elderly so onented are also those with robust health histories and marked educational accomphshments Conversely, persons who view Situations mvolvmg loss as threatemng, overwhelmmg and potentially defeating expenence no such outcome, low levels of stamma mark their later years Interestingly, quahty ctuldhood ties matter for stdmma m old age only by mcreasmg the likelihood of perceptions of a supportive environment during hard times The findings corroborate the general pattern of research documenting the Importance of cogmtwe onentatlons m adaptwe processes

Abstract-patterns dddptdtlon

What

INTRODUCTION

of

gives

agmg

J

c

rd1s.e d number

some

of wisdom [5] Clues concerning the nature of stamma emerge from recent longltudmal mvestlgatlons of ego reslhency [6] and emotional stability m hard times [7, 81 According to Block [9], ego reslhents mamfest long-standing characterologlcal integrity and resourcefulness, m evaluations, they appear mtrospectlve, competent, insightful and with a wide range of interests Slmllarly, Elder [8] describes the adverse effects of economic loss on men who are emotionally unsteady prior to hard times Kobasa’s refinement of the hardy personality [ 1&I 21 focuses on the personal attributes of those who remam healthy despite stressfull circumstances These accounts present mterpretatlons of life functlonmg that stress coping and adaptation and suggest the mastery value of stamina Stamma may be expressed m the later years through the ability to mcorporate personal loss mto one’s hfe and to move forward Previous experience with mastery m dealing with hard times provides assurance that resolution IS possible and may foster hopeful appraisals of subsequent dlfficultles Conversely, unresolved losses may entall recurrent dlstress, impede the development of effective management strategies and handicap attempts to meet later hfe demands Elderly who lack stamina may combme a legacy of many losses (e g impaired health, role loss, reduced income) with a sense of helplessness whereas older persons with stamina are likely to feel challenged and self-confident m slmllar clrcumstances The purpose of this paper 1s to explain, m part, this range of behavior using a social psychological model of stamma m current functlonmg The model m Fig 1 hnks adaptive potential (1 e early family relatlonshlps, past health, educational attainment) to levels of stamina m later hfe The effect may occur directly or mdlrectly through cogmtlve appraisal (1 e personal outlook, manner of assessment) We assume that behavior 1s influenced by the way a person construes the environment. past, actual

AND BACKGROUND

Life provides countless departures from the accustomed state of affairs Indlvlduals learn to manage change by trymg and fallmg or succeeding, by partlally succeeding and by compromlsmg Over time, the accumulation of this experience and skill IS expressed m patterns of agmg Confronting and mastermg earlier setbacks may teach mdlvlduals how to deal with similar events m old age The lmperatlves of later life, however, are particularly challenging (e g physical mfirmltles, broken attachments) when they demand a reorganization of habits and modes of hvmg VJhat quahtles dlstmgulsh older persons who demonstrate emotional reslhence despite age-related losses and life change? How do their hfe hlstorles differ from those of the more vulnerable? The concept of stamina brings to mmd qualities of personal strength m old age such as mental vigor, vitality and endurance It has been defined as the vital essence or natural capacltles of a hvmg organism, the ‘thread of life’ spun by the Fates, three goddesses of clasncal mythology believed to determine the course of human life [l] High levels of stamina entail reslhence and ‘staying power’, the strength (physical or moral) to withstand disease, fatigue or hardship [2] Although physical strength often wanes m later life, internal stamina reflects well-tested convlctlons that obstacles are surmountable and that personal growth 1s an outcome of personal struggle Who has stamina m later life” Satisfactory answers do not appear In the blo-medical literature because theoretical and empirical accounts of aging tend to place less emphasis on posltlve quahtles Inherent m older mdlvlduals than on age-related changes marked by deterloratlon and decrement In fact. most studies of social behavior m later hfe have concerned themselves with the vulnerable older person [3] Exceptions include accounts of intellectual plastlclty [4] and 997

998

ELIZABETH

J

COLERICK

1 COGNITIVE //.---I-.I

1

(Triumph

APPRAISAL

,

support)

Fig I Basic analytic

or imagined [13, 141 The critical Issue IS whether cognitive orlentatlons matter for stamina m later life Arrows m the model represent two central lines of analysis and the research ObJectives First we mvestlgate the effect of adaptive potential on levels of stamina m old age The second objective 1s to assess the medlatlonal effects of cogmtlve appraisal (patterns of event construal) on this relatlonshlp Does cogmtlve appraisal precede or follow current functlonmg? The model separates elements of thought (cogmtlve appraisal) from elements of action (stamina m current functlonmg), but appraisal IS mextncably tied to response For example, the meanmg of work 1s reflected m a retiree’s attempts to cope with loss of this role Slmllarly, efforts to cope with unemployment express the cogmtlve appraisal of work’s role Other ways to model the process come to mmd (e g stamina medlatmg the effects of adaptive potential on cognitive appraisal, simultaneous influences of cogmtlve appraisal and behavioral stamina), yet recent evidence [15] suggests that mdlvlduals must first comprehend (1 e perceive, evaluate, appraise) that their well-being IS at risk prior to their coping response Slmlldr arguments for the mediatlonal status of event construal are made by Pearhn and Schooler [ 161 concerning psychological copmg efficacy, by George [ 171 regardmg adJustments to role transltlons m later hfe, by Elder [l8] on the mechanisms by which effects of the Great Depression persist m the lives of older women and by Taylor [ 191 who postulates a cogmtlve theory of adaptation m women with breast cancer This research focuses on the current functlonrng of 62 men and women who are between the ages of 70 and 80 All lrve wlthm the southern tier region of upstate New York Sample screening centered on commumty-dwellmg, white elderly mdlvlduals m relatively good physlcdl health All were soIlcIted through senior cltlzen orgdntzatlons Hdlf of the sample IS male and half IS also married and collegeeducated Each member of the pool wds matched with a person whom he or she nomlndted ds ‘knowmg them best’ Nearly all of the nominees are female. three-fifths dre over the age of 69, and 73”:, dre members of the family or km system Over half dre These nommee? dre typlcally long-term spouses slgmficant others Nearly three out of four have known the focal person over 40 years

