- Email: [email protected]
Sticky situations
BOOK
a large part of their genome but also harbour distinct DNA regions acquired by horizontal transfer. Currently, three different cell-wall polysaccharide antigens are known to be expressed by this group or lineage; the O 1, O 13 9 and O37 antigens. In view of the propensity of V. cholerae for horizontal gene transfer, it seems likely that more serotypes will be discovered within this lineage. One intriguing question is whether epidemic strains may also arise outside this lineage. Acknowledgements
This work was supported, in part, by the Dutch Organization for ScientificResearch (NWO, grant numbers 900-515-022 and 901-14182). References
1 Colwell,R.R. and Huq, A. (1994)in Vibrio cholerae and Cholera - Molecular to Global Perspectives (Wachsmuth,I.K., Blake,P.A. and Olsvik,O., eds), pp. 117-134, ASMPress 2 Sanyal,S.C. (1992) in Cholera {Barua,D. and Greenough,W.B., III, eds), pp. 57-67, Plenum 3 Karaolis,D.K.R.,Lan,R. and Reeves,P.R. (1995)]. Bacteriol. 177, 3191-3198 4 Barua,D. (1992) in Cholera (Barua,D. and Greenough,W.B.,I11, eds), pp. 1-35, Plenum 5 Albert,M.J. et al. (1993) Lancet 341,704 6 Ramamurthy,T. et al. (1993) Lancet 341,703-704 7 Mukhopadhyay,A.K.et al. (1996)J. Clin. Microbiol. 10, 2537-2543 8 Faruque,A.S.G.,Fuchs,G.J. and Albert, M.J. (1996) Epidemiol. Infect. 117, 275-278 9 Johnson,J.A. et al. (1994) Infect. lmmun. 62, 2108-2110 10 Weintraub,A. et al. (1994) Microb. Pathog. 16, 235-241 11 Manning,P.A., Stroeher,U.H. and Morona, R. (1994) in Vibrio cholerae and Cholera - Molecular to Global Perspectives
(Wachsmuth,I.K.,Blake,P.A. and Olsvik,O., eds), pp. 77-94, ASMPress 12 Waldor,M.K.,Colwell,R. and Mekalanos,J.J. (1994) Proc.
Sticky situations Bacterial Adhesion: Molecular and Ecological Diversity edited by M. Fletcher
John Wiley & Sons, 1996. £80.00 hbk (xi + 361 pages) ISBN 0 471 02185 7
B
acterial A d h e s i o n : M o l e c u l a r a n d E c o l o g i c a l D i v e r s i t y is
the latest, and probably the best, in a series of books published by John Wiley & Sons on ecological and applied microbiology. The Editor, a respected microbiologist whose research has focused on microbial adhesion in aquatic and marine environments, has recruited some of the world's experts on adhesion to construct a well-indexed volume with few errors. The open-
TRENDS
Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 9l, 11388-11392 13 Cox,A.D. and Perry,M.B. (1996) Carbohydr. Res. 290, 59-65 14 Bik,E.M. et al. (1995)EMBOJ. 14, 101-108 15 Bik,E.M., Gouw,R.D. and Mooi, F.R. (1996)J. Clin. Microbiol. 34, 1453-1461 16 Bik,E.M. et al. (1996) Mol. Microbiol. 20, 799-811 17 Comstock,L.E.et al. (1995) Infect. Immun. 63,317-323 18 Comstock,L.E.et al. (1996) Mo/. Microbiol. 19, 815-826 19 Karaolis,D.K.,Lan,R. and Reeves,P.R. (1994)]. Bacteriol. 