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Stenotrophomonas maltophilia in cystic fibrosis: Improved detection by the use of selective agar and evaluation of antimicrobial resistance
Journal of Cystic Fibrosis 10 (2011) 422 – 427 www.elsevier.com/locate/jcf
Original Article
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia in cystic fibrosis: Improved detection by the use of selective agar and evaluation of antimicrobial resistance P. Goncalves-Vidigal a , J. Grosse-Onnebrink b , U. Mellies b , J. Buer a , P.-M. Rath a , J. Steinmann a,⁎ b
a Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany Children's Hospital, Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
16 May 2011; 21 June 2011; 23 June 2011 Available online 16 July 2011
Abstract Background: We implemented a selective medium for improved detection of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia in sputum samples from CF patients. We also performed antimicrobial susceptibility testing with eight antibiotics. Methods: A total of 623 consecutive sputum samples from 165 CF patients in a German CF center were cultured onto conventional media and onto Steno medium agar (SMA). All isolates confirmed as S. maltophilia by biochemical and molecular methods were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing. The following agents were tested by Etest: ceftazidime, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, tigecycline, trimethoprim– sulfamethoxazole, fosfomycin, colistin, and ticarcillin–clavulanate acid. Results: Conventional media supported the growth of S. maltophilia in 7.1% of samples, whereas SMA supported its growth in 11.6%, increasing the detection rate to 64%. Trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole and tigecycline exhibited the highest in vitro activity, whereas ceftazidime, colistin, and ticarcillin–clavulanate acid exhibited higher resistance rates. Conclusions: SMA is a promising medium allowing improved isolation of S. maltophilia from sputum samples from CF patients. Trimethoprim– sulfamethoxazole and tigecycline demonstrated excellent inhibitory effects against S. maltophilia, which may suggest a potential clinical effect. © 2011 European Cystic Fibrosis Society. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Cystic fibrosis; S. maltophilia; Selective agar; Susceptibility testing
1. Introduction Apparently, anti-pseudomonal therapy has caused a selective pressure on the CF bacterial polymicrobial community and has led to the emergence of new pathogens in the CF lung [1]. Data from several CF centers worldwide indicate that the prevalence of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia has increased in recent years [2]. S. maltophilia is an opportunistic, nonfermentative, gram-negative rod, first isolated in 1943 and named Bacterium bookeri [3]. However, the first report of S. maltophilia in a CF patient did not appear until 1979 [4]. S. maltophilia is considered a ubiquitous ⁎ Corresponding author at: Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Essen, Hufelandstrasse 55, D-45122 Essen, Germany. Tel.: +49 201 72385771; fax: +49 201 7235602. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Steinmann).
organism that can also be isolated from various nosocomial sources [5,6]. Even though S. maltophilia commonly colonizes the respiratory tract of CF patients, its pathogenic importance in the progression of CF lung disease has not yet been completely clarified. Nevertheless, in a very recently study Waters et al. [7] showed that chronic S. maltophilia infection is an independent risk factor for pulmonary exacerbation. Therefore, isolation of this microorganism from CF sputum samples may become a cause of concern for the CF community. Sputum culture is still the gold standard for the detection of bacteria and fungi in the respiratory tract of CF patients. Because microorganisms such as P. aeruginosa and Aspergillus fumigatus can easily overgrow on solid media, isolation and identification of other potentially pathogenic microorganisms can often be challenging to microbiology laboratories [8]. Using
1569-1993/$ - see front matter © 2011 European Cystic Fibrosis Society. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jcf.2011.06.010
P. Goncalves-Vidigal et al. / Journal of Cystic Fibrosis 10 (2011) 422–427
selective media for the detection of medically important or rare pathogens such as P. aeruginosa, Burkholderia cepacia, or Scedosporium spp. has been shown to increase the isolation rates [8–10]. S. maltophilia exhibits an inherently resistant profile against a plethora of antibiotic agents. For this reason, specific isolation of S. maltophilia through a selective agar including broad-spectrum anti-infective agents that suppress bacterial and fungal co-flora can be a powerful diagnostic tool. S. maltophilia exhibits substantial resistance to broadspectrum antibiotics, including beta-lactams; therefore, treatment options are limited. Very little information exists about the in vitro activity of antimicrobial agents against S. maltophilia, especially for CF patients [11]. Because strategies for the development of new drugs are lacking, the effectiveness of available antimicrobial agents against S. maltophilia must be demonstrated. Additionally, no studies have determined the activity of fosfomycin, tigecycline or colistin against S. maltophilia in CF patients, even though colistin inhalation therapy is commonly used to treat CF patients infected with multidrug-resistant bacteria. In this study we report the development and utility of a selective medium for improved isolation of S. maltophilia and compare it to conventional media. We also report the activity of eight antimicrobial agents against this organism.
2. Material and methods 2.1. Study design and setting The University Hospital Essen is a German tertiary care teaching hospital with 1300 beds; it treats approximately 50,000 inpatients per year. The Department of Pediatric Pulmonology of the Children's Hospital and the West German Lung Centre of the University Hospital Essen care for approximately 250 CF patients. The Institute of Medical Microbiology of the University Hospital Essen is responsible for processing all samples from the CF patient collective. In this observational prospective cohort study, sputum samples were collected from consecutive CF patients admitted between January 2009 and February 2011.
2.2. Culture on conventional media A total of 623 sputum samples from 165 CF patients were investigated for growth of S. maltophilia by inoculating 10 μL of sputum onto routinely implemented media. In some cases, when sputum exhibited a very mucoid aspect, an equal volume of SPUTASOL (LIQUID) (Oxoid, Wesel, Germany) was added, and this solution was vigorously homogenized on a vortex mixer at room temperature. The solid media used were Columbia agar with sheep blood, chocolate agar, McConkey agar, Candida chrom agar (Brilliance), and malt agar (all from Oxoid, Wesel, Germany). The incubation period for most media was 48 h at 35 °C, except for malt agar, which was incubated for an additional 8 days at room temperature.
