Strategic planning: Preparing for the twenty-first century

Strategic Planning: Preparing for the Twenty-first Century MARGARET M.

ANDREWS,

PHD, RN*

Planning may well be the most important activity in higher education in the 1980's. Except for several dozen of the most prestigious colleges and universities, aW institution that does not look ahead, analyze the new environment and new clienteles, and prepare for academic shifts and new fiscal realities may have a rocky ride through the decade. Quite a few colleges may not survive, l DR JOHN S, TOLL

President Unirersity of Mdryland

If educational institutions for nursing are to survive these uncertain times and to experience new life in the advent of the 21st century, careful planning for the future must be undertaken. Strategic planning, a relatively new term in nursing education, is a concept designed to achieve goals in dynamic, competitive environments through the judicious allocation of resources. The primary purpose of strategic planning is to achieve success with mission while linking the institution's future to anticipated changes in the environment. Strategic planning enables an institution to function in such a manner that the acquisition of resources exceeds their depletion. The purposes of this article are to (1) provide an overview of the strategic planning process and (2) describe the strategic planning experience of one private, liberal arts college in a midwestern state. Although the case example focuses on a liberal arts college, the strategic planning process is applicable to other types of educational settings. (Index words: Strategic planning; Longrange planning; Education, nursing) J Prof Nurs 6:103-112, 1990. 9 1990 by W.B. Saunders Company.

TERM strategic planning has been defined in a wide variety of ways. From its earliest use in business to the more recent use in higher education, strategic planning is a concept designed to achieve THE

*Chairperson and Professor, Department of Nursing, Nazareth College of Rochester, Rochester, NY. Funded in part by the LillyEndowment,Inc, Indianapolis,IN. Address correspondenceand reprint requests to Dr Andrews: Department of Nursing, Nazareth College of Rochester, 4245 East Ave, Rochester, NY 14610. 9 1990 by W.B. Saunders Company. 8755-7223/90/0602-001253.00/0

goals indynamic, competitive environments through the allocation of resources.2-1~ "Strategic planning is an open systems approach to steering an enterprise over time through uncertain -environmental circumstances. It is a proactive, problem-solving behavior directed externally at conditions in the environment and a means to a favorable competitive position in the ongoing competition for resources. The primary purpose of strategic planning is to achieve success with mission while linking the institution's future to anticipated changes in the environment in such a way that the acquisition of resources (ie, money, faculty, staff, students, positive public image, and so forth) is faster than the depletion of resources. I I Strategic planning is based on several underlying assumptions: (1) planning is an inherently desirable activity in which administrators should engage; (2) despite its lack of empirical verification, strategic planning has yielded desirable outcomes in education, business, and other disciplines; (3) strategic planning concepts borrowed from other disciplines apply to nursing and nursing education; and (4) the planning cycle is assumed to require approximately the same length of time in nursing educational settings as in other settings, ie, a 3-year planning cycle generally allows for desired outcomes, although shorter or longer periods may be appropriate in specific situations. " M t h o u g h there are many types of institutional planning, Table 1 summarizes the differences between strategic planning and some of the more prevalent

Journal of Professional Nursing, Vol 6, No 2 (March-April), 1990: pp 103-112

103

MARGARETM. ANDREWS

104 TABLE 1.

Differentiating Strategic Planning From Other Types of Planning Strategic Planning

Emphasis on the environment Oriented toward change Vision directed Inductive and integrated Proactive Emphasis on doing the right thing Art and science Open and external focus Afiticipates changes Current decisions based on looking from the future Entrepreneurial and action oriented, even when there is ambiguity Emphasis on innovation and creativity Synergistic Enterprise's environment and context are primary determinants of strategy/choices/direction Emphasis on opinions, intuition, andthe qualitative Orientation toward effectiveness Patterns are in a stream of decisions