176, 6199-6206 20 Waldor,M.K.and Mekalanos,J.J. (1994i Lancet 343, 1366 21 Stroeher,U.H. et al. (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 89, 2566-2570 22 Stroeher,U.H. et al. (1995) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 92, 10374-10378 23 Prager,R. et al. (1994) Med. Microbiol. Lett. 3, 219-227 24 WorldHealthOrganization(1969) Wkly Epidemic Rec. 44, 1-28 25 Zhao, S, et al. (1993)J. Bacteriol. 175, 2799-2808 26 Xiang, S., Hobbs, M. and Reeves,P.R. (1994)J. Bacteriol. 176, 4357-4365 27 Gustafson,C.E., Chu, S. and Trust, T.J. (1994)J. Mol. Biol. 237, 452-463 28 Johnson,S.R.and Romig,W.R. (1979) Mol. Gen. Genet. 170, 93-101 29 Nandy,R.K.et al. (1995)J. Med. Microbiol. 42, 251-257 30 Smirnova,N.I. et al. (1996)FEMSMicrobiol. Lett. 136, 175-180 31 Waldor,M.K.and Mekalanos,J.J. (1996) Science 272, 1910-1914 32 Kovach,E.K.,8haffer,M.D. and Peterson,K.M. (1996) Microbiology 142, 2165-2174 33 Waldor,M.K.,TscMpe, H. and Mekalanos,J.J. (1996) J. Bacteriol. 178, 4157-4165 34 Salyers,A.A.,Shoemaker,N.B. and Li, L. (1995)J. Bacteriol. 177, 5727-5731 35 Levine,M.M. and Pierce,F.P. (1992)in Cholera (Barua,D. and Greenough,W.B.,ilI, eds), pp. 285-327, Plenum 36 Albert,M.J. et al. (1994)J. Infect. Dis. 169, 709-710 37 Mukhopadhyay,A.K.etal. (1996)Epidemiol.Infect. 115, 427-434 38 Reeves,P.R. et al. (1996) Trends Microbiol. 4, 495-503
ing chapter, by Madilyn Fletcher, is, a contemporary discussion of the mechanisms of adhesion to various substrata. Although this subject has appeared in numerous volumes dealing with microbial adhesion phenomena, Fletcher reveals a refreshing examination of the factors involved in encounters between suspended bacteria and surfaces. It was also a pleasure to read the contribution of Kevin Marshall (Chapter 3) on the strategies microorganisms employ to acquire nutrients by binding to substrata. In addition to providing a historical perspective, Marshall's chapter delivers up-todate information on the ways bacteria utilize trace metals and organics at interfaces. In my opinion, the two strongest chapters in the book are those
IN MI(I~.OI'.IOL()(;y
REVIEWS
165
v(,,
5
N().
by Marc Mittelman (Chapter 4) and Richard Ellen and Bob Burne (Chapter 8). Chapter 4 provides an expert view of problems associated with adhesion to biomaterials and reveals relevant information on adhesion to prostheses, implants, catheters, contact lenses, etc., and the effects of antibiotics, sera, immunoglobulins and enzymes on adhesive events. Chapter 8 centers on oral microbial adhesion. More than 200 species of bacteria are known to be regular inhabitants of the oral cavity, binding to teeth, gingival tissues, the dorsum of the tongue, root surfaces and other sites. Colonization of a site is complicated and involves numerous factors. This carefully constructed, lucid chapter distills the complicated and confusing literature into a pristine and coherent
4
APRIl.