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2.3. Culture on selective media Steno medium agar (SMA) was formulated as previously described [12] with slight modifications. SMA was prepared by adding 40 g of blood agar base (Fa. Oxoid, CM 55) to 1 L of distilled water. This solution was autoclaved for 15 min at 121 °C, after which the medium was cooled to 50 °C to 60 °C in a water bath and the pH was adjusted to 7.0 to 7.2. Fresh-filtered sterilized solutions of amphotericin B (SIGMA-ALDRICH, St. Louis, MO, USA), imipenem (ZIENAM, Merck Sharp & Dohme, City, India), and vancomycin (ratiopharm, Ulm, Germany) were then added to yield final concentrations of 2.5 mg, 32 mg, and 10 mg, respectively. The medium was poured into petri dishes (diameter, 90 mm) and stored for as long as 3 weeks at 4 °C. Validation of the medium was performed by culturing S. maltophilia (ATCC 13637) and an imipenem-susceptible Klebsiella pneumoniae reference strain (ATCC 10031) for as long as 25 days. This quality control demonstrated that SMA remains stable for no more than 21 days because imipenem activity is gradually reduced over time. An aliquot from each fresh sputum sample (not older than 3 days and stored at 4 °C) was plated onto SMA and incubated aerobically at 35 °C for up to 48 h. 2.4. Identification of S. maltophilia S. maltophilia isolates were identified by conventional standardized laboratory methods (growth conditions, morphological criteria, pigment production, etc.) and by negative or slowly positive results on the oxidase test. Species identification was confirmed with the MicroScan® Walkaway system (Siemens, Erlangen, Germany). If identification was not clear, API 20 NE strips (bioMérieux, Basingstoke, UK) were used (Fig. 1). S. maltophilia reference strain ATCC 13637 was used as a quality control. DNA sequencing was used to confirm the identification of S. maltophilia clinical isolates. For amplification of the 16S region we used the following pair of primers: DG 74: 5′-AGG AGG TGA TCC AAC GCG A-3′; RW01: 5′-AAC TGG AGG AAG GTG GGG AT-3′, which generated amplicons of 300 to 350 bp. PCR amplification was performed as previously described by Greisen et al. [13]. The sequences obtained were submitted to the databank of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, Bethesda, MD, USA) through the BLASTn platform, with a cut-off of 98% for species identification. Isolates were frozen at −80 °C until MIC testing was performed. 2.5. Determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) A total of 65 isolates from 33 CF patients were analyzed through antibiotic susceptibility testing. The minimal period between isolation of the strains was four weeks. Etest strips (Liofilchem, Roseto degli Abruzzi, Italy) containing ceftazidime, colistin, fosfomycin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, ticarcillin– clavulanate, trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole, and tigecycline were used. MIC tests were performed according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines (M07-A8)
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Fig. 2. Frequency of microorganisms isolated from 623 sputum samples from 165 CF patients by conventional media.
Fig. 1. Algorithm of S. maltophilia identification.
[14]. Quality-control strain S. maltophilia ATCC 16637 was tested for quality assurance purposes. A suspension of each isolate was adjusted to the density of 0.5 McFarland standard and was plated on Mueller–Hinton agar in three directions to ensure uniform growth. After the agar surface was completely dry, Etest strips were applied. The plates were incubated at 35 °C for 24 h. The MIC was interpreted (according to the manufacturer's guidelines) as the zone of growth inhibition that intersected the Etest strip. CLSI has established general interpretative criteria for susceptibility breakpoints for S. maltophilia, except for colistin and moxifloxacin. Thus, the breakpoints established for P. aeruginosa for these antimicrobial agents were applied [14,15]. Seven samples could not be saved for susceptibility testing. 3. Results
detection rate increased to 11.6% when selective media were used. Thus, the selective media supported the growth of 64% more S. maltophilia isolates than the conventional media. There was not a case, in which the conventional media detected a S. maltophilia isolate and selective medium did not. In general, S. maltophilia was isolated with other accompanying facultative pathogenic species, such as Aspergillus fumigatus (30.6%), Candida albicans (46.3%), and P. aeruginosa (39.6%). Patient features related to the detection of Aspergillus spp., Pseudomonas spp., and S. maltophilia are presented in Table 1. In contrast to Aspergillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp., S. maltophilia was detected more frequently in female patients than in male patients.
3.2. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing Table 2 summarizes the MICs at which 50% (MIC50) and 90% (MIC90) of S. maltophilia isolates were inhibited, as well as the percentage of susceptible and resistant isolates. Among all agents tested, tigecycline andtrimethoprim– sulfamethoxazole exhibited the highest in vitro activity against S. maltophilia (98%–100% susceptibility). Good activity (89%–92% susceptibility) was also observed for the quinolones (levofloxacin, moxifloxacin), and fosfomycin. In contrast, colistin, ceftazidime, and ticarcillin–clavulanate acid exhibited limited activity (44%–64% susceptibility).
3.1. Isolation of microorganisms by conventional media and selective media A total of 623 sputum samples from 165 CF patients were collected during the 25 months of this study period. The most frequently identified microorganisms were yeasts (52.4%), followed by Pseudomonas spp. (52.0%), Staphylococcus aureus (48.3%), and Aspergillus spp. (31.7%). The frequency of bacterial and fungal isolates in relation to all samples analyzed is presented in Fig. 2. In total, S. maltophilia was isolated in 72 sputum samples from 33 patients aged 1 to 51 years. Conventional media support the growth of S. maltophilia in 7.1% of the samples. However, the
Table 1 Demographic characteristics of 165 CF patients according to medical interest of species isolation. Patient features
Aspergillus spp.
Pseudomonas spp.