1

\_

model

The paper 1s organized around four maJor sections The first mvolves a discussion of the design, data collection and issues of measurement The second moves toward concept clarlficatlon using demographic and behavloral correlates of stamina Persons Judged to have high levels of stamina are distinguished from others m terms of previous and current life patterns Section three 1s the focal point of the paper-assumptions of causal order are made and the model m Fig 1 1s tested The paper concludes with a discussion of stamina as an adaptive resource m the later years SAMPLES

AND MEASUREMENTS

The proJect consists of two phases In Phase I the respondents (focal sample) were asked to complete mall questionnaires and to partlclpate m an Interview session The questionnaire provides mformatlon on social origins, early family relatlonshlps and personal attrlbutes (1 e several psychometric scales were meluded to provide estimates of internal states, mood and health) Interviews were scheduled upon return of the questlonnalres Sessions were 1 5-2 5 hours m length and focused on two salient past events Identified on the questionnaire as particularly difficult or crucial The Interviewer established the event context by probing SIX factors (d) a detailed descnptlon of the event, (b) mltlal and subsequent reactions to the event, (c) the extent of preparation (I e readlness, antlclpatlon) for the event, (d) the degree of control the respondent beheved he or she had over the sltuatlon, (e) the dvdllablllty of support, asslstance or resources (I e financial. social. personal) available for copmg with the event, (f) dctions taken and not taken m efforts to cope. (g) subsequent hfe changes that were probable outcomes of the event Sessions concluded with a dlscusslon of the focal person’s current functlonmg In terms of dgmg changes dnd efforts to manage The interviews were tape recorded and transcribed verbatim In sum. d mlxed-mode data collectton characterized Phase I. where questlonndlres ‘charted the territory’ dnd mterviews followed to provide richer content Phase II focused on the confidants who provided additional lnformatlon on the focal person’s wrrenf functionmg Confidant mtervlews occurred no later than 72 hours after focal mtervlews, enablmg the

Stdmmd in later life mtervlewer to place these accounts against recent and vivid focal reports The confidants described their partners m terms of current problems, challenges and efforts to cope As described m Phase I, Phase II mtervlewers were transcribed verbatim from taped recordings Confidant questlonnalres were constructed directly from the focal questlonnalres by changing scale Items from the first person (e g “1 find It difficult to be optlmlstlc about anythmg now-ddays”) to the third person (e g “He or she finds rt difficult to be optlmlstlc about anything now-adays”), permlttmg systematic comparisons between self and other reports* The scales were selected as mdlcators of later life functlomng and include morale [20]. future orlentatlon [20], mastery [ 161, self-esteem [ 161, anxiety [21] and functional health [22] Scale items are m Llkert form with anchors ranging from ‘not at all’ to ‘very much so’ Two chnlcal psychologists and one psychiatric nurse (M S prepared) rated the mtervlews Based on knowledge of horh accounts, the Judges made 32 declslons (1 e usmg 7-pomt scales) regarding the focal person’s current psychosoclal functlonmg The Judgmg process followed 3 weeks of training mvolvmg case conferences focused on interJudge dlscrepannes and concept clarlficatlon Final estimates of mterrater rehablhty (excluding the SIX trial cases) denve from correlations between Judges across cases for each variable and average above 0 80 Overall, the Judges agreed that more than half (56%) of linked sample accounts were ‘very amliar’ m content and that most of the confidants were very knowledgeable (76”j,) and supportive (850,;) of their partners

THE

VARIABLES

Stamma Five

current

chmcal assessments of the focal behavior are used to characterize

person’s stamina

(a) “Capacity for Growth”-an mdlvtdual who has this capacity shows a propensity to seek out new areas of self-expression, productlvlty and relatedness. he or she shows readiness to acqmre new roles as well as the ability to modify old ones High capacity for growth IS further characterized by cunoslty, openness to expenmentatlon [24] (b) “Personal Insight”--this is a Judgement of person’s level of self-awareness (I e how ‘m tune’ IS with whdt he or she does and why) High levels are characterized by an ability to descnbe personal and hmltatlons and by an awareness of ones others [24]

the focal he or she of Insight strengths effect on

(c) “Life Perspective --dn mdlvldual with a developed life perspective has d sense of personal biography Low scorers do not easrly make hnks to the past and have little sense of the future High scorers draw upon past expenence in meetmg the present and m plannmg for the future, he or she views current functioning wlthm the context of the entire hfe course [24] (d) Llkehhood entlre Interview

of Functional Breakdown ‘-based on the protocol chmclans were asked to make a

*The constructlon of confiddnt scale items follows an dpprOdCh taken by R R McCrae (1982) m a study of spouse self-reports and ratmgs

999

functIonA prognosis. to estimate the probdblhty thdt Ihe focal person ~111 break down (I e become undhle 10 Ldrry out the dctwilies

of ddily hvmg)

In the fdcc of mdjor

life

change [24] (e) “General

IS d global Judgement, of the focal person’s dblhty to environment. lo cope with hfe work dnd family spheres High by most setbacks and describe ds successful Coping behdvlors enough to combat symptoms of

Competence”--this

based on the entIre protocol. meet the demands of the changes effectively m both scorers appear undaunted their management strdtegtes of low scorers are often not stress [23, 241