1997
BOOK
REVIEWS
picture of adhesion involving the many microorganisms and the many substrata. The critical examination of methodology and treatment of data are particularly good. A second chapter (Chapter 9) on oral bacteria focuses on coaggregation reactions. Almost all oral bacteria have the potential to participate in interactions with other bacteria to form aggregates of cells. Two aggregation pioneers (Jack London and Paul Kolenbrander) describe how aggregation reactions may be involved in oral microbial ecology and as determinants of the virulence of periodontopathogens. The remaining chapters of the book are just as polished and readable as the others. Ann Matthysse (Chapter 5), a leader in plant-microorganism interactions, describes the current status of the field and predicts some of the advances that will be made in the future; Aaron Mills and David Powelson (Chapter 2)
review soil-microorganism complexes in an elegantly concise manner; and Eddie Bayer and colleagues (Chapter 6) refine the literature on bacterial cellulosomes, yielding a splendid offering of the recent progress on cellulosome structure(s) and function. One small detraction from the latter otherwise-outstanding chapter is Fig. 6.2, which I found confusing. I also enjoyed the chapters on sensing and swarmer cell differentiation (Robert Belas, Chapter 10) and Myxococcus adhesion (Lawrence Shimkets, Chapter 11), but as these chapters are more concerned with molecular biology than with adhesion, they somehow stand out from the rest of the book. Although all of the chapters are well-written and edited, one offering was much too brief and did not consider some of the important literature. In the discussion of Pseudomonas (Alice Prince, Chapter 7), no mention was made of internal or
cytoplasmic lectins and their contribution to adhesion. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, cytoplasmic lectins may become externalized and function as adhesins to glycoconjugate-containing surfaces. However, of the numerous books on microbial adhesion edited in the past two decades, this is one of the best. The choice of authors and the up-to-date treatment each subject is given has resulted in a superb treatment of bacterial adhesion. A larger volume could have included more information on adhesion and pathogenesis. Nevertheless, anyone interested in adhesion should obtain a personal copy and no library should be without one.
Malaria: slowly but how surely?
However, we are still a long way - certainly more than five years from having even one vaccine that could confidently be added to the increasingly fragile control strategies now in use against these infections. In part, this results from the fact that our models do not always predict the outcome of the vaccine in humans, and the technologies used to produce the vaccines need further development in order to reproduce the native antigens and epitopes. Far more important, however, is the realization that we still have a long way to go to unravel the complexities of this intricate hostparasite relationship, which incorporates a high degree of specificity, parasite and human host variability, and adaptability by both. Consequently, in this timely review of the different approaches to vaccine development, which is written by a uniformly strong group of international experts in the field, we find encouragement with each of the approaches tried but a recognition that there are very fundamental questions still to be addressed. In their introductory chapter, Steve Hoffman and Lou Miller summarize what is being tried and why,
but conclude with a systematic approach to developing malaria vaccines that assumes very little about this 'complex, heterogeneous disease that we call malaria'. With one notable exception, the clinical trials of vaccines that have been carried out have been small-scale phase I and II studies directed against the pre-erythrocytic stages of the parasite and mostly involve recombinant or synthetic forms of the immunodominant circumsporozoite protein (CSP). Photini Sinnis and Victor Nussenzweig (Chapter 2) review what is known of the biology of sporozoite invasion of the liver and, in summarizing CSP-based vaccine strategies, underline that antibody-mediated immunity designed to stop invasion must, of necessity, be very efficient. It is likely that a pre-erythrocytic-stage vaccine must also be directed against the parasite within the hepatocytes and, as Hoffman and colleagues show (Chapter 3), this can be mediated not only by antibody to a range of sporozoite and liver-stage antigens but also by cytotoxic T cells. The aim with any malaria vaccine is to prevent death and the most severe forms of the disease.
Malaria Vaccine Development: A Multi-Immune Response Approach edited by S.L. Hoffman ASM Press, 1996. S75.00 hbk (x + 310 pages) ISBN 1 55581 111 6 leading malaria immunologist once said that when he was asked 20 years ago how long it would be before there was a malaria vaccine, he had replied five years and had been saying the same thing ever since. This illustrates the optimism that many who lead the search for malaria vaccines feel as a result of the advances that have been made in our understanding of the natural processes of development of acquired immunity. These advances have led to the development of a wide range of apparently rationally based vaccine candidates for experimental testing, and some have proved very effective against the infections that are used as models for human malarias.
A
T~,:N~,~,NM,~',.,B,,,~O~;~
166
W . S
NO.