S. maltophilia
Mean age ± SD (range) Female (%) Total (n)
24.1 ± 6.5 (1–51)
27.4 ± 8.2 (5–79)
22.2 ± 8.8 (1–51)
36.6 71
39.5 91
57.5 33
SD = standard deviation.
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Table 2 In vitro activity of eight antimicrobial agents tested against S. maltophilia by Etest. Antimicrobial agent
Ceftazidimine Colistin Fosfomycin Levofloxacin Moxifloxacin Ticarcillin–clavulanate acid Tigecycline Trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole
MIC (μg/mL)
% (n = 65) of strains
Range (μg/mL)
50% of strains
90% of strains
Susceptible
Intermediate
Resistant
0.016–256 0.016–256 0.016–256 0.002–32 0.002–32 0.016–256 0.016–256 0.002–32
3 3 6 0.625 0.25 4 0.094 0.38
32 12 12 2 1 32 0.218 1
63.0 40.0 92.3 92.3 89.5 64.1 98.4 100
7.6 29.2 – – 7.5 16.4 – –
29.4 30.8 7.7 7.7 3.0 19.5 1.6 –
MIC = minimum inhibitory concentration. MICs at which 50 (MIC50) and 90% (MIC90) of S. maltophilia isolates were inhibited.
4. Discussion Currently, reports from several centers worldwide have documented the increasing isolation of S. maltophilia in CF patients; however, clinical management depends on accurate identification and susceptibility testing of this pathogen in the microbiological laboratory. A standardized and low-cost medium designed to selectively grow medically important pathogens, such as P. aeruginosa or B. cepacia, has been recommended by various authors [8,9]. However, no selective medium for improved detection of S. maltophilia has yet been recommended by international guidelines, nor is such a medium yet commercially available. The first report (1989) of a selective medium (XMSM) for the isolation of S. maltophilia from soil and rhizosphere environments was published by Juhnke and Jardin [16]. The XMSM medium is a tryptone-based medium supplemented with six antimicrobial agents (bacitracin, cephalexin, neomycin, novobiocin, penicillin G, tobramycin), two antifungal agents (cycloheximide and nystatin), maltose and bromothymol blue. Later, Kerr et al. [12] developed the VIA agar, which contained vancomycin (5 mg/L), imipenem (32 mg/L), and amphotericin B (2.5 mg/L) as selective agents. This medium also included a mannitol/bromothymol indicator system (S. maltophilia does not produce acid from mannitol). These authors compared the selective properties of VIA and XMSM agar by using fecal samples from 32 children with hematological malignancy. The results demonstrated that VIA agar was clearly superior to XMSM in selectivity because it did not allow the growth of microorganisms other than S. maltophilia. In 2000, Denton et al. [17] demonstrated the improved isolation of S. maltophilia in 814 sputum samples from CF patients by using VIA agar with a minor modification (increasing the amphotericin B concentration from 2.5 to 4 mg/L). These authors noted that VIA agar supported the growth of 54.8% more S. maltophilia isolates than did bacitracin-chocolate agar (BC medium). A group from Australia [18] proposed another modification of VIA agar (mVIA) for isolating S. maltophilia from environmental and clinical samples: incorporating meropenem (16 mg/L) instead of imipenem. This modified medium demonstrated 62% specificity for S. maltophilia, and all other bacteria present could be
easily distinguished. The authors also stated that substituting meropenem for imipenem may have reduced the sensitivity of mVIA agar. In fact, our slightly modified SMA has no obvious advantages over the VIA agar. However, in this study the improved detection of S. maltophilia by the SMA confirmed the findings from Denton et al. [17] and due to the increasing prevalence of this emerging pathogen in the last decade, we suggest the use of a selective agar for isolation of S. maltophilia in sputum samples from CF patients. Guidelines for the laboratory diagnosis of respiratory infections in CF patients have been established. However, the use of a selective medium for the isolation of S. maltophilia has not been recommended yet by international societies [19,20]. For the detection of S. maltophilia and other atypical respiratory pathogens, British and German guidelines state that such microorganisms will grow on blood agar and McConkey agar. Both media, in this present study, in addition to others helped to detect S. maltophilia in 7.1% from all analyzed samples; whereas SMA was able to support the growth of 64% more S. maltophilia isolates than the conventional media. In addition, SMA is very easy to formulate, and the processing of sputum is quite fast and normally does not require special pretreatment. However, because of the gradual reduction of imipenem activity over time, this medium can be used for only 3 weeks. The most frequently detected microorganisms in this study were S. aureus, Pseudomonas spp., and Aspergillus spp. These results were similar to those of previously published reports [1,2]. In our single-center cohort, the mean age of patients with S. maltophilia infection was 22.2 years, and the organism was more likely to be found in female patients. These observations are in line with the results of a study by Goss et al. [21], which analyzed data collected from 1991 to 1997 at centers accredited by the U.S. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. S. maltophilia was detected at least once in each of 1673 patients with a mean age of 18.9 years; the organism was more likely to be detected in female patients. Regarding antimicrobial susceptibility, only a few studies have performed susceptibility testing for S. maltophilia on samples from CF patients. The results of the present study demonstrated that tigecycline and trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole exhibited excellent activity against S. maltophilia. Fosfomycin, a phosphonic acid antibiotic with few reports of human toxicity [22], also exhibited low MICs against S. maltophilia. On the other
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hand, colistin, ceftazidime, and ticarcillin–clavulanate acid exhibited low activity against this pathogen. Cantón et al. [23] evaluated 41 antimicrobial agents against 76 S. maltophilia isolates from CF patients admitted to the Ramón y Cajal Hospital CF Unit, Madrid, Spain. The resistance rates they reported for ceftazidime (70.0%), ticarcillin–clavulanate (47.0%), and trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole (25.4%) were higher than those in the present study, whereas the resistance rates for moxifloxacin (6.3%) and levofloxacin were lower. In addition, Gabriel et al. [11] studied the antimicrobial susceptibility of 673 S. maltophilia isolates from patients who attended the CF Referral Center at Columbia University, New York City, USA. These authors performed broth microdilution assays and observed higher resistance rates for trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole (84%) than those found in our study, but the ticarcillin–clavulanate MICs were consistent with our results. Recently, a Turkish research group [24] examined genotype and antibiotic susceptibility