The average Inter-item correlation 1s 0 71 The following interview excerpts reflect high levels of stamma among older men and women of the sample High starnrna (A retired social worker had this to say about managmg hard times) “The key to dedlmg with loss IS not obvious One must take the problem, the void, the lonelmess, the sorrow and put it on the buck of your neck and use it as d dnvmg force Don’t let such problems sit out there m front of you, blocking your vlslon Use them to dnve you forward Use hardshlp m d positive way” (A 78 year old man reflects on the Easter morning [I9541 that his IS y o son had been killed In an auto accident) “After the police told us we drove back to the house Of course my wife was very upset but, for some reasons I knew that everythmg was going to be allright I had a sense of peace inside that assured me that this loss would pass Just ds all of life passes at the funeral I knelt m front of him and the same peace came over me The next day I was out back choppmg wood, Just as three generahons of family had done on this land before me” (After dlscussmg the dlfficultles associated with caring for her agmg parents and their subsequent deaths, this never marned woman states) “I realize that setbacks are a part of the game I’ve had ‘em, I have them now, and I’ve got plenty more ahead of me Seeing this--the big picture-puts it ail mto perspective, no matter how bad things get”

Low starnma (Twice widowed, this 74 y o woman described the manner m which she coped with the diagnosis of colon cancer) “I was m the hospital and, the night before surgery, I Just went crazy, or so they tell me I don’t Oh. remember much of It I was certain that I would die on the never wake up table I felt sure It was the end Then I woke up with a colostomy and figured I have to stay mslde the house for the rest of my life Now I’m afraid to go back to the doctor’s and keep putting off my check ups” Her Informant “She’s the type that goes to pieces, falls apart over anything She will not believe that things will work themselves out Right now she beheves that she IS gomg to end up at the County Farm-you know, the poor house Just bnng it up, you know, the future. and she’ll Sit there and cry”

sources of varlatlon m stamina (1 e mdependent variables) are organized along two dlmenslons Adaptrve Potenrlal and Cognttrve Appraisal

Potential

Adaptive

potential

Three personal resources m earlier life that have lmphcatlons for later hfe were identified family ongms, education and health Family origins 1s a com-

1000

ELIZABETH J COLERICK

variable. a summed average of 5 questionnaire Items [25] Respondents are asked to rate on 7-pomt scales (a) the degree to which childhood independence was fostered by mother or primary caretaker, (b) the extent to which parents or primary caretakers shared slmllar values, (c) the degree to which the years of early family hfe were beset by loss (e g natural disasters, death Illness, economic hardship), (d) the extent to which mother or primary caretaker was a self-defeatmg, martyr-type of 1ndlvldual and, (e) the degree to which the family of origm emphasized ‘togetherness’ or ‘domg things as a unit’ (average inter-item correlation 1s 0 66) The summary measure of early family hfe provides an estimate of emotlonal security acquired through the haven of a stable, supportive childhood environment, the basis of one’s earliest notions of safety and security m the face of hardship If favourable, these elements of early relatlonshlps should reduce the impact of later life setbacks by provldmg confidence m the use of social supports m coping ‘Level of education’ accounts for many of the differences that are observed m attitudes. problem solvmg ablhty, actlvlty patterns, commumty partlclpatlon and characterlstlcs of social networks among age strata [26] Level of attainment indicates adaptive potential through levels of competence or problem solvmg ablhty, a probable asset m effective coping In this study education 1s measured by the focal person’s self-report of highest level Choices include (a) grammar school or less, (b) some high school, (c) high school graduate, (d) some college (business, technical or collegiate level), (e) college graduate, (f) advanced degrees Because adaptive efforts 1n later hfe depend on the physical Integrity of the aging 1ndlv1dual, a measure of ‘physical health’ completes the assessment of ddapt1ve potential Health status IS an essential conslderatlon 1n gerontological research because 1t sets hm1ts on the capacity of elderly to adapt [27] Like disadvantaged famdy origins and low levels of education. poor health is viewed ds d threat to ddaptatlon Health 1n the early hfe course IS measured by dsking of overall health (respondents are asked to consider both acute and chronic conditions. hospltdhzdtions over the life course, ‘&point scale from poor to excellent) Together, the three dlmenslons of adaptive potential (fdmily orlgms, educdtlon. and health) pertam to personal dnd social resources of edrher life Their direct effects on stamina In later life and the degree to which cognitive appraisal medidtes this dynamic will be assessed

Based on chmcal ratings of the interview material, two construal patterns emerged the probablhty (a) that self ~111 rrwnph over adverse circumstances. (or that self ~111experience harm or defeat 1n the face of dlscontmulty) and (b) that self IS not isolated m hard times--support IS both ddequdte and dvailable ‘Triumph connotes a sense of mastery, of personal control or efficacy, of optlmlsm about the course of difficult times A triumphant outlook belongs to lndlvlduals who beheve 1n their ability to surmount hfe problems posed by changed circumstances For older mdlvlduals with this onentatlon, setbacks represent challenges The summed average of five chnlcal ratings (7-point scales) constitutes the measure of triumph (a) degree of active, constructive coping behavior (as contrasted with passlvlty, withdrawal [29], (b) evidence of problem-solvmg (as opposed to emotion-regulating) strategies [30], (c) degree of challenge (vs threat) perceived, attention dlrected towards possible gains rather than negative expectancies [3 11, (d) incremental (rather than decremental) antic]patlons of the future, and (e) extent of anticipatory planning to meet future demands The average mteritem correlation 1s 0 56 Examples of a ‘triumphant outlook among men and women of the target group include

The persondl meaning or p\ychologicdl significance of experiences involving 10~s cdn be ds important as the nature and incidence of such events over the life course The way m which hmltatlons clre Interpreted Cdn be viewed dS part of dn dddptdtiondi orientation [2X], d ‘peryondl outlook’ developed through year> of encoding event\ dnd the meaning of such coded expressions It 1\ probable that the nature and strength of such rne\sdge\ help shape patterns of dddptlve behavior in later life