Other Planning Emphasis on the enterprise Emphasis on stability FolTows a blueprint Deductive and analytical Reactive Emphasis on doing things right Science Closed and internal focus Extrapolates from the past Current decisions based on looking from the present Inaction when there is ambiguity Emphasis on the tried and tested Univariate Enterprise's strengths and weaknesses are primary determinants of strategy/choices/direction Emphasis on facts and the quantitative Orientation toward efficiency Decisions are made and carried out

Dfita from Cope. 11

forms of planning that are labeled strategic or long-term. The 9author acknowledges that many community and,9 social planners would not agree, for example, that their emphasis is totally on the enterprise rather than the environment Or.that they are reactive rather than proactive, have a univariate focus, and so forth. However, for the purpose of this discussion, some broad generalizations have been presented in tabular form. The purposes of this article are (1) to provide an overview of the strategic planning process and (2) to describe the strategic planning experience of one private, liberal artg college. The following section describes the steps in the strategic planning process and highlights categories of data that should be collected in a systematic manner when engaging in long-range planning. Phases of Strategic Planning The term strategicplanning usually connotes a 3-year period, but the dean may want to establish a shorter or longer time table, depending on circumstances. For example, the university may have a 5- or 7-year plan for construction of new buildings, renovation of existing structures, and so forth. The dean may be asked to develop a long-range plan to coincide with the projected university schedule for construction and renovations. 9 In general, the initial year of planning is the most difficult and requires extensive work by the institutional planners. The steps in the planning process are

repeated during each successive year, but the length of time required for each step decreases once baseline data have been gathered. The four phases of strategic planning are (1) assessment of the external and internal environments; (2) review of the institutional mission and objectives; (3) identification of issues, strategies, and goals; and (4) generation of concrete plans for action in order of priority. PHASE 1--ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT During the first phase of the strategic planning process, both the external and internal environments of the institution are assessed. External Environment Assessment

As shown in Table 2, most key factors that determine an institution's long-range destiny occur in the outside environment. The purpose of the external environment assessment, sometimes referred to as environmental scanning, is to uncover opportunities and threats that have confronted, are confronting, and will confront the institution. Identification of these factors is accomplished by systematically assessing the sociological, technological, economic, and political (STEP) changes at the global, national, state, and local levels and assessing their impact on the institution. Members of the strategic planning committee are asked to gather data in areas that match their expertise and interests. For example, the chief financial officer of the institution might be asked to provide data on

STRATEGIC PLANNING

TABLE 2.

External Environment

Environmental Factors

105 Assessment Degree of Impact"

Timing

Response

Sociotogical (including demographic trends) a.

b. C.

d. e.

Technological a.

b. C.

d. e.

Economic a.

b. C.

d. e.

Political (including legislation affecting higher education a.

!

b. c.

~

d. e.

Education industry a.

b. C.

*S = serious unfavorable; M = moderate; F = favorable. Modified and reprinted with permission.2

economic trends, the degree of impact the trends are likely to have on the nursing program, when the maximum impact is likely to be felt (timing), and projected responses of the institution 9 to the economic factors. For state institutions, the chief financial ofricer might discuss the impact of an anticipated legislative action that would adversely affect nursing education and indicate how the budget is affected in terms of percentage increments. In the private sector, nursing programs are vulnerable to decreased resources because of increased competition for scarce private foundation funds and decreased generosity of corporate and individual benefactors who are them; selves experiencing economic constraints. The broad categories of environmental factors that should be considered in the external environment assessment are summarized in Table 2. Competitor assessment. Included in the external environment assessment is a competitor assessment. The term competitor is used to mean any institution that is trying to satisfy the same consumer needs the institution is trying to satisfy. A file containing annual reports, newspaper clippings, magazine articles, and

special reports from research organizations i s established on each of the major competitors. Each competitor is analyzed .in terms of size and importance, performance, market advantage, strengths and weaknesses, competitive opportunities or threats, and anticipated actions in the future. The ways in which the institution can maintain its competitive edge in the marketplace are explored. Individual departments within the institution analyze competitors in a similar manner because major competitors of the institution as a whole may or may not be the same as competitors for specific departments. For example, if an institution has a graduate program in a specialty area such as nurse-midwifery, the midwifery competitors are likely to be very different than the competitors for undergraduate students. Internal Environment