patterns of a small number of S. maltophilia isolates (n = 11). According to the results, trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole was the most active antibiotic (all isolates were susceptible), whereas levofloxacin demonstrated good activity (82% of isolates were susceptible). In Northern Ireland, Mcknight et al. [25] verified the in vitro antibiotic susceptibility (Etest) of levofloxacin against 10 S. maltophilia isolates obtained from adult and pediatric CF patients. The results indicated again that levofloxacin exhibited excellent inhibitory activity against this microorganism. More recently, King et al. [26] evaluated the in vitro activity of five antimicrobial agents against gram-negative clinical isolates, including S. maltophilia (n = 51). The CF patients attended one of three American CF Centres or one French hospital. The authors concluded that levofloxacin was the most potent antibiotic against all CF isolates. These results are in nearly complete agreement with our finding that 92% of S. maltophilia isolates from CF patients were susceptible to levofloxacin. Colistin demonstrated limited activity against S. maltophilia isolates from CF patients. However, it is important to mention that colistin is normally used as inhaled agent to treat CF patients. Since interpretative criteria for in vitro susceptibility testing are designed for systemic use, the data presented in this study requires further investigations regarding potential inhibitory effects of inhaled agents. Until now, CLSI guidelines have not yet established specific breakpoints as interpretive criteria for moxifloxacin and colistin against S. maltophilia. To the best of our knowledge, ours is the first study to evaluate the inhibitory effects of colistin, fosfomycin and tigecycline against clinical CF S. maltophilia isolates. In fact, fosfomycin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, trimethoprim– sulfamethoxazole, and tigecycline may be effective in treating infections caused by S. maltophilia in CF patients. For this reason, it is important to conduct further clinical studies to evaluate the in vivo efficacy of these compounds and their impact on CF patients.
5. Conclusion In summary, our results clearly demonstrate the importance of using a selective medium for culturing S. maltophilia in sputum samples from CF patients. Analyses of the antimicrobial susceptibilities of eight drugs revealed that trimethoprim– sulfamethoxazole and tigecycline demonstrated the highest in vitro activity against S. maltophilia, whereas colistin was the least effective. Conflict of interest None of the authors have any conflicts of interest to declare. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Dirk Schmidt, A. Hain, S. Dittmer, and A. Mohr for their excellent laboratory technical assistance. References [1] Hauser AR, Jain M, Bar-Meir M, McColley SA. Clinical significance of microbial infection and adaptation in cystic fibrosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011;24:29–70. [2] de Vrankrijker AM, Wolfs TF, van der Ent CK. Challenging and emerging pathogens in cystic fibrosis. Paediatr Respir Rev 2010;11:246–54. [3] Palleroni NJ, Bradbury JF. Stenotrophomonas, a new bacterial genus for Xanthomonas maltophilia (Hugh 1980) Swings et al. 1983. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1993;43:606–9. [4] Blessing J, Walker JE, Maybury B, Yeager AS, Lewiston N. Pseudomonas cepacia and maltophilia in the cystic fibrosis patient. abstr.Am Rev Respir Dis 1979;119:262. [5] Denton M, Kerr KG. Microbiological and clinical aspects of infection associated with Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. Clin Microbiol Rev 1998;11:57–80. [6] Paez JI, Costa SF. Risk factors associated with mortality of infections caused by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia: a systematic review. J Hosp Infect 2008;70:101–8. [7] Waters V, Yau Y, Prasad S, et al. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia in cystic fibrosis: serologic response on effect on lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;183:635–40. [8] Laine L, Perry JD, Lee J, et al. A novel chromogenic medium for isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from the sputa of cystic fibrosis patients. J Cyst Fibros 2009;8:143–9. [9] da Silva Filho LV, Velloso L de F, Bento CN, et al. Use of selective medium for Burkholderia cepacia isolation in respiratory samples from cystic fibrosis patients. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2002;44:203–8. [10] Horré R, Marklein G, Siekmeier R, Nidermajer S, Reiffert SM. Selective isolation of Pseudallescheria and Scedosporium species from respiratory tract specimens of cystic fibrosis patients. Respiration 2009;77:320–4. [11] San Gabriel P, Zhou J, Tabibi S, Chen Y, Trauzzi M, Saiman L. Antimicrobial susceptibility and synergy studies of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia isolates from patients with cystic fibrosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004;48:168–71. [12] Kerr KG, Denton M, Todd N, Corps CM, Kumari P, Hawkey PM. A new selective differential medium for isolation of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1996;15:607–10. [13] Greisen K, Loeffelholz M, Purohit A, Leong D. PCR primers and probes for the 16S rRNA gene of most species of pathogenic bacteria, including bacteria found in cerebrospinal fluid. J Clin Microbiol 1994;32:335–51. [14] Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Methods for Dilution Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria That Grow Aerobically;
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[21] Goss CH, Otto K, Aitken ML, Rubenfeld GD. Detecting Stenotrophomonas maltophilia does not reduce survival of patients with cystic fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;166:356–61. [22] Woodruff HB, Mata JM, Hernández S, et al. Fosfomycin: laboratory studies. Chemotherapy 1977;23(Suppl 1):1–22. [23] Cantón R, Valdezate S, Vindel A, Sánchez Del Saz B, Maíz L, Baquero F. Antimicrobial susceptibility profile of molecular typed cystic fibrosis Stenotrophomonas maltophilia isolates and difference with noncystic fibrosis isolates. Pediatr Pulmonol 2003;35:99–107. [24] Nazik H, Öngen B, Erturan Z, Salcioğlu M. Genotype and antibiotic susceptibility patterns of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia isolated from cystic fibrosis patients. Jpn J Infect Dis 2007;60:82–6. [25] McKnight AJ, Shaw A, Goldsmith CE, et al. Comparison of in vitro susceptibilities to levofloxacin and ciprofloxacin with Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Stenotrophomas maltophilia isolated from cystic fibrosis patients in Northern Ireland. Br J Biomed Sci 2005;62:30–2. [26] King P, Lomovskaya O, Griffith DC, Burns JL, Dudley MN. In vitro pharmacodynamics of levofloxacin and other aerosolized antibiotics under multiple conditions relevant to chronic pulmonary infection in cystic fibrosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010;54:143–8.
