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Status Report on Rapid Processing Devices for Dental Radiographic Film
REPORTS OF COUNCILS AND BUREAUS
Status report on rapici processing devices for dentai radiographic film Council on D entai M a terials and Devices
Prepared by
Ray W. Alcox, DDS, Washington, DC D onald T. W aggener, DDS, Lincoln, Neb
Quality radiographs of proper diagnostic density are desirable in the practice of all branches of dentistry. Exact exposure and meticulous process ing techniques are essential to the production o f high quality radiographs. Even though substan tial progress has been made in the improvement of techniques and radiation protection in the den tal office, further improvement is needed.1-2 Today, it is possible to produce excellent radio graphs with a minimum o f radiation exposure to both patients and dental office personnel. Hand processing o f films in the darkroom can produce radiographs of high quality but the pro cedure is time-consuming. When there are good reasons to reduce processing time and to standard ize processing results, rapid development meth ods or automatic film processing equipment, or both, should be considered. This report is in tended to provide information that will help the dentist decide if such equipment would be appli cable to his particular office situation. For many years, medical and commercial fa cilities have been using rapid or automatic pro cessing equipment, or both, that can make avail able a completely processed, dry radiograph in as little as 90 seconds. Special equipment, films, and solutions are required for such results. Auto matic processing equipment cannot compensate 1330 ■ JADA, Vol. 83, December 1971
for improper exposure o f films to radiation; hence, correct exposure techniques are essential when such equipment will be used in processing the films. Practitioners, who habitually overex pose the film (and the patient) to unnecessary radiation and then attempt to produce the proper film density by underdeveloping the film, will have poor results with automatic processing equip ment. There are many ways in which films can be processed automatically or the processing time can be shortened, or both. New types and models of automatic processors are becoming available to the profession. Methods by which this equip ment accomplishes automatic or accelerated pro cessing, or both, are: use of high temperature processing; automatic film transport through the processing steps; agitation of the solution or films; use o f special processing solutions or special films, or both; combination of the preceding methods.
Use of high temperatures An increase o f the temperature of processing solutions is a well established, simple method of film processing in which the principal equipment requirement is accurate temperature control.3 A few years ago, elevated processing temperatures would cause separation o f the film emulsion from the base and result in loss of the film. Most, but not all, available dental films now can be pro cessed satisfactorily at the elevated temperatures
that currently are being used. Inexpensive, rapid processing can be accom plished with use of conventional solutions. The increased temperatures will accelerate the de terioration of the solutions and shorten their life. Elevated temperatures also tend to increase the base-fog of the film; this degrades the quality of the image. Careful attention to darkroom re quirements is necessary to minimize all sources o f fog. Commercially available processors use a thermo statically controlled heater or water bath to regu late processing solution temperatures; some also incorporate a timing device to indicate the time that the film should be kept in each o f the pro cessing solutions. A simple, inexpensive device that uses elevated temperatures for processing films can be made by the dentist.4
Agitation Continuous agitation o f the film or the develop ing solution may reduce development time up to 20%. Agitation may be accomplished through con tinuous movement o f the film in the solution (a method that is used most frequently in dentistry) or by some other method. Some medical and com mercial equipment uses bubbles o f inert gas, such as nitrogen, to agitate the solution. A more recent method utilizes molecular agi tation of the solution through the use o f an ultra sonic generator. This type o f equipment frequent ly contains a drying mechanism, and thus the overall processing time is reduced further.