(This retired elementdry xhool teacher IIves with her ddult son on the ‘fdmlly fdrm ’ She locused on pdst and present concerns) ’ I wd\ dpprehcn\lvc dll the time-he wds sick for years (her husband) ,Ind edLh ddy thdt I got out of bed. I was thInkIng that he wdb gonnd die It wd\ always m the bdck of my mind dlwdys Another fedr I have 17 of fdlhng Therefore I never go .mywhere lor lcdr I II fdll In d strange pldce ’

posite

(A retired high school administrator speaks abouth the value of looking ahead, beyond past and current problems) “My eyes dre always on the future The past IS past. let it be If you keep your vlslon on the horizon hfe IS truly worth hvmg” (This 74 year old woman lost her first husband suddenly, followmg d hedrt dttack. three years later her second husband died dfter d long battle with cdncer She describes I would descnbe myself as d herself In general terms) optimist I see hrst the good m people and. m most events, good or bad Sure you need more m terms of resources. and I’ve had more m terms of good hedlth and financial security But my outlook makes the improbable probable” (A former entomologist describes retirement from dcademICS) ‘I never dreaded it because I alwdys thought I would retlre early Years dgo LL~rl student thlnkmg about my cdreer, I thought I wds going to tedch d year or two here, d year or two there I wds going to see the world. you know Well, the DepressIon cdme dlong and I never did Retirement provided dn opportunrty to finally do those thmgs Sure you felt cut off lrom your lifeline for d while but it’s all how you see your optIons-I \dw gredt begmnmgs dnd there were”

For any number of redsons (e g disadvantaged childhood. school fd1lures. d debihtatmg handicap. economic misfortune). an 1nd1v1duai may reach the later years feeling defeated by hfe circumstances Comment5 by low scorers on ‘triumph emphasize this negative orientation to loss dnd hfe chdnge

(This woman hds been LLhou\ewlle +Ince her college grddudtmn III 1931 She dcxrlbc\ hLr prc\cnt Llrcumstdnces ct

Stdl’“lI,d

III

later

1001

hfe

home) “Lots change ds the years go by 1 can.1 dccomphsh near what I used lo I hdve drthrms dnd everyddy 1 feel suffer than the ddy before Slmple Jobs dround the house look so big to me and I feel fdtlgued often time before I begm them Somettmes I stay m bed for much longer thdn I should dnd get up feeling worse I worry too much hfe has never been d rose gdrden’

have nounshed over the yedrs dnd we’ve dlwdys tdken cdre of one dnother If someone’\ stck and need\ lo go to the hospitdl, one of us tdkes them Sdme gee\ with cdr rcpdirs and other dppointments My frlcnds dre my community dnd my family I m lucky to be so dependent m thts wdy”

The second variable central to the measurement of cognmve appraisal concerns the older person’s perceptlon of ‘support’ Though supportive mteractlons among people are important resources for good health (for exhaustive blbhographles on this subJect see [32, 33]), especially as buffers m stressful sltuatlons, we have httle knowledge of how some mdlvlduals come to view themselves as alone (despite the presence of a spouse or numerous social contacts) or as supported by others (m terms of avallablhty and wlllmgness to help) Does appraisal of support matter for effective functlonmg m old age? ‘Support’ IS measured usmg two Judge’s ratings of mtervlew material The first indexes the respondents’ perceptions of others (km and non-km) m terms of avallablhty and wlllmgness to assist (physlcally, emotionally or financially) m times of need Here, chniclans were instructed to discount network size and quality and base Judgements on the focal person’s perceptions of accessible assistance The second ratmg measures the tendency of the focal person to ‘move toward others’ m adaptive efforts The two Items are moderately correlated (r = 0 58) Various perceptions of support are evident m statements by sample members

(This never mdrned womdn hves m d retrrement community that does not dllow pet\ She spent her ddult ycdrs brccdlng showing and selling gordon setters) “I hdvc never turned to people for dnythmg 1 go for wdlks dnd Involve myself with nature Ammdls dre my friends. I’ve rarely hved wlthout severdl dogs dnd cdts They were dll so precmus, my support, my fdmlly Now what I enloy more thdn dnythlng or anyone IS drlvmg dround seemg the wild geese, the swdns at the park dnd the ducks I love the spring becduse of the little ldmbs. little colt\-dll the young credtures”

High scorers (A former account clerk, never marned, suggests a hnk between family orlgms and later life functlonmg) “My home hfe was such that I had the best of everything We were a very close family We did things together I am strongly convinced that domg things “as d family” IS so very Important You learn to trust one another, give and take with each other Makes a difference m your friendships m later life” (This retired home economics teacher described her current social network She has hved m her nelghborhood for nearly five decades) “Lonelmess IS a state of mmd 1 love hvmg alone Certainly there are times when nothmg IS going on, but Lordy. you never have to be alone All you have to do IS give a shout Of course I have many friendships that I

Table I Modal behavmrs of focal sample by level of stdmma percentages stamma Lou

lndlcator Actrr 11,

High (A’ = 32)

mode

Easeicontentment Rehg~ous Social senvce Interpersonal Instrumental Personal growth Copmg

(N = 30) 31 23 3 27 17 0 /:=I8

6 6 22 28 16 22 P
mode

Turns to others lnhlbmon of dcuon lntrapsvchx processes Informalon seekmg DIKCI dcuon

0 20 17 0 6 33 44 3 50 27 /z = 30, P < 0 001

I”