Original Article
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia in cystic fibrosis: Improved detection by the use of selective agar and evaluation of antimicrobial resistance P. Goncalves-Vidigal a , J. Grosse-Onnebrink b , U. Mellies b , J. Buer a , P.-M. Rath a , J. Steinmann a,⁎ b
a Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany Children's Hospital, Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
16 May 2011; 21 June 2011; 23 June 2011 Available online 16 July 2011
Abstract Background: We implemented a selective medium for improved detection of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia in sputum samples from CF patients. We also performed antimicrobial susceptibility testing with eight antibiotics. Methods: A total of 623 consecutive sputum samples from 165 CF patients in a German CF center were cultured onto conventional media and onto Steno medium agar (SMA). All isolates confirmed as S. maltophilia by biochemical and molecular methods were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing. The following agents were tested by Etest: ceftazidime, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, tigecycline, trimethoprim– sulfamethoxazole, fosfomycin, colistin, and ticarcillin–clavulanate acid. Results: Conventional media supported the growth of S. maltophilia in 7.1% of samples, whereas SMA supported its growth in 11.6%, increasing the detection rate to 64%. Trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole and tigecycline exhibited the highest in vitro activity, whereas ceftazidime, colistin, and ticarcillin–clavulanate acid exhibited higher resistance rates. Conclusions: SMA is a promising medium allowing improved isolation of S. maltophilia from sputum samples from CF patients. Trimethoprim– sulfamethoxazole and tigecycline demonstrated excellent inhibitory effects against S. maltophilia, which may suggest a potential clinical effect. © 2011 European Cystic Fibrosis Society. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Cystic fibrosis; S. maltophilia; Selective agar; Susceptibility testing
1. Introduction Apparently, anti-pseudomonal therapy has caused a selective pressure on the CF bacterial polymicrobial community and has led to the emergence of new pathogens in the CF lung [1]. Data from several CF centers worldwide indicate that the prevalence of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia has increased in recent years [2]. S. maltophilia is an opportunistic, nonfermentative, gram-negative rod, first isolated in 1943 and named Bacterium bookeri [3]. However, the first report of S. maltophilia in a CF patient did not appear until 1979 [4]. S. maltophilia is considered a ubiquitous ⁎ Corresponding author at: Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Essen, Hufelandstrasse 55, D-45122 Essen, Germany. Tel.: +49 201 72385771; fax: +49 201 7235602. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Steinmann).
organism that can also be isolated from various nosocomial sources [5,6]. Even though S. maltophilia commonly colonizes the respiratory tract of CF patients, its pathogenic importance in the progression of CF lung disease has not yet been completely clarified. Nevertheless, in a very recently study Waters et al. [7] showed that chronic S. maltophilia infection is an independent risk factor for pulmonary exacerbation. Therefore, isolation of this microorganism from CF sputum samples may become a cause of concern for the CF community. Sputum culture is still the gold standard for the detection of bacteria and fungi in the respiratory tract of CF patients. Because microorganisms such as P. aeruginosa and Aspergillus fumigatus can easily overgrow on solid media, isolation and identification of other potentially pathogenic microorganisms can often be challenging to microbiology laboratories [8]. Using
1569-1993/$ - see front matter © 2011 European Cystic Fibrosis Society. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jcf.2011.06.010
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selective media for the detection of medically important or rare pathogens such as P. aeruginosa, Burkholderia cepacia, or Scedosporium spp. has been shown to increase the isolation rates [8–10]. S. maltophilia exhibits an inherently resistant profile against a plethora of antibiotic agents. For this reason, specific isolation of S. maltophilia through a selective agar including broad-spectrum anti-infective agents that suppress bacterial and fungal co-flora can be a powerful diagnostic tool. S. maltophilia exhibits substantial resistance to broadspectrum antibiotics, including beta-lactams; therefore, treatment options are limited. Very little information exists about the in vitro activity of antimicrobial agents against S. maltophilia, especially for CF patients [11]. Because strategies for the development of new drugs are lacking, the effectiveness of available antimicrobial agents against S. maltophilia must be demonstrated. Additionally, no studies have determined the activity of fosfomycin, tigecycline or colistin against S. maltophilia in CF patients, even though colistin inhalation therapy is commonly used to treat CF patients infected with multidrug-resistant bacteria. In this study we report the development and utility of a selective medium for improved isolation of S. maltophilia and compare it to conventional media. We also report the activity of eight antimicrobial agents against this organism.
2. Material and methods 2.1. Study design and setting The University Hospital Essen is a German tertiary care teaching hospital with 1300 beds; it treats approximately 50,000 inpatients per year. The Department of Pediatric Pulmonology of the Children's Hospital and the West German Lung Centre of the University Hospital Essen care for approximately 250 CF patients. The Institute of Medical Microbiology of the University Hospital Essen is responsible for processing all samples from the CF patient collective. In this observational prospective cohort study, sputum samples were collected from consecutive CF patients admitted between January 2009 and February 2011.