Ron J. Doyle Dept of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
4
A p e . It. 1 9 9 7
a large part of their genome but also harbour distinct DNA regions acquired by horizontal transfer. Currently, three different cell-wall polysaccharide antigens are known to be expressed by this group or lineage; the O 1, O 13 9 and O37 antigens. In view of the propensity of V. cholerae for horizontal gene transfer, it seems likely that more serotypes will be discovered within this lineage. One intriguing question is whether epidemic strains may also arise outside this lineage. Acknowledgements
This work was supported, in part, by the Dutch Organization for ScientificResearch (NWO, grant numbers 900-515-022 and 901-14182). References
1 Colwell,R.R. and Huq, A. (1994)in Vibrio cholerae and Cholera - Molecular to Global Perspectives (Wachsmuth,I.K., Blake,P.A. and Olsvik,O., eds), pp. 117-134, ASMPress 2 Sanyal,S.C. (1992) in Cholera {Barua,D. and Greenough,W.B., III, eds), pp. 57-67, Plenum 3 Karaolis,D.K.R.,Lan,R. and Reeves,P.R. (1995)]. Bacteriol. 177, 3191-3198 4 Barua,D. (1992) in Cholera (Barua,D. and Greenough,W.B.,I11, eds), pp. 1-35, Plenum 5 Albert,M.J. et al. (1993) Lancet 341,704 6 Ramamurthy,T. et al. (1993) Lancet 341,703-704 7 Mukhopadhyay,A.K.et al. (1996)J. Clin. Microbiol. 10, 2537-2543 8 Faruque,A.S.G.,Fuchs,G.J. and Albert, M.J. (1996) Epidemiol. Infect. 117, 275-278 9 Johnson,J.A. et al. (1994) Infect. lmmun. 62, 2108-2110 10 Weintraub,A. et al. (1994) Microb. Pathog. 16, 235-241 11 Manning,P.A., Stroeher,U.H. and Morona, R. (1994) in Vibrio cholerae and Cholera - Molecular to Global Perspectives
(Wachsmuth,I.K.,Blake,P.A. and Olsvik,O., eds), pp. 77-94, ASMPress 12 Waldor,M.K.,Colwell,R. and Mekalanos,J.J. (1994) Proc.
Sticky situations Bacterial Adhesion: Molecular and Ecological Diversity edited by M. Fletcher
John Wiley & Sons, 1996. £80.00 hbk (xi + 361 pages) ISBN 0 471 02185 7
B
acterial A d h e s i o n : M o l e c u l a r a n d E c o l o g i c a l D i v e r s i t y is
the latest, and probably the best, in a series of books published by John Wiley & Sons on ecological and applied microbiology. The Editor, a respected microbiologist whose research has focused on microbial adhesion in aquatic and marine environments, has recruited some of the world's experts on adhesion to construct a well-indexed volume with few errors. The open-
TRENDS
Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 9l, 11388-11392 13 Cox,A.D. and Perry,M.B. (1996) Carbohydr. Res. 290, 59-65 14 Bik,E.M. et al. (1995)EMBOJ. 14, 101-108 15 Bik,E.M., Gouw,R.D. and Mooi, F.R. (1996)J. Clin. Microbiol. 34, 1453-1461 16 Bik,E.M. et al. (1996) Mol. Microbiol. 20, 799-811 17 Comstock,L.E.et al. (1995) Infect. Immun. 63,317-323 18 Comstock,L.E.et al. (1996) Mo/. Microbiol. 19, 815-826 19 Karaolis,D.K.,Lan,R. and Reeves,P.R. (1994)]. Bacteriol. 