Use of special processing solutions or of special film s Automatic film transport Automatic film transport is a system that is widely used in medical radiology and that now has been adapted to automatic processors for use in dental radiology. A carrying mechanism, such as rollers or tracks, is used to transport the film through the various processing steps. Such equipment fre quently includes a drying mechanism. Some older medical automatic processing equipment, which is sometimes used for dental film, does not use elevated solution temperatures and hence requires nearly the same amount o f time as conventional hand processing. Such equipment does eliminate the necessity for hand transfer o f films. The newer automatic equipment utilizes elevated solution temperatures, forced air drying, and sometimes requires the use o f special films or solutions, or both. When the dentist selects automatic processing equipment, he must consider the size o f film he expects to use. Some dental processors can ac cept only one size o f intraoral film; others can accept more than one size; still others will accept both intraoral and extraoral films. Automatic processors used in medical radiology will accept the largest films used in dentistry, but they will not process intraoral film sizes satisfactorily. In some instances, it is possible to place the exposed films in flexible plastic film mounts and process them through a conventional medical automatic processor.5 If this is done, the possibility of dam age to the rollers of the processor must be con sidered.
Certain concentrated or “high energy” processing solutions are available. The increased chemical reactivity o f these solutions enables them to de velop an image in less time than conventional solutions. Some o f these solutions are used as con ventional two-solution baths, and others are used as single or monobath solutions. Two-solution baths consist o f a developing agent and a fixing agent. Single-bath solutions combine the developer and fixer in a single solution that will develop and fix X-ray film; transfer o f the film from de veloper to fixing solution is not necessary. Such solutions may reduce the need for time in the darkroom and will reduce overall processing time. The use of such solutions usually increases the base-fog of the film and increases the graininess of the image. Quality control is difficult with such solutions; and use of them usually results in radio graphs of poorer quality than those processed in conventional solutions.6-7 Films are available that have been specially formulated to produce their best results at the temperatures used in elevated temperature pro cessing. Some o f these films require the use o f a special processing solution; others can be pro cessed with use o f conventional solutions.
Combinations of the preceding methods Most fully automatic processors utilize the com bination of elevated solution temperatures and
REPORTS OFCOUNCILS AND BUREAUS/JADA, Vol. 83, December 1971 ■ 1331
automatic film transport. The most common trans port method uses rollers to carry the films through the various solutions and then through a hot-air drying chamber. Solution temperatures may vary from approximately 62 F to 100 F and drying temperatures may be up to 150 F. The time re quired for complete processing to a dry film may be as little as 90 seconds with techniques that use special solutions, special films, high temper atures, and an automatic film transport processor. Other processors that use conventional film and solution combinations may require eight or more minutes for processing. Most fully automatic processing units include an automatic solutionreplenisher system to maintain solution activity at the proper level. Not all automatic processors deliver a dried film; some models process the film in approximately one minute, but the film is de livered wet. The physical characteristics of the films select ed for use in an automatic processor must be suit able to minimize processing problems. Some com mon problems are: loss o f emulsion because of the high temperatures; jamming o f the film be cause the film base is too flexible or is creased from handling; “roller wrap-arounds” ; slippage o f the film because o f a soft, sticky emulsion; and so forth. Careful, regular, and frequent maintenance of the “fully automated” systems is absolutely essential to the maintenance o f peak efficiency and satisfactory processing. Each o f the compo nents must be maintained within tolerances speci fied by the manufacturer. Cleanliness, accurate temperature control, and maintenance of solution activity are necessary. In addition to routine pre ventive maintenance, automatic systems should be monitored periodically to maintain quality con trol. Monitoring can be accomplished by the periodic exposure o f double-film packs, in which one film is carefully hand processed and the other film machine-processed. A comparison o f the re sults will indicate any loss of quality. Substantial variation in the quality of films processed may re sult if the equipment is not maintained carefully.8
Summary Use o f automated or rapid processing techniques necessitates adequate darkroom practices and correct exposure techniques; otherwise such equip ment may not produce satisfactory results. The major advantage in the use o f automatic processing
devices or automatic processing systems is the re duction of time between exposure and interpreta tion. In addition, use of these devices may in crease the radiographic processing capacity o f the dental office and may free auxiliary personnel for other duties. Possible disadvantages o f automatic processing equipment are the need for carefully planned installation, cleaning requirements, and routine maintenance. One disadvantage, which may not be considered, is the volume of films to be pro cessed. Most fully automated roller transport pro cessors are designed for large-volume processing, and they may not perform satisfactorily if only a few small-size films are processed daily. Correct exposure techniques are essential for there is no opportunity to compensate for improper pro cedures. Another disadvantage may be the initial cost of such equipment, which may range up to several thousand dollars. In a determination of whether such an invest ment can be justified, consideration must be given to the film capacity requirements or workload of the dental office. If a study of the office shows that a technique for the quick production o f a wet film for diagnostic use in emergencies, surgery, or endodontics is needed, the expense of a large, fully automatic processing system probably would not be indicated; a small capacity, rapid processing device would satisfy the need at must less cost. A large dental clinic in which a number o f pro fessionals work undoubtedly could justify the ex pense o f a fully automated processor with the ca pacity and capability to produce diagnostic films rapidly and efficiently. This is a list of film processing devices and systems that are available to the dental profession. (This listing of equipment may not be complete. The equipment is listed alphabetically by rela tive capacity. Listing of large capacity units in cludes medical units that are suitable for extraoral film. The mention of commercial products, their source, or their use is not to be construed as either an actual or implied endorsement of such pro ducts.)