Lob4 scorer

CORRELATES

Behuuor

OF STAMINA

patterns

Stamina has been described ds an important aspect of adaptive capacity, an mterndl force, a sense of balance and coherence [34] or, to repeat Thomas [2], “the thread of life” To understand why some men and women demonstrate high levels of stamina while others do not require knowledge of their life course Are these facets of stamina associated with current functtonmg? In what actlvltles are high stamina mdlvlduals predominantly engaged? What behaviors dlstmgulsh coping repertoires and modes of relatmg to the envnonment? Comparisons along these lmes are shown m Table 1 High and low levels of stamma refer to mdlvlduals whose average score on the five Judge ratings IS above or below the median (4 5 on a 7-pomt scale) Judge ratings of ‘act~uzt~~mode’ indexed the usual manner m which day-to-day hfe was spent by the respondent Modes include (a) ease/contentment (simple comforts, relaxation, (b) rehglous (spiritual actlvlty, adherence to a behavloral/ethlcal code, (c) social service (helping others, community service, (d) interpersonal (intimacy, friendship, soclablhty), (e) instrumental (career productivity, social status) and, (f) personal growth (taking courses, expandmg horizons, travelmg) [24] ‘Coping mode’ reflects the Judge’s decision on the respondent’s basic style of managing dlsruptlons m life patterns Categories include (a) reliance on others, (b) inhibited response. (c) mtrapsychic processes, (d) mformatlon seeking and, (e) direct action [24] Together, the activity and copmg modes provide clues as to how levels of stamina are expressed m later hfe No assumptions regardmg causal order can be made because the data are cross-sectional Striking differences between the stamina groups reflect lifestyle variation Actlvltles mvolvmg personal growth (e g taking a night class, travel, visltmg museums) and social service (community group orgamzmg/partlclpatlon) are commonplace for high stamina mdlvlduals (44”,/,) compared to their less resourceful counterparts (3 3”,/,) Men and women in the latter group tend to develop a lifestyle of ease and contentment, as m watching televlslon and relaxing The comparable figure for high stamina persons 1s 6%, suggesting a busier pace and greater outside involvement

1002 Table 2

ELIZABETH Earlier ltfe patterns

by stamlnd

m later hfe m percentages Stammd

Indicator warIanral SI0l”S Never marned Marned WIdowed Divorced Past hcalrh Poor F&r Good Excellent Educarron Some grammar school (> 8th grdde) Some high school (112th grade) High School Graduate Some college COkge grddudte Advanced degree.

Low (N = 30) High (N = 32) 7 43 50 0 ~‘=8 3 37 47 13 A’=22,

19 59 19 P
23 23 IO I3 37 ,‘=24.

0 0 19 13 25 44 P
The behavioral dlsparlty between stamina groups 1s more pronounced on modes of coping (Table 1) Almost without exception (94x), persons with high stamina were Judged to cope actively with setbacks (e g mformatlon seeking, direct action) m contrast to others m the sample (30%) Passive strategies, on the other hand (e g turning to others, holding back, mtrapsychlc processes) typify the latter group’s response repertoire Life patterns Older men do not differ slgmficantly from older women on the chmcally Judged expression of stamma However, more men than women m the sample fell mto the ‘high stamina’ category (56 vs 44%) The life histories of the two ‘stamina’ groups are strlkmgly different As shown m Table 2, high stamina IS linked to marriage, higher education and good health Three general patterns of assoclatlon may be drawn from Table 2 First, differences m stamina by marital status highlight the importance of companIonshIp m the later years More than half of the high stamina group are currently hvmg with their spouse m contrast to the dlsproportlonate number of widows (50%) who have lower amounts of this adaptive strength Lowenthal’s [35] work on the buffering effect of confidants against loss m later hfe underscores the slgmficance of this trend Stamina has tradltlonally been linked to hedlth [2] Similarly, connections have been made between adaptive capacity m later life and physical integrity [27] We compared the percentage of focal elderly who ranked high and low on stamina wlthm each category of overall past health Without exception, members of the former group reported their physical status ds either good or excellent over seven decades in sharp contrast to 40’:{, of the low stamina group for whom fair or poor health had become d hfe pattern Education 15 another key element m the development of stamina Compared to others, men and women In the high ctdmlnd group have completed significantly more year5 of schoolmg, all have completed high school and most hold advanced degrees

J

COLERICK

reflecting, perhaps. the capacity for growth’ and ‘competence’ components of this summary measure This greater-than-chance matching of stamina levels and educational attainment suggests that level of education (rather than level of stamina) may be responsible for the differences we find m actlvlty and coping modes To dddress this Issue, analyses of modal behaviors were repeated. comparing equal numbers of high and low stamina mdlvlduais from matched educational groups (I e high school graduate, some college and college graduate) Results of this analysis are consistent with earher findings showmg divergent behavior patterns between high and low stamina elderly After effects of educatlonal dttamment are controlled, mdlvlduals still vary systematically m spheres of activity dependmg on level of later life stamina Consldermg the relationship between manta1 status, educatlonal attainment, health and stammd, the question arises as to whether the clmlcal psychologlsts serving as Judges found these data mformative m evaluating the focal cohort on stamma Did the Judges’ conceptions of marriage, formal schoolmg and physlcal Integrity influence their Judgements of growth, competence and personal insight (1 e stamma)? Possibly. however, it IS wise to respect the manner m which conceptions of adaptive strength held by practltloners may have value In general, Judge conferences (training sessions) focused on respondents’ past experience of loss, management strategies and coping efficacy, demographlc Indicators and self-reported health rarely. If ever, entered clmlcal debates Another potential response set bias concerns halo effects raters may Judge a person high (or low) on one trait simply because he or she IS high (or low) on another trait To mmlmlze stereotyped responses, test construction mvolved Items m which approximately half had one end of the scale correspondmg to posltlve reaction alternatlve, other items had the same end of the contmuum correspondmg to more negdtlve reaction alternatives These ‘reflected’ statements were distributed throughout the Judge’s schedule m a chance manner Using slmllar strategies and multiple raters Block [36] has demonstrated that stereotypes do not nullify clinical Judge contrlbutlons PATHWAYS

TO STAMINA

IN LATER

LIFE

It IS dpparent from precedmg analyses that different levels of ‘stdmma’ have contrasting behavlord1 referents m earlier and later life These assoclatlons connote key propertles of the concept but fall to capture the dynamic relatlonshlp between previous and current circumstances For example what dspects of life experience precede these different outcomes” Is there any reason to JsCume that adaptive orlentatlons (I e patterns of events construal) help to explain these relatlonahlps” In the case of the focal cohort, the effects of adaptive potentlal dre traced through patterns of event dppralsal, to levels of stamina in later life As a first step In explammg the adaptive process shown m Fig I, d series of zero-order correlations were computed among self-reports of adaptive poten-