176, 6199-6206 20 Waldor,M.K.and Mekalanos,J.J. (1994i Lancet 343, 1366 21 Stroeher,U.H. et al. (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 89, 2566-2570 22 Stroeher,U.H. et al. (1995) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 92, 10374-10378 23 Prager,R. et al. (1994) Med. Microbiol. Lett. 3, 219-227 24 WorldHealthOrganization(1969) Wkly Epidemic Rec. 44, 1-28 25 Zhao, S, et al. (1993)J. Bacteriol. 175, 2799-2808 26 Xiang, S., Hobbs, M. and Reeves,P.R. (1994)J. Bacteriol. 176, 4357-4365 27 Gustafson,C.E., Chu, S. and Trust, T.J. (1994)J. Mol. Biol. 237, 452-463 28 Johnson,S.R.and Romig,W.R. (1979) Mol. Gen. Genet. 170, 93-101 29 Nandy,R.K.et al. (1995)J. Med. Microbiol. 42, 251-257 30 Smirnova,N.I. et al. (1996)FEMSMicrobiol. Lett. 136, 175-180 31 Waldor,M.K.and Mekalanos,J.J. (1996) Science 272, 1910-1914 32 Kovach,E.K.,8haffer,M.D. and Peterson,K.M. (1996) Microbiology 142, 2165-2174 33 Waldor,M.K.,TscMpe, H. and Mekalanos,J.J. (1996) J. Bacteriol. 178, 4157-4165 34 Salyers,A.A.,Shoemaker,N.B. and Li, L. (1995)J. Bacteriol. 177, 5727-5731 35 Levine,M.M. and Pierce,F.P. (1992)in Cholera (Barua,D. and Greenough,W.B.,ilI, eds), pp. 285-327, Plenum 36 Albert,M.J. et al. (1994)J. Infect. Dis. 169, 709-710 37 Mukhopadhyay,A.K.etal. (1996)Epidemiol.Infect. 115, 427-434 38 Reeves,P.R. et al. (1996) Trends Microbiol. 4, 495-503
ing chapter, by Madilyn Fletcher, is, a contemporary discussion of the mechanisms of adhesion to various substrata. Although this subject has appeared in numerous volumes dealing with microbial adhesion phenomena, Fletcher reveals a refreshing examination of the factors involved in encounters between suspended bacteria and surfaces. It was also a pleasure to read the contribution of Kevin Marshall (Chapter 3) on the strategies microorganisms employ to acquire nutrients by binding to substrata. In addition to providing a historical perspective, Marshall's chapter delivers up-todate information on the ways bacteria utilize trace metals and organics at interfaces. In my opinion, the two strongest chapters in the book are those
IN MI(I~.OI'.IOL()(;y
REVIEWS
165
v(,,
5
N().
by Marc Mittelman (Chapter 4) and Richard Ellen and Bob Burne (Chapter 8). Chapter 4 provides an expert view of problems associated with adhesion to biomaterials and reveals relevant information on adhesion to prostheses, implants, catheters, contact lenses, etc., and the effects of antibiotics, sera, immunoglobulins and enzymes on adhesive events. Chapter 8 centers on oral microbial adhesion. More than 200 species of bacteria are known to be regular inhabitants of the oral cavity, binding to teeth, gingival tissues, the dorsum of the tongue, root surfaces and other sites. Colonization of a site is complicated and involves numerous factors. This carefully constructed, lucid chapter distills the complicated and confusing literature into a pristine and coherent
4
APRIl.