2.2. Culture on conventional media A total of 623 sputum samples from 165 CF patients were investigated for growth of S. maltophilia by inoculating 10 μL of sputum onto routinely implemented media. In some cases, when sputum exhibited a very mucoid aspect, an equal volume of SPUTASOL (LIQUID) (Oxoid, Wesel, Germany) was added, and this solution was vigorously homogenized on a vortex mixer at room temperature. The solid media used were Columbia agar with sheep blood, chocolate agar, McConkey agar, Candida chrom agar (Brilliance), and malt agar (all from Oxoid, Wesel, Germany). The incubation period for most media was 48 h at 35 °C, except for malt agar, which was incubated for an additional 8 days at room temperature.
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2.3. Culture on selective media Steno medium agar (SMA) was formulated as previously described [12] with slight modifications. SMA was prepared by adding 40 g of blood agar base (Fa. Oxoid, CM 55) to 1 L of distilled water. This solution was autoclaved for 15 min at 121 °C, after which the medium was cooled to 50 °C to 60 °C in a water bath and the pH was adjusted to 7.0 to 7.2. Fresh-filtered sterilized solutions of amphotericin B (SIGMA-ALDRICH, St. Louis, MO, USA), imipenem (ZIENAM, Merck Sharp & Dohme, City, India), and vancomycin (ratiopharm, Ulm, Germany) were then added to yield final concentrations of 2.5 mg, 32 mg, and 10 mg, respectively. The medium was poured into petri dishes (diameter, 90 mm) and stored for as long as 3 weeks at 4 °C. Validation of the medium was performed by culturing S. maltophilia (ATCC 13637) and an imipenem-susceptible Klebsiella pneumoniae reference strain (ATCC 10031) for as long as 25 days. This quality control demonstrated that SMA remains stable for no more than 21 days because imipenem activity is gradually reduced over time. An aliquot from each fresh sputum sample (not older than 3 days and stored at 4 °C) was plated onto SMA and incubated aerobically at 35 °C for up to 48 h. 2.4. Identification of S. maltophilia S. maltophilia isolates were identified by conventional standardized laboratory methods (growth conditions, morphological criteria, pigment production, etc.) and by negative or slowly positive results on the oxidase test. Species identification was confirmed with the MicroScan® Walkaway system (Siemens, Erlangen, Germany). If identification was not clear, API 20 NE strips (bioMérieux, Basingstoke, UK) were used (Fig. 1). S. maltophilia reference strain ATCC 13637 was used as a quality control. DNA sequencing was used to confirm the identification of S. maltophilia clinical isolates. For amplification of the 16S region we used the following pair of primers: DG 74: 5′-AGG AGG TGA TCC AAC GCG A-3′; RW01: 5′-AAC TGG AGG AAG GTG GGG AT-3′, which generated amplicons of 300 to 350 bp. PCR amplification was performed as previously described by Greisen et al. [13]. The sequences obtained were submitted to the databank of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, Bethesda, MD, USA) through the BLASTn platform, with a cut-off of 98% for species identification. Isolates were frozen at −80 °C until MIC testing was performed. 2.5. Determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) A total of 65 isolates from 33 CF patients were analyzed through antibiotic susceptibility testing. The minimal period between isolation of the strains was four weeks. Etest strips (Liofilchem, Roseto degli Abruzzi, Italy) containing ceftazidime, colistin, fosfomycin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, ticarcillin– clavulanate, trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole, and tigecycline were used. MIC tests were performed according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines (M07-A8)
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Fig. 2. Frequency of microorganisms isolated from 623 sputum samples from 165 CF patients by conventional media.
Fig. 1. Algorithm of S. maltophilia identification.
[14]. Quality-control strain S. maltophilia ATCC 16637 was tested for quality assurance purposes. A suspension of each isolate was adjusted to the density of 0.5 McFarland standard and was plated on Mueller–Hinton agar in three directions to ensure uniform growth. After the agar surface was completely dry, Etest strips were applied. The plates were incubated at 35 °C for 24 h. The MIC was interpreted (according to the manufacturer's guidelines) as the zone of growth inhibition that intersected the Etest strip. CLSI has established general interpretative criteria for susceptibility breakpoints for S. maltophilia, except for colistin and moxifloxacin. Thus, the breakpoints established for P. aeruginosa for these antimicrobial agents were applied [14,15]. Seven samples could not be saved for susceptibility testing. 3. Results
detection rate increased to 11.6% when selective media were used. Thus, the selective media supported the growth of 64% more S. maltophilia isolates than the conventional media. There was not a case, in which the conventional media detected a S. maltophilia isolate and selective medium did not. In general, S. maltophilia was isolated with other accompanying facultative pathogenic species, such as Aspergillus fumigatus (30.6%), Candida albicans (46.3%), and P. aeruginosa (39.6%). Patient features related to the detection of Aspergillus spp., Pseudomonas spp., and S. maltophilia are presented in Table 1. In contrast to Aspergillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp., S. maltophilia was detected more frequently in female patients than in male patients.
3.2. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing Table 2 summarizes the MICs at which 50% (MIC50) and 90% (MIC90) of S. maltophilia isolates were inhibited, as well as the percentage of susceptible and resistant isolates. Among all agents tested, tigecycline andtrimethoprim– sulfamethoxazole exhibited the highest in vitro activity against S. maltophilia (98%–100% susceptibility). Good activity (89%–92% susceptibility) was also observed for the quinolones (levofloxacin, moxifloxacin), and fosfomycin. In contrast, colistin, ceftazidime, and ticarcillin–clavulanate acid exhibited limited activity (44%–64% susceptibility).