Large capacity units Auveloper (S.S. White): Large capacity unit utilizing roller transport, elevated temperatures, forced hot-air drying; processes all standard sizes of dental film including occlusal and 5X 12-inch extraoral film.
1332 ■ REPORTS OFCOUNCILS AND BUREAUS/JADA, Vol. 83, December 1971
Pakoral-Xu (Pako Corp.): Medical unit; large capacity unit utilizing roller transport, elevated temperatures, forced hot-air drying; will accept only extraoral sizes; will accept films 4 X 4 inches and larger, which would include 5 X 7-inch, 8 X 10-inch, 10 X 12-inch, and 5 X 12-inch extraoral films. If special films and solutions are used, unit can produce a finished, dry film in 90 seconds. X-Omat (Eastman Kodak): Medical unit; large capacity unit utilizing roller transport, ele vated temperatures, forced hot-air drying; will accept only extraoral sizes; will accept films 5 X 7 inches and larger, which would include 5 X 7 inches, 8 X 10 inches, 10 X 12 inches, and 5 X 1 2 inches. If special films and solutions are used, unit can produce a finished, dry film in 90 seconds.
Medium capacity units Litton Automatic Processor (Litton Medical Products, Profexray Division): Medium capacity unit utilizing roller transport, elevated temper atures, forced hot-air drying; available in two sizes, 4-inch size will accept periapical and oc clusal sizes o f film, 6-inch model will accept all intraoral films and film up to 6 X 12 inches. NACA Processor (Acan Equipment Corp.): Medium capacity unit utilizing roller transport, elevated temperatures, forced hot-air drying; pro cesses all standard size dental films including oc clusal and 5 X 12-inch extraoral film.
Small capacity units ADP-60 (Productron Inc.): Small capacity unit utilizing track transport system, elevated solution temperatures; single film processor, produces a wet film in 60 seconds, features automatic film stripping; designed to work with Eastman Kodak no. 2, periapical film in “Poly-Soft” packets only. Procomat (Siemens’ Medical of America, Inc.): Small capacity unit utilizing worm gear drive, which transports film clips through the various so lutions; accepts standard intraoral sizes and oc clusal films; delivers wet film. Son-X-Ray (L & R Manufacturing Co.): Small
capacity unit utilizing ultrasonic agitation o f stan dard solutions and a forced warm-air dryer, suit able for intraoral, including occlusal, film; wet film in 3 minutes, dry film in 12 minutes. Stat-Ray (Drell Industries Inc.): Small capacity unit utilizing thermostatic control of elevated so lution temperatures; features include timing lights that indicate when films are to be trans ferred from one solution to the next; cycle takes approximately one minute to deliver wet film. Other units Home-built high-temperature processor: Small capacity, inexpensive, auxiliary processor util izing thermostatic control of elevated solution temperatures can be built by dentist; uses an aquarium tank heater and other readily available components. The method is described by Alcox and Jameson.4
T his a rtic le was prepared at th e request o f th e Council on Dental M aterials and Devices. Doctor Alcox is assistant ch ie f, X-ray Branch, Division of M edical Radiation Exposure, Bureau o f Radiological Health, Food and Drug A d m inistration, Departm ent o f Health, Education, and Welfare. Doctor Waggerier is an oral surgeon. His address is 1015 Sharp Bldg, Lincoln, Neb 68508. 1. Fess, L.R., and others. Results o f 33,911 X-ray p ro te ctio n surveys o f fa c ilitie s w ith medical or dental diag nostic X-ray equipm ent, fiscal years 1961-1968. Radiolog Health Data Rep, Vol 11 Nov 1970. 