Stamma Table 3 CorrelaUons

I

Fdctors I 2 3 4 5 6 7

Farnil) ongms Educduon Past hedlth Trmmph Defedt Support Strmlnd

Vdmbles *p
tial and

I 2 7-dddptwe

0 328 0 30’ 0 30’ -0 17 0 30* 0 28 potentldl,

mdlrlx

m ldter

of Selected personal

2

3

0 43’ 0 54’ -0 30’ 0 15 0 56*

-0

I on3

Me and SoCldl chdrdcterlstlcs 4

0 43’ 311 0 08 048’

5

-0 6.7. 0 36’ 0 79’

4, 5. &ogmWe

dpprdlU1

-0 32’ -0 67’ ‘I--current

6

X

SD

046’

46 41 32 43 36 32 4 8

II 16 08 17 15 I5 I5

funcrmnmg

N=62

and Judges’ ratmgs of cognitive appraisal stamina These mterrelatlonshlps are shown m

Table 3 The data shown that stamma 1s strongly associated with aspects of cogmtlve appraisal [l e mdlvlduals with high levels of stamina tend to have ‘triumphant’ perceptions of hard times (r = 0 79)] High stamina elderly are also among the healthiest and most educated m the sample This pattern reflects Elder’s [7] description of adaptive potential as personal and social resources that facilitate coping Subsequent accounts [I81 link such feelings of mastery to high social standing Less important to stamina are interpersonal and contextual factors For example, m comparison to the other property of event construal (I e ‘triumph’), perceived social support IS less integral to this outcome The question arises as to whether the composite vanable, ‘Family Ongms IS masking potential influences of one or more of its component mdlcaters To address this Issue, a set of regression equations was computed using the adaptive potential variables, as well as the five mdlcators of family ongms, to predict stamina After controlling for education and health, none of the family origin mdlcators IS slgmficantly related to stamina m later life The five predictors together account for less than 1% of the variance m stamina scores The correlational patterns shown m Table 3 antlclpate a causal mode1 by providing clues that stamina m later life ma) be rooted m a personal history of physical integrity and educational challenge More

Importantly, the process of mamtammg stamina levels over time IS likely to mvolve cogmtlve factors that may fortify (‘Triumph’) or sabotage (‘Low Perceptions of Support’) coping efforts A set of structural equations IS presented m Fig 2, modelhng social psychological pathways to stamina m later life To enhance readability, model complexity has been reduced, although all paths have been statlstlcally examined, only more prominent hnes of influence (I e /l > 0 20) are depicted Standardized regression coefficients and zero-order correlation coefficients (m parentheses) describe each causal route From Fig 2, we learn that stamina may be viewed on the one hand as rooted m chlldhood legacies and social resources, on the other hand, stamina IS highly responsive to properties of event interpretation In terms of direct effects, mtellectual resources and physical health are highly significant predictors of both triumph and stamina Taken alone, aspects of adaptive potential account for 39% of the variance m stamina We see a 26% increment m R2 when cogmtlve appraisal IS added to the model (1 e R2 mcreases from 0 63 to 0 89) Note, however, that the increment m R* ISdue almost entirely to tnumph, the moderately strong assoclatlon between perceptions of support and later life stamina (r = 0 39) 1s reduced to nonsignificant levels (/? = 0 13) after controlling for triumph The most striking result of these analyses concerns the appraisal of social support Advantaged chlldhood beginnings predict later hfe stamina, but on/y by

R2=0

/, ADAPTIVE

31

POTENTIAL 9 -

Tr’umph Support

R2= 0

0 420 w----

l

(056)

z

IN ---

LATER

LIFE

Fig 2 Pathways to stamma III later hfe *P -z0 05,**P -e0 01 Each causal arrow 1s Identified by a standardized regressIon coefficient and a zero-order correlation coefficient wlthm parentheses All paths with coefficients ~0 2 have been deleted

09

1004

ELIZABETH

increasing perceptions of support m late adulthoodthere are no direct effect of family origins on current functionmg* Cauttonarles Interpretation of these results 1s tempered by several hmltatlons related to the study’s design and data base By exammmg past and present time frames m cross-sectional fashion we can only approach the notion of ‘process’ Although the nature of our variables (e g ‘family origins’, ‘later life stamina’) helps to estabhsh temporal precedence, It 1s Impossable to establish a firm position on cause and effect The findings therefore, are tentative and the research questions stand partly unresolved The advantages of a homogeneous sample and two sources of mformatlon (focal person and confidant) per case 1s achieved at some cost, especially m sample size and representation Because the sample IS nonrandom and from one geographic area, the findings have limited generahzablhty (1 e to white, middle class elderly, hvmg m central New York state) Since, however, the question of why some older mdlvlduals handle losses m later life better than others 1s both Important and largely unstudied, we thought It senslble to first launch an exploratory venture Another hmltation of the study concerns the sex dlscrlmmatlon among confidants Though efforts were successful m recruiting equal numbers of men and women mto the focal pool, the maJorlty of confidants are female This occurred because, almost *An cHects table showing pdth contrlbuttons to the tntluences of adaptive potential and cognltlve appraisal On Stamlnd (USlng path coefficients) IS dValidbk upon request

from

the duthor

tThls conclusion IS based on the results of an earher study (using the same data base) of consensus patterns in self-reports and ratings dmong elderly men, women dnd

their confidants

[40] It wds found

that mformants

who

dre also confidants cdn descrtbe the internal stdtes (I e drmenstons ol competence and mood) much ds these stdtes dre self-reported (lurked sdmple correldttons range