3.1. Isolation of microorganisms by conventional media and selective media A total of 623 sputum samples from 165 CF patients were collected during the 25 months of this study period. The most frequently identified microorganisms were yeasts (52.4%), followed by Pseudomonas spp. (52.0%), Staphylococcus aureus (48.3%), and Aspergillus spp. (31.7%). The frequency of bacterial and fungal isolates in relation to all samples analyzed is presented in Fig. 2. In total, S. maltophilia was isolated in 72 sputum samples from 33 patients aged 1 to 51 years. Conventional media support the growth of S. maltophilia in 7.1% of the samples. However, the
Table 1 Demographic characteristics of 165 CF patients according to medical interest of species isolation. Patient features
Aspergillus spp.
Pseudomonas spp.
S. maltophilia
Mean age ± SD (range) Female (%) Total (n)
24.1 ± 6.5 (1–51)
27.4 ± 8.2 (5–79)
22.2 ± 8.8 (1–51)
36.6 71
39.5 91
57.5 33
SD = standard deviation.
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Table 2 In vitro activity of eight antimicrobial agents tested against S. maltophilia by Etest. Antimicrobial agent
Ceftazidimine Colistin Fosfomycin Levofloxacin Moxifloxacin Ticarcillin–clavulanate acid Tigecycline Trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole
MIC (μg/mL)
% (n = 65) of strains
Range (μg/mL)
50% of strains
90% of strains
Susceptible
Intermediate
Resistant
0.016–256 0.016–256 0.016–256 0.002–32 0.002–32 0.016–256 0.016–256 0.002–32
3 3 6 0.625 0.25 4 0.094 0.38
32 12 12 2 1 32 0.218 1
63.0 40.0 92.3 92.3 89.5 64.1 98.4 100
7.6 29.2 – – 7.5 16.4 – –
29.4 30.8 7.7 7.7 3.0 19.5 1.6 –
MIC = minimum inhibitory concentration. MICs at which 50 (MIC50) and 90% (MIC90) of S. maltophilia isolates were inhibited.
4. Discussion Currently, reports from several centers worldwide have documented the increasing isolation of S. maltophilia in CF patients; however, clinical management depends on accurate identification and susceptibility testing of this pathogen in the microbiological laboratory. A standardized and low-cost medium designed to selectively grow medically important pathogens, such as P. aeruginosa or B. cepacia, has been recommended by various authors [8,9]. However, no selective medium for improved detection of S. maltophilia has yet been recommended by international guidelines, nor is such a medium yet commercially available. The first report (1989) of a selective medium (XMSM) for the isolation of S. maltophilia from soil and rhizosphere environments was published by Juhnke and Jardin [16]. The XMSM medium is a tryptone-based medium supplemented with six antimicrobial agents (bacitracin, cephalexin, neomycin, novobiocin, penicillin G, tobramycin), two antifungal agents (cycloheximide and nystatin), maltose and bromothymol blue. Later, Kerr et al. [12] developed the VIA agar, which contained vancomycin (5 mg/L), imipenem (32 mg/L), and amphotericin B (2.5 mg/L) as selective agents. This medium also included a mannitol/bromothymol indicator system (S. maltophilia does not produce acid from mannitol). These authors compared the selective properties of VIA and XMSM agar by using fecal samples from 32 children with hematological malignancy. The results demonstrated that VIA agar was clearly superior to XMSM in selectivity because it did not allow the growth of microorganisms other than S. maltophilia. In 2000, Denton et al. [17] demonstrated the improved isolation of S. maltophilia in 814 sputum samples from CF patients by using VIA agar with a minor modification (increasing the amphotericin B concentration from 2.5 to 4 mg/L). These authors noted that VIA agar supported the growth of 54.8% more S. maltophilia isolates than did bacitracin-chocolate agar (BC medium). A group from Australia [18] proposed another modification of VIA agar (mVIA) for isolating S. maltophilia from environmental and clinical samples: incorporating meropenem (16 mg/L) instead of imipenem. This modified medium demonstrated 62% specificity for S. maltophilia, and all other bacteria present could be
easily distinguished. The authors also stated that substituting meropenem for imipenem may have reduced the sensitivity of mVIA agar. In fact, our slightly modified SMA has no obvious advantages over the VIA agar. However, in this study the improved detection of S. maltophilia by the SMA confirmed the findings from Denton et al. [17] and due to the increasing prevalence of this emerging pathogen in the last decade, we suggest the use of a selective agar for isolation of S. maltophilia in sputum samples from CF patients. Guidelines for the laboratory diagnosis of respiratory infections in CF patients have been established. However, the use of a selective medium for the isolation of S. maltophilia has not been recommended yet by international societies [19,20]. For the detection of S. maltophilia and other atypical respiratory pathogens, British and German guidelines state that such microorganisms will grow on blood agar and McConkey agar. Both media, in this present study, in addition to others helped to detect S. maltophilia in 7.1% from all analyzed samples; whereas SMA was able to support the growth of 64% more S. maltophilia isolates than the conventional media. In addition, SMA is very easy to formulate, and the processing of sputum is quite fast and normally does not require special pretreatment. However, because of the gradual reduction of imipenem activity over time, this medium can be used for only 3 weeks. The most frequently detected microorganisms in this study were S. aureus, Pseudomonas spp., and Aspergillus spp. These results were similar to those of previously published reports [1,2]. In our single-center cohort, the mean age of patients with S. maltophilia infection was 22.2 years, and the organism was more likely to be found in female patients. These observations are in line with the results of a study by Goss et al. [21], which analyzed data collected from 1991 to 1997 at centers accredited by the U.S. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. S. maltophilia was detected at least once in each of 1673 patients with a mean age of 18.9 years; the organism was more likely to be detected in female patients. Regarding antimicrobial susceptibility, only a few studies have performed susceptibility testing for S. maltophilia on samples from CF patients. The results of the present study demonstrated that tigecycline and trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole exhibited excellent activity against S. maltophilia. Fosfomycin, a phosphonic acid antibiotic with few reports of human toxicity [22], also exhibited low MICs against S. maltophilia. On the other