2. US Public Health Service. Population exposure to Xrays, US 1964. P ublication no. 1519. Washington, DC, US Govt P rint Off, Oct 1966. 3. Ingle, J.I.; Beveridge, E.E.; and Olson, C.E. Rapid p ro cessing o f endodontic “ w orking” roentgenograms. Oral Surg 19:101 Jan 1965. 4. Alcox, R.W., and Jameson, W.R. Rapid dental X-ray film processing for selected procedures. JADA 78:517 March 1969. 5. Feldman, M .l. Autom atic processing o f periapical film . Oral Surg 26:647 Nov 1968. 6. Cannon, W.M. Comparison o f radiographic q u a lity o f film s processed in m icrocopy and Eastman Kodak X-ray chem icals. Unpublished Report. Bureau o f Radiological Health X-ray Exposure Control Laboratory, Jan 10, 1967. 7. Stewart, J.L. and Drisko, R.R. An evaluation o f a rapid X-ray film processing solution. Oral Surg 22:334 Sept 1966. 8. Ferguson, J.P. and Schatt, W.W. V a ria b ility in th e auto m atic processing o f medical X-ray film . Bureau o f Radio logical Health Technical Report Series BRH/DEP 70-13, June 1970.
REPORTS OF COUNCILS AND BUREAUS/JADA, Vol. 83, December 1971 ■ 1333
Status report on rapici processing devices for dentai radiographic film Council on D entai M a terials and Devices
Prepared by
Ray W. Alcox, DDS, Washington, DC D onald T. W aggener, DDS, Lincoln, Neb
Quality radiographs of proper diagnostic density are desirable in the practice of all branches of dentistry. Exact exposure and meticulous process ing techniques are essential to the production o f high quality radiographs. Even though substan tial progress has been made in the improvement of techniques and radiation protection in the den tal office, further improvement is needed.1-2 Today, it is possible to produce excellent radio graphs with a minimum o f radiation exposure to both patients and dental office personnel. Hand processing o f films in the darkroom can produce radiographs of high quality but the pro cedure is time-consuming. When there are good reasons to reduce processing time and to standard ize processing results, rapid development meth ods or automatic film processing equipment, or both, should be considered. This report is in tended to provide information that will help the dentist decide if such equipment would be appli cable to his particular office situation. For many years, medical and commercial fa cilities have been using rapid or automatic pro cessing equipment, or both, that can make avail able a completely processed, dry radiograph in as little as 90 seconds. Special equipment, films, and solutions are required for such results. Auto matic processing equipment cannot compensate 1330 ■ JADA, Vol. 83, December 1971
for improper exposure o f films to radiation; hence, correct exposure techniques are essential when such equipment will be used in processing the films. Practitioners, who habitually overex pose the film (and the patient) to unnecessary radiation and then attempt to produce the proper film density by underdeveloping the film, will have poor results with automatic processing equip ment. There are many ways in which films can be processed automatically or the processing time can be shortened, or both. New types and models of automatic processors are becoming available to the profession. Methods by which this equip ment accomplishes automatic or accelerated pro cessing, or both, are: use of high temperature processing; automatic film transport through the processing steps; agitation of the solution or films; use o f special processing solutions or special films, or both; combination of the preceding methods.