from 0 56 to 0 83) On the other hand,

slgmficant

others

mdy hdve better information about how d person appears externdlly (e g functlondl health status. what he or she cdn or cdnnot do) thdn does the older person hrmself or herself (correldtron between self-reports and rdtrngs on functiondl hcdlth = 0 42) Thts divergence IS most \trrkrng (d) when “shppdge” or dechne IS m the edrly stdges, (b) dmong mdrrled mdle\ (self-reports) and therr spouses (rdtmgs) dnd (c) m poor qudhty mdrrtdl reldtlonshlps. d+ Judged by cllnicldns $A medsure of life event stress [44] wds Included on the fOCdl questtonndire to gdln some understandmg of the rcldttonshm between actual events dnd the respondent’s perceptron of thcsc cvcnts m determlmng levels ot Idler hfe stdmina Bd\cd on summed averdges of hfe event \tre\\ the sample wds strdtthed mto three event severtty group\ (I e low, moderdte and htgh) With this measure lmludcd In rcgrcaaion dndiy\e\. d Clear picture Of \tdtlsttcdI non-srgmhcdncc emerges between hfe events (otnecttvely medsured) dnd ldter hfe Qdmmd The suggests thdt d pd\t hfe marked by numerous and Severe hard\htp cxperiencc? doe3 not render mdividudis more vulncrdblc or resourceful tn old age The results 01 these dindly%s (I c ‘Stdmlnd’ regressed on ‘SeVerlty of Pdst Event\’ In metric dnd stdnddrd Loetiicient form) dre dVdlldb)c upon rcque\t from the author

J

COLERICK

without exception, elderly men chose their spouses as confidants. focal women, most of whom were wldowed, selected close female friends The arrangement provides interesting data on spousal dyads but precludes Important comparisons between male and female confidants as informants [40] Retrospective research strategies have been evdluated using many criteria Questions dealing with the issue of accuracy [37-391 have led to answers that describe accounts as unmtelhglble, distorted. ratlonable and logical or useful In the present study, however, this method was chosen to understand how older mdlvlduals structure personal experience and how the nature of stored experience matters for levels of stamina The maJor Issue faced m moving toward this goal mvolved the problem of circular causality It 1s lmposslble to disentangle the effect that present circumstances and emotional states have on past reconstruction from the effect that previous experlences exert on current behavior without addltlonal sources of data on the focal person To reduce the threat of clrcularlty and to gam greater mtelhglblhty of data the study was designed to include an mformant sample Evidence of high convergence between self-reports and ratmgs has been documented using these data [40] and elsewhere [4143] suggesting that, overall, elderly self-reports provide reliable accounts of current functioningt DISCUSSION

This mvestlgatlon offers three broad conclusions First, the findings underscore the importance of cognitive appraisal in levels of later life stamina Though similar situations were discussed across focal interviews (e g loss of mother as a child, loss of child as a young adult, loss of spouse m later life, academic failure m youth, mvoluntary retirement, depression hardship), the manner m which these events were reconstructed matters more for current functlomng than their obJectively measured severity (e g widowhood vs retlrement)$ The varlatlon m later life stamina IS best explained by aspects of cogmtlve appraisal More specllically, elderly with high stamma for managing change have learned through the years that change is Inevitable, challenging and mandgedbie This IS not to say they deny or gloss over the difficulty of broken attachments To the contrary, triumph perceptions m later life flow from years of success in acting on the environment In old age, these mdlvlduals look beyond dge-related hmltatlons for new ways to use energy-Increasing understanding, extending skills, dlscovermg more ablhtles By sharp contrast. event construal patterns characterlzed by helplessness, hopelessness and fear (I e ‘low triumph’) ensure d strong risk of poor health and low stamma m old dge Perhaps through decades of construing thredtemng environments these elderly arrive m the later years broken dnd embittered, feeling much like victims of d pumtlve umverse From their vantage point. the life course hds been cl succession of bereavements and defeats that hdve dt ldst driven them into d defensive habit The second general conclusion concerns

of adaptive

potentidl

(social

resources,

the effects personal en-

Stdmmd

IO05

m ldter hfe

dowments of earher Me) on later life functlomng Educational attainment IS by far the most powerful predictor of stamma m the later years Although we know thdt education accounts for many of the differences m actlvlty patterns, pohtlcal attitudes and community partlclpatlon among older persons [26] and that problem solwng resources affect coping m deprIvationa sltuatlons [7], the process by which education and cogmtlve structure influence adaptive behavior 1s unknown Family origins dnd past health are also important for later life outcomes But m contrast to education, neither factor matters for stamina except through patterns of event construal Specifically, the influence of good physical health operates through an opt]mlstlc, triumphant outlook on adverse circumstances which increases coping resourcefulness m old age Conversely, a history of poor health increases vulnerablhty by triggering a ‘defeated’ orientation to later life change Imphcatlons of adaptive potential suggest a process beginning m earlier life with the development of coping resources The role and hmlts of family origins m shaping later life behavior concerns childhood messages, models and experiences They constitute the first and most important context of human mteraction m which attachments and response styles are formed Although childhood beginnings do not determme how or if broken attachments are resolved m later life, they influence how loss 1s experrenced m terms of perceived social support This study suggests that favorable family origins provide a safety element m old age by allowmg the older person to perceive a nurturant. supportive environment during hard times The effect of physlcal status on psychological processes has remained an open question for years [27] supporting the mltlal finding that past health alone cannot explain or predict later life levels of stamina This study shows. however, that physical capacity sets hmlts on stamina by shaping personal patterns of appraisal Therefore, the terms by which loss IS resolved m later life are. m part, accidents of a personal history In conclusion, the findings of this study represent, above all else. a testimony to the presence of earlier experience m later life The boundaries of old age as a blologlcal life stage are expanded to include a social and psychological past Bridging these time frames are cogmtlve orlentatlons, formed over the life course as mdlvlduals learn (more or less well) to cope with change In this sense, subsequent demands are encoded with some degree of famlhanty, showing contextual and hlstorlcal parallels The nature of these encoded messages may compromise reserve capacity and undermine management efforts or they may render age-related change a challenge, yielding lmproved adaptation