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hand, colistin, ceftazidime, and ticarcillin–clavulanate acid exhibited low activity against this pathogen. Cantón et al. [23] evaluated 41 antimicrobial agents against 76 S. maltophilia isolates from CF patients admitted to the Ramón y Cajal Hospital CF Unit, Madrid, Spain. The resistance rates they reported for ceftazidime (70.0%), ticarcillin–clavulanate (47.0%), and trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole (25.4%) were higher than those in the present study, whereas the resistance rates for moxifloxacin (6.3%) and levofloxacin were lower. In addition, Gabriel et al. [11] studied the antimicrobial susceptibility of 673 S. maltophilia isolates from patients who attended the CF Referral Center at Columbia University, New York City, USA. These authors performed broth microdilution assays and observed higher resistance rates for trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole (84%) than those found in our study, but the ticarcillin–clavulanate MICs were consistent with our results. Recently, a Turkish research group [24] examined genotype and antibiotic susceptibility patterns of a small number of S. maltophilia isolates (n = 11). According to the results, trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole was the most active antibiotic (all isolates were susceptible), whereas levofloxacin demonstrated good activity (82% of isolates were susceptible). In Northern Ireland, Mcknight et al. [25] verified the in vitro antibiotic susceptibility (Etest) of levofloxacin against 10 S. maltophilia isolates obtained from adult and pediatric CF patients. The results indicated again that levofloxacin exhibited excellent inhibitory activity against this microorganism. More recently, King et al. [26] evaluated the in vitro activity of five antimicrobial agents against gram-negative clinical isolates, including S. maltophilia (n = 51). The CF patients attended one of three American CF Centres or one French hospital. The authors concluded that levofloxacin was the most potent antibiotic against all CF isolates. These results are in nearly complete agreement with our finding that 92% of S. maltophilia isolates from CF patients were susceptible to levofloxacin. Colistin demonstrated limited activity against S. maltophilia isolates from CF patients. However, it is important to mention that colistin is normally used as inhaled agent to treat CF patients. Since interpretative criteria for in vitro susceptibility testing are designed for systemic use, the data presented in this study requires further investigations regarding potential inhibitory effects of inhaled agents. Until now, CLSI guidelines have not yet established specific breakpoints as interpretive criteria for moxifloxacin and colistin against S. maltophilia. To the best of our knowledge, ours is the first study to evaluate the inhibitory effects of colistin, fosfomycin and tigecycline against clinical CF S. maltophilia isolates. In fact, fosfomycin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, trimethoprim– sulfamethoxazole, and tigecycline may be effective in treating infections caused by S. maltophilia in CF patients. For this reason, it is important to conduct further clinical studies to evaluate the in vivo efficacy of these compounds and their impact on CF patients.
5. Conclusion In summary, our results clearly demonstrate the importance of using a selective medium for culturing S. maltophilia in sputum samples from CF patients. Analyses of the antimicrobial susceptibilities of eight drugs revealed that trimethoprim– sulfamethoxazole and tigecycline demonstrated the highest in vitro activity against S. maltophilia, whereas colistin was the least effective. Conflict of interest None of the authors have any conflicts of interest to declare. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Dirk Schmidt, A. Hain, S. Dittmer, and A. Mohr for their excellent laboratory technical assistance. References [1] Hauser AR, Jain M, Bar-Meir M, McColley SA. Clinical significance of microbial infection and adaptation in cystic fibrosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011;24:29–70. [2] de Vrankrijker AM, Wolfs TF, van der Ent CK. Challenging and emerging pathogens in cystic fibrosis. Paediatr Respir Rev 2010;11:246–54. [3] Palleroni NJ, Bradbury JF. Stenotrophomonas, a new bacterial genus for Xanthomonas maltophilia (Hugh 1980) Swings et al. 1983. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1993;43:606–9. [4] Blessing J, Walker JE, Maybury B, Yeager AS, Lewiston N. Pseudomonas cepacia and maltophilia in the cystic fibrosis patient. abstr.Am Rev Respir Dis 1979;119:262. [5] Denton M, Kerr KG. Microbiological and clinical aspects of infection associated with Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. Clin Microbiol Rev 1998;11:57–80. [6] Paez JI, Costa SF. Risk factors associated with mortality of infections caused by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia: a systematic review. J Hosp Infect 2008;70:101–8. [7] Waters V, Yau Y, Prasad S, et al. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia in cystic fibrosis: serologic response on effect on lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;183:635–40. [8] Laine L, Perry JD, Lee J, et al. A novel chromogenic medium for isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from the sputa of cystic fibrosis patients. J Cyst Fibros 2009;8:143–9. [9] da Silva Filho LV, Velloso L de F, Bento CN, et al. Use of selective medium for Burkholderia cepacia isolation in respiratory samples from cystic fibrosis patients. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2002;44:203–8. [10] Horré R, Marklein G, Siekmeier R, Nidermajer S, Reiffert SM. Selective isolation of Pseudallescheria and Scedosporium species from respiratory tract specimens of cystic fibrosis patients. Respiration 2009;77:320–4. [11] San Gabriel P, Zhou J, Tabibi S, Chen Y, Trauzzi M, Saiman L. Antimicrobial susceptibility and synergy studies of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia isolates from patients with cystic fibrosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004;48:168–71. [12] Kerr KG, Denton M, Todd N, Corps CM, Kumari P, Hawkey PM. A new selective differential medium for isolation of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1996;15:607–10. [13] Greisen K, Loeffelholz M, Purohit A, Leong D. PCR primers and probes for the 16S rRNA gene of most species of pathogenic bacteria, including bacteria found in cerebrospinal fluid. J Clin Microbiol 1994;32:335–51. [14] Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Methods for Dilution Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria That Grow Aerobically;
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