Use of high temperatures An increase o f the temperature of processing solutions is a well established, simple method of film processing in which the principal equipment requirement is accurate temperature control.3 A few years ago, elevated processing temperatures would cause separation o f the film emulsion from the base and result in loss of the film. Most, but not all, available dental films now can be pro cessed satisfactorily at the elevated temperatures
that currently are being used. Inexpensive, rapid processing can be accom plished with use of conventional solutions. The increased temperatures will accelerate the de terioration of the solutions and shorten their life. Elevated temperatures also tend to increase the base-fog of the film; this degrades the quality of the image. Careful attention to darkroom re quirements is necessary to minimize all sources o f fog. Commercially available processors use a thermo statically controlled heater or water bath to regu late processing solution temperatures; some also incorporate a timing device to indicate the time that the film should be kept in each o f the pro cessing solutions. A simple, inexpensive device that uses elevated temperatures for processing films can be made by the dentist.4
Agitation Continuous agitation o f the film or the develop ing solution may reduce development time up to 20%. Agitation may be accomplished through con tinuous movement o f the film in the solution (a method that is used most frequently in dentistry) or by some other method. Some medical and com mercial equipment uses bubbles o f inert gas, such as nitrogen, to agitate the solution. A more recent method utilizes molecular agi tation of the solution through the use o f an ultra sonic generator. This type o f equipment frequent ly contains a drying mechanism, and thus the overall processing time is reduced further.
Use of special processing solutions or of special film s Automatic film transport Automatic film transport is a system that is widely used in medical radiology and that now has been adapted to automatic processors for use in dental radiology. A carrying mechanism, such as rollers or tracks, is used to transport the film through the various processing steps. Such equipment fre quently includes a drying mechanism. Some older medical automatic processing equipment, which is sometimes used for dental film, does not use elevated solution temperatures and hence requires nearly the same amount o f time as conventional hand processing. Such equipment does eliminate the necessity for hand transfer o f films. The newer automatic equipment utilizes elevated solution temperatures, forced air drying, and sometimes requires the use o f special films or solutions, or both. When the dentist selects automatic processing equipment, he must consider the size o f film he expects to use. Some dental processors can ac cept only one size o f intraoral film; others can accept more than one size; still others will accept both intraoral and extraoral films. Automatic processors used in medical radiology will accept the largest films used in dentistry, but they will not process intraoral film sizes satisfactorily. In some instances, it is possible to place the exposed films in flexible plastic film mounts and process them through a conventional medical automatic processor.5 If this is done, the possibility of dam age to the rollers of the processor must be con sidered.
Certain concentrated or “high energy” processing solutions are available. The increased chemical reactivity o f these solutions enables them to de velop an image in less time than conventional solutions. Some o f these solutions are used as con ventional two-solution baths, and others are used as single or monobath solutions. Two-solution baths consist o f a developing agent and a fixing agent. Single-bath solutions combine the developer and fixer in a single solution that will develop and fix X-ray film; transfer o f the film from de veloper to fixing solution is not necessary. Such solutions may reduce the need for time in the darkroom and will reduce overall processing time. The use of such solutions usually increases the base-fog of the film and increases the graininess of the image. Quality control is difficult with such solutions; and use of them usually results in radio graphs of poorer quality than those processed in conventional solutions.6-7 Films are available that have been specially formulated to produce their best results at the temperatures used in elevated temperature pro cessing. Some o f these films require the use o f a special processing solution; others can be pro cessed with use o f conventional solutions.