REPERENCES I

2 3

4

5

6

7 8

9

IO

II

I2

I3 I4

I9

20 21

Acl\nonled~entertrs-This study IS based on a program of research on addotdtlonal processes m later life Support from the hauonal Instnute on Agmg (Grant I- k03 AG046776-01. Glen H Elder, Jr. ormcmal mvestteator) IS gratefully acknowledged The helpful commentary-of Glen H Elder Jr Ph D and Linda K George. Ph D IS also appreciated

22 23

Weh~er’\ Unuhnd~ed ln/ernurwnul DI( ~wu~r~ (Edttorm-Chref, Netlson W ) G & C Merrldm. Sprtnghcld, Mass , 1942 Thomas C Stammd the thredd ofhfe J thron nl\ -34. 41. 19x1 Kdhdnd B socldl behdvwr dnd dgmg In Hundbooh of Developmenral P \v(hologv (Edited by Wolmdn B ) p 871 PrentlceeHdll, Englcwood Chlls. N J . 19x2 Bdltes P R and Wllhs S I The crtticdl tmportdnce of approprtdte methodology m the study of agmg the sample case of psychometrtc mtelhgcnce In The Ewluufwn of Old-Age-Func tronc (Edited by Hoffmetster F ) Sprmger, Heidelberg, 1979 Clayton V P and Barren J E The development of wisdom across the hl’e span d reexammdtton of dn ancient lopic In Lffc-Spun Derelopm~nt und Eehorwr (Edited by Bdhes P B dnd Brim 0 G Jr) p 104 Academic Press, New York. 1980 Block J H and Block J The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the orgdnizdtion of behdvlor In Mmnetota Sympow on Chdd Ptvtholog> (Edited by Collins W A ). Vol I3 Erlbdum. HIllsddle. N J . 1980 Elder G H Jr Chrldren o/ /he Greur Depre$uon Chmago Press. Chlcdgo. 1974 Elder G H Jr. Laker J and Cross C Pdrent-chlld behavior m the Great DepressIon hfe course and mtergenerattonal Influences In L&+xm Deoelopmem and Behavror (Edited bv Baltes P B and Brim 0 G Jr). Vol 6 Academic Press, New York, 1983 Block J Some enduring dnd consequentnil structures of personality In Further Exploratronr m Perronulrrt (Edited by Rabin A I ) Wiley, New York. 1981 Kobasa S C Stressful lrfe events personality. and health an mqmry mto hardiness J Perr sot Psvchol 37, I-II. 1979 Kobasa S C , Maddl S R and Kahn S Hardmess and health a prospective study J Per\ TO< Pwchol 42, 168-177. 1982 Kobasa S C The hardy personahty towdrd d social psychology of stress and health In Socral Pwchologl of Health and Illness (Edited bv Sanders G S and Sulls J ) Erlbaum, Hlllsdale, N J . (982 Lazarus R S Psvtitolog~ul Strerr and the Copmg Proceu McGraw-Hill. New York, 1966 Lazarus R S . Avenll J R and Opton E M The psychology of copmg Issues of research and dssessment In Courna and Adanrarron (Edited by Coelho G V . Hamburg D A and Adams J E ) BASIC Books, New York, 1974 Lazarus R On the primacy of cognition Am P~lchol 39, 124-129, 1984 Pearhn L I and Schooler C The structure of coping J Hlrh sot Behac 19, 2-21 1978 George L K Role Transltronr m Later Lffe Brooks/Cole. Monterey, Cahf 1980 Elder G H Jr and Laker J Hard times m women’s hves hlstorlcal influences across 40 years Am J Socrol 88, 241-269, 1982 Taylor S E AdJustment to threatening events d theory of cognitive adaptation Am Pwchol 38, 1161-l 173. 1983 Schuessler K F Measurmp Social Lffe Feelrngr Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1982 Kohn M L and Schooler C Class, occupduon and onentatton Am socrol Ret 34, 5. 1969 Rosow I and Breslar N A Guttman health scale for the aged J Geront 22, 55&559 1966 Lowenthal M F and Chnlboga D Social stress and adaptation toward a life course perspective In The Psychology of Adult Detelopmenr und Agmg (Edited by Elsdorfer C and Lawton M P) American Psychologxal Assoclauon Washington. D C . 1973

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ELIZABETH J COLERICK Lowenthal M F , Thurnher M and Chtrtboda D Four Stages of Ltfe Jossey-Bass, San Franctsco. 1975 Pearhn L I and Butler R Psychratnc aspects of adaptanon to the agmg expenence In Human Agrng A Btoloatcal and Behaaroral Studv NIMH Pubhcatron No HSM 71-9051. Government Pnntmg Office, Washmgton, D C , 1963 Bengtson V , Kasschau P and Ragan P The impact of soctal structure on aging mdtvtduals In Handbook of the Psychology of Agmg (Edtted by Buren J B and Schate K W ) Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1977 Lteberman M A and Tobm S The Expertence of Old Age Stress, Coping and Survtval Basic Books, New York, 1983 Elder G H Jr, Laker J and Jaworskt B Hardship m hves hrstortcal mfluences from the 1930s to old age m postwar Amenca In Ltfe-Span Decelopmental Psychology Hutory and Cohort Effects (Edited by McClusky K and Reese H ), pp 161-201 Academtc Press. New York, 1984 Rothbaum F, Wolfer J and Wtsmtamer M Coping behavior and locus of control m chtldren J Personahtv 47, 118-135, 1979 Lazarus R S and DeLongrs A Psychologicdi stress and coping m agmg Am Psycho1 38, 245-253, 1983 Lazarus R S and Folkman S Copmg dnd adaptation In The Handbook of Behaatoral Medume (Edtted by Gentry W D) Gutlford New York, 1983 Dean A and Lm N The stress buffermg role of social support J new ment Dts 165, 403-417. 1977 Kaplan B , Cassel J and Gore S Social support and health Paper presented at meetings of the American Public Health Assocratton. 1973

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