Assessment

"

The internal environment assessment, or institution self-assessment, requires a careful examination of strengths, weaknesses, capabilities, and vulnerabilities, at both macro and micro levels. The macro level

MARGARET, M. ANDREWS

106

entails an institution-wide perspective on the overall organization structure," the performance of functional units, and factors that influence the success of the institution as a whole. At the micro level, an assessment of academic and nonacademic departments is undertaken in collaboration with the administrators responsible for the departments. lmtitutional self-assessment. Before the internal assessment is begun, the organizational chart is reviewed as a reflection of the infoi'mation network in which the business of the institution is conducted. Successful institutions tend to be the ones that are trim. Institutions with fewer employees and layers of administrators, relatively speaking, outpace education industry averages in financial gain and enrollment growth by 10 to 20 per cent a year. Most colleges and universities could trim 25 per cent of their staffs without losing academic effecti'r because streamlined sta'ffs facilitate communication, limit duplication, promote faster decision making, and enhance the achievement of institutional goals. 2 Questions that are often useful in assessing the institution's organization are summarized i n Table 3: The general areas assessed include organizational structure, effectiveness of internal and external communication within the existing structure, financial factors that determine budget allocations for planning Units, and the school!s position compared withother institutions of a similar size and nature. Other questions may be generated by reviewing criteria from accreditation documents, such as those from the National League for Nursing, state boards of nursing, regional accrediting organizations, and others. Institutional self-assessment is accomplished in a variety of ways, including: the use of questionnaires, surveys,

and other techniques. Faculty, administrative staff, and support staff are invited to have input into the planning process by identifying weaknesses, opportunities, threats, and strengths (WOTS). As shown in Table 4, the one-page document, referred to as a WOTS-Up form, has three sections: (li identification of the weakness, opportunity, threat, or strength; (2) a statement describing why the item is likely to have a significant impact on the institution, and (3) suggestions for dealing with the weakness, opportunity, threat, or strength. The sample shown in the table provides one example of the type of response that might be received by the planning committee.

Successful institutions tend to be the ones that are trim. Institutions with fewer employees and layers of administrators outpace education industry averages in financial gain and enrollment growth. Financial assessment. Revenue from tuition and other sources is projected for each of the 3 planning years. Projected student credit hours, average class size, direct costs, and indirect costs are calculated. Expenditures such as salaries and wages, auxiliary enterprises, equipment, 9 renovations, new buildings, insurance, utilities, and capital needs are determined. PHASE 2--REVIEW OF MISSION STATEMENT

TABLE 3.

Organization Assessment

1. Are potential savings available through consolidation, realignment, elimination, or restructuring, without impairing . effectiveness? . 2. What are the relationships among the teaching, resea[ch, and community service functions of the institution? 3. Is student recruiting exerting undue influence over departments? . 4. Are departments or support operations restricting efforts to differentiate programs? 5. Are administrators of units operating as financial gain centers with fiscal accountability and responsibility, or are they merely paper-processing administrators? 6. Are the teaching and administrative units communicating well so informed decisions can be made about programs? 7. Is the image of the institution reviewed periodically in comparison with its competitors? 8. Do the academic units know of student problems in order to contribute to the resolution of the problems?

Data from Green. 2

During the second phase of the strategic planning process, a critical review of the institutional mission statement and the related institutional objectives is undertaken. Revisions are made as deemed appropriate. The importance of the mission statement cannot be overemphasized because the statement serves as the foundation for providing strategic direction to the future of the institution: Societal expectations, tradition, and other factors influence the mission of the institution and should be considered during the revision process. PHASE 3--IDENTIFICATION OF ISSUES, GOALS, AND STRATEGIES

During the third phase of the strategic planning process, the major emphasis is on identifying issues,

STRATEGICPLANNING TABLE 4.