Combinations of the preceding methods Most fully automatic processors utilize the com bination of elevated solution temperatures and
REPORTS OFCOUNCILS AND BUREAUS/JADA, Vol. 83, December 1971 ■ 1331
automatic film transport. The most common trans port method uses rollers to carry the films through the various solutions and then through a hot-air drying chamber. Solution temperatures may vary from approximately 62 F to 100 F and drying temperatures may be up to 150 F. The time re quired for complete processing to a dry film may be as little as 90 seconds with techniques that use special solutions, special films, high temper atures, and an automatic film transport processor. Other processors that use conventional film and solution combinations may require eight or more minutes for processing. Most fully automatic processing units include an automatic solutionreplenisher system to maintain solution activity at the proper level. Not all automatic processors deliver a dried film; some models process the film in approximately one minute, but the film is de livered wet. The physical characteristics of the films select ed for use in an automatic processor must be suit able to minimize processing problems. Some com mon problems are: loss o f emulsion because of the high temperatures; jamming o f the film be cause the film base is too flexible or is creased from handling; “roller wrap-arounds” ; slippage o f the film because o f a soft, sticky emulsion; and so forth. Careful, regular, and frequent maintenance of the “fully automated” systems is absolutely essential to the maintenance o f peak efficiency and satisfactory processing. Each o f the compo nents must be maintained within tolerances speci fied by the manufacturer. Cleanliness, accurate temperature control, and maintenance of solution activity are necessary. In addition to routine pre ventive maintenance, automatic systems should be monitored periodically to maintain quality con trol. Monitoring can be accomplished by the periodic exposure o f double-film packs, in which one film is carefully hand processed and the other film machine-processed. A comparison o f the re sults will indicate any loss of quality. Substantial variation in the quality of films processed may re sult if the equipment is not maintained carefully.8
Summary Use o f automated or rapid processing techniques necessitates adequate darkroom practices and correct exposure techniques; otherwise such equip ment may not produce satisfactory results. The major advantage in the use o f automatic processing
devices or automatic processing systems is the re duction of time between exposure and interpreta tion. In addition, use of these devices may in crease the radiographic processing capacity o f the dental office and may free auxiliary personnel for other duties. Possible disadvantages o f automatic processing equipment are the need for carefully planned installation, cleaning requirements, and routine maintenance. One disadvantage, which may not be considered, is the volume of films to be pro cessed. Most fully automated roller transport pro cessors are designed for large-volume processing, and they may not perform satisfactorily if only a few small-size films are processed daily. Correct exposure techniques are essential for there is no opportunity to compensate for improper pro cedures. Another disadvantage may be the initial cost of such equipment, which may range up to several thousand dollars. In a determination of whether such an invest ment can be justified, consideration must be given to the film capacity requirements or workload of the dental office. If a study of the office shows that a technique for the quick production o f a wet film for diagnostic use in emergencies, surgery, or endodontics is needed, the expense of a large, fully automatic processing system probably would not be indicated; a small capacity, rapid processing device would satisfy the need at must less cost. A large dental clinic in which a number o f pro fessionals work undoubtedly could justify the ex pense o f a fully automated processor with the ca pacity and capability to produce diagnostic films rapidly and efficiently. This is a list of film processing devices and systems that are available to the dental profession. (This listing of equipment may not be complete. The equipment is listed alphabetically by rela tive capacity. Listing of large capacity units in cludes medical units that are suitable for extraoral film. The mention of commercial products, their source, or their use is not to be construed as either an actual or implied endorsement of such pro ducts.)
Large capacity units Auveloper (S.S. White): Large capacity unit utilizing roller transport, elevated temperatures, forced hot-air drying; processes all standard sizes of dental film including occlusal and 5X 12-inch extraoral film.
1332 ■ REPORTS OFCOUNCILS AND BUREAUS/JADA, Vol. 83, December 1971
Pakoral-Xu (Pako Corp.): Medical unit; large capacity unit utilizing roller transport, elevated temperatures, forced hot-air drying; will accept only extraoral sizes; will accept films 4 X 4 inches and larger, which would include 5 X 7-inch, 8 X 10-inch, 10 X 12-inch, and 5 X 12-inch extraoral films. If special films and solutions are used, unit can produce a finished, dry film in 90 seconds. X-Omat (Eastman Kodak): Medical unit; large capacity unit utilizing roller transport, ele vated temperatures, forced hot-air drying; will accept only extraoral sizes; will accept films 5 X 7 inches and larger, which would include 5 X 7 inches, 8 X 10 inches, 10 X 12 inches, and 5 X 1 2 inches. If special films and solutions are used, unit can produce a finished, dry film in 90 seconds.