1997
BOOK
REVIEWS
picture of adhesion involving the many microorganisms and the many substrata. The critical examination of methodology and treatment of data are particularly good. A second chapter (Chapter 9) on oral bacteria focuses on coaggregation reactions. Almost all oral bacteria have the potential to participate in interactions with other bacteria to form aggregates of cells. Two aggregation pioneers (Jack London and Paul Kolenbrander) describe how aggregation reactions may be involved in oral microbial ecology and as determinants of the virulence of periodontopathogens. The remaining chapters of the book are just as polished and readable as the others. Ann Matthysse (Chapter 5), a leader in plant-microorganism interactions, describes the current status of the field and predicts some of the advances that will be made in the future; Aaron Mills and David Powelson (Chapter 2)
review soil-microorganism complexes in an elegantly concise manner; and Eddie Bayer and colleagues (Chapter 6) refine the literature on bacterial cellulosomes, yielding a splendid offering of the recent progress on cellulosome structure(s) and function. One small detraction from the latter otherwise-outstanding chapter is Fig. 6.2, which I found confusing. I also enjoyed the chapters on sensing and swarmer cell differentiation (Robert Belas, Chapter 10) and Myxococcus adhesion (Lawrence Shimkets, Chapter 11), but as these chapters are more concerned with molecular biology than with adhesion, they somehow stand out from the rest of the book. Although all of the chapters are well-written and edited, one offering was much too brief and did not consider some of the important literature. In the discussion of Pseudomonas (Alice Prince, Chapter 7), no mention was made of internal or
cytoplasmic lectins and their contribution to adhesion. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, cytoplasmic lectins may become externalized and function as adhesins to glycoconjugate-containing surfaces. However, of the numerous books on microbial adhesion edited in the past two decades, this is one of the best. The choice of authors and the up-to-date treatment each subject is given has resulted in a superb treatment of bacterial adhesion. A larger volume could have included more information on adhesion and pathogenesis. Nevertheless, anyone interested in adhesion should obtain a personal copy and no library should be without one.
Malaria: slowly but how surely?
However, we are still a long way - certainly more than five years from having even one vaccine that could confidently be added to the increasingly fragile control strategies now in use against these infections. In part, this results from the fact that our models do not always predict the outcome of the vaccine in humans, and the technologies used to produce the vaccines need further development in order to reproduce the native antigens and epitopes. Far more important, however, is the realization that we still have a long way to go to unravel the complexities of this intricate hostparasite relationship, which incorporates a high degree of specificity, parasite and human host variability, and adaptability by both. Consequently, in this timely review of the different approaches to vaccine development, which is written by a uniformly strong group of international experts in the field, we find encouragement with each of the approaches tried but a recognition that there are very fundamental questions still to be addressed. In their introductory chapter, Steve Hoffman and Lou Miller summarize what is being tried and why,
but conclude with a systematic approach to developing malaria vaccines that assumes very little about this 'complex, heterogeneous disease that we call malaria'. With one notable exception, the clinical trials of vaccines that have been carried out have been small-scale phase I and II studies directed against the pre-erythrocytic stages of the parasite and mostly involve recombinant or synthetic forms of the immunodominant circumsporozoite protein (CSP). Photini Sinnis and Victor Nussenzweig (Chapter 2) review what is known of the biology of sporozoite invasion of the liver and, in summarizing CSP-based vaccine strategies, underline that antibody-mediated immunity designed to stop invasion must, of necessity, be very efficient. It is likely that a pre-erythrocytic-stage vaccine must also be directed against the parasite within the hepatocytes and, as Hoffman and colleagues show (Chapter 3), this can be mediated not only by antibody to a range of sporozoite and liver-stage antigens but also by cytotoxic T cells. The aim with any malaria vaccine is to prevent death and the most severe forms of the disease.
Malaria Vaccine Development: A Multi-Immune Response Approach edited by S.L. Hoffman ASM Press, 1996. S75.00 hbk (x + 310 pages) ISBN 1 55581 111 6 leading malaria immunologist once said that when he was asked 20 years ago how long it would be before there was a malaria vaccine, he had replied five years and had been saying the same thing ever since. This illustrates the optimism that many who lead the search for malaria vaccines feel as a result of the advances that have been made in our understanding of the natural processes of development of acquired immunity. These advances have led to the development of a wide range of apparently rationally based vaccine candidates for experimental testing, and some have proved very effective against the infections that are used as models for human malarias.
A
T~,:N~,~,NM,~',.,B,,,~O~;~
166
W . S
NO.
Ron J. Doyle Dept of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
4
A p e . It. 1 9 9 7