107

Sample WOTS-Up Planning Issue

Check the following: Weakness X Opportunity X

Strength Threat

X

Your statment of the weakness, opportunity, threat, or strength. Despite the availability of computer hardware and software in the school of nursing, nursing faculty remain largely unskilled in computer applications. Why Is this weakness, opportunity, threat, or strength an Important Issue? Give your opinion or provide supporting evidence. This situation is at once a weakness, threat, and opportunity. The faculty's inexperience with computer applications is a weakness because faculty at competitor schools are more skilled, can do basic programming, and are developing computer simulations that are congruent with program objectives. Faculty at competitor institutions are also managing data from research projects, conducting sophisticated analyses of written examinations, and using computers for administrative purposes including student record keeping, tracking student progress in the program, planning for clinical placements, and so forth. The issue is a threat because the school of nursing may rapidly gain a reputation for being behind the times and for failing.to provide students with opportunities to use computers. Hospitals and other potential employers will perceive the.school.of nursi.ng as failing to keep current and may discriminate against graduates at some future time. This situation presents an opportunity to reverse a negative trend, increase faculty and student computer skills, and demonstrate to the health care community that the school of nursing is keeping pace with technological advances. What do you suggest should be done? Be specific on how you believe the matter should be handled. ,I (1) Faculty mserv~ces should be conducted on various computer applications for clinical practice, education, and research in nursing; (2) library periodicals .and books focusing on computers and nursing should be increased; (3) the computer services department should provide inservicfes for small groups of faculty on the use of various software having relevance to nursing; (4) faculty should visit area schools with state-of-the-art computer systems.and area health care agencies to familiarize themselves with computer use in the.education and clinical practice arenas; and (5) ~ grant should be submitted to provide funding for periodic consultation by an expert in nursing informatics.

Signature

setting goals, and developing alternative strategies to achieve the goals and resolve issues facing the institution. Issues identified in phase 2, the environmental assessment, are incorporated into the planning process. The academic department chairs and heads of nonacademic units are asked to involve members of their respective departments in the planning and to submit a 3-year business plan. -The dean or other administrator responsible for each department meets with the department heads to discuss their plans in detail and to discuss coordination with other units or departments. For example, if a new-program is being planned, there needs to be allocation of space, approval by a curriculum committee, development of promotional brochures, etc. PHASE 4--GENERATION OF PRIORITIZED PLANS FOR ACTION

In the fourth phase of the strategic planning process, action plans are generated in order of priority. An action plan is defined as a specific action with a designated program manager (eg, department chair, dean), schedule, budget, and desired outcome or results. 2 Plans for action are directly relatedto goal achievement, issue resolution, /rod strategies. Al-

though priorities are set when planning actions, it is paramount that flexibility prevail so that priorities can be changed when necessary. An example of the format that is frequently used for action plans,.including the manner in which issues and goals are related to strategy and to budget for a 3-year period, is shown in Table 5. Contingency planning, coordination with other departments,9 and evaluation of effectiveness are integral components of the action plan. Allocation of Resources The strategic planning process is incomplete without an effective method for making resource allocation decisions. Strategies and accompanying action plans, which represent the financial needs of the institution, are prioritized by merging all action plans for the organization in rank order. When the fiscal resources are known, funding is accomplished by allocating funds for the highest-ranking priorities on the list. Unfunded items" are placed on a deferred list and contingency plans are explored, eg, extramural funding is -..requested via grant proposals, a development officer is asked to solicit funds from potential donors. A 3-year forecast of revenues and expenditures for the institution is prepared." The terms forecast and projection are sometimes used interchangeably, but under

MARGARETM. ANDREWS

108

TABLE 5.