Medium capacity units Litton Automatic Processor (Litton Medical Products, Profexray Division): Medium capacity unit utilizing roller transport, elevated temper atures, forced hot-air drying; available in two sizes, 4-inch size will accept periapical and oc clusal sizes o f film, 6-inch model will accept all intraoral films and film up to 6 X 12 inches. NACA Processor (Acan Equipment Corp.): Medium capacity unit utilizing roller transport, elevated temperatures, forced hot-air drying; pro cesses all standard size dental films including oc clusal and 5 X 12-inch extraoral film.
Small capacity units ADP-60 (Productron Inc.): Small capacity unit utilizing track transport system, elevated solution temperatures; single film processor, produces a wet film in 60 seconds, features automatic film stripping; designed to work with Eastman Kodak no. 2, periapical film in “Poly-Soft” packets only. Procomat (Siemens’ Medical of America, Inc.): Small capacity unit utilizing worm gear drive, which transports film clips through the various so lutions; accepts standard intraoral sizes and oc clusal films; delivers wet film. Son-X-Ray (L & R Manufacturing Co.): Small
capacity unit utilizing ultrasonic agitation o f stan dard solutions and a forced warm-air dryer, suit able for intraoral, including occlusal, film; wet film in 3 minutes, dry film in 12 minutes. Stat-Ray (Drell Industries Inc.): Small capacity unit utilizing thermostatic control of elevated so lution temperatures; features include timing lights that indicate when films are to be trans ferred from one solution to the next; cycle takes approximately one minute to deliver wet film. Other units Home-built high-temperature processor: Small capacity, inexpensive, auxiliary processor util izing thermostatic control of elevated solution temperatures can be built by dentist; uses an aquarium tank heater and other readily available components. The method is described by Alcox and Jameson.4
T his a rtic le was prepared at th e request o f th e Council on Dental M aterials and Devices. Doctor Alcox is assistant ch ie f, X-ray Branch, Division of M edical Radiation Exposure, Bureau o f Radiological Health, Food and Drug A d m inistration, Departm ent o f Health, Education, and Welfare. Doctor Waggerier is an oral surgeon. His address is 1015 Sharp Bldg, Lincoln, Neb 68508. 1. Fess, L.R., and others. Results o f 33,911 X-ray p ro te ctio n surveys o f fa c ilitie s w ith medical or dental diag nostic X-ray equipm ent, fiscal years 1961-1968. Radiolog Health Data Rep, Vol 11 Nov 1970. 2. US Public Health Service. Population exposure to Xrays, US 1964. P ublication no. 1519. Washington, DC, US Govt P rint Off, Oct 1966. 3. Ingle, J.I.; Beveridge, E.E.; and Olson, C.E. Rapid p ro cessing o f endodontic “ w orking” roentgenograms. Oral Surg 19:101 Jan 1965. 4. Alcox, R.W., and Jameson, W.R. Rapid dental X-ray film processing for selected procedures. JADA 78:517 March 1969. 5. Feldman, M .l. Autom atic processing o f periapical film . Oral Surg 26:647 Nov 1968. 6. Cannon, W.M. Comparison o f radiographic q u a lity o f film s processed in m icrocopy and Eastman Kodak X-ray chem icals. Unpublished Report. Bureau o f Radiological Health X-ray Exposure Control Laboratory, Jan 10, 1967. 7. Stewart, J.L. and Drisko, R.R. An evaluation o f a rapid X-ray film processing solution. Oral Surg 22:334 Sept 1966. 8. Ferguson, J.P. and Schatt, W.W. V a ria b ility in th e auto m atic processing o f medical X-ray film . Bureau o f Radio logical Health Technical Report Series BRH/DEP 70-13, June 1970.
REPORTS OF COUNCILS AND BUREAUS/JADA, Vol. 83, December 1971 ■ 1333