A c t i o n Plan

Strategic Planning Business Plan Planning Year

Department Name Priority Number

1. Issue or goal: 2. Related strategy: 3. Describe how this plan of action is to be performed:

4. Estimate the completion date for this action plan: Start date Completion date 5. Who will be the primary person(s) responsible for completing the assignment? 6. What is the estimated cost of this project? $ 7. How much additional funding is required (over the existing budget allocation)? $ Personnel Costs F.T.E. $

Operating Expense

Capital

FYtg~ FY19 FY ! 9 ~ 8. State how you will determine the work is complete: 9. Contingency plan: 10..How much additional funding is requested? " 11. Are there additional financial resources needed? If so, explain how much. 12. Does this plan require coordination with other operating units?

If yes, describe the impact or coordination.

Modified and reprinted with permission?

the guidelines of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, each has a different meaning. A forecast presents the best estimate of an organization's financial future, and is based on assumptions of what is expected to happen and the intended course of action. Aprojection, on the other hand, is based on one or more hypothetical assumptions and involves a review of alternatives based on these hypothetical assumptions and past trends. Projections represent the administration's best estimate of future conditions and the intended courses of action by the administration but are not necessarily intended to show what the administration.expects to happen. An example of a 3-year forecast according to major catego~'ies is illustrated in Table 6. Although the specific categories may vary slightly, the general areas that need.to, be considered are relatively standard. Actual figures for the 3 years preceding the plan, the current year's bud-'-" get, and projected needs during 3-year planning period should be identified. For projects requiring major expenditures, such as new buildings or substantial

renovation of ex!sting buildings, a 7- to 10-year plan may be desirable. The following section contains an example of selected aspects of strategic planning at a private, liberal arts college.

Strategic Planning in a Private, Liberal Arts College The institution cited as a case example has an enrollment of approximately 1,000 graduate and undergraduate students and is located in an urban area of a midwestern state. A discussion of the composition of the strategic planning committee, timetable for planning, examples of selected strategies, and presentation of the strategic planning report are described. STRATEGIC PLANNING COMMITTEE

The Strategic Planning Committee consisted of nine members, including the president, vice president

STRATEGICPLANNING T A B L E 6.

109

Three-Year Forecast Actual 1986

1987

Planned

Current 1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

Education and general revenues--unrestricted Tuition and fees State aid Endowment fund income Laboratory fees Departmental revenues Subtotal Auxiliary enterprises Subtotal Restricted fund revenues Total current fund revenues Educational and general expenditures---unrestricted Operations Instruction Academic support and public service Student services Institutional support Maintenance Scholars.hips Transfers ; Mandatory Nonmandatory Subtotal Auxiliary enterprises " Subtotal Restricted lurid expenditures Total current fund expenditures Increase (decrease) clue to balance

for academic affairs, vice president for financel vice president of student affairs, vice president of development, director of public relations, and three elected faculty representatives. The president of the college appointed the chair of the nursing department as coordinator of strategic planning. Using funds from a private foundation, the college was able to retain the services of a nationally known strategic planning consultant. The consultant visited the campus for 2 days each month and assisted the committee with the planning process. Clerical support for strategic planning was significant during the first year of planning, and one full-time secretary was needed. STRATEGIC PLANNING TIMETABLE

Strategic planning activities were coordinated with the institution's academic calendar and with scheduled meetings of the board of trustees. Figure 1 provides an overview of the strategic planning timetable and tasks to be accomplished during 1 year of the planning process. It is important to adhere to the schedule as closely as possible and to identify reasons for delays. Unless time parameters are established and maintained, the planning process will become sluggish and ineffective.

" SELECT P L A N N I N G i s s u E s

The Strategic Planning Committee analyzed societal trends at the national, state, and local levels and examined their projected impact on the college. By way of example, the committee's response to several demographic trends follows. As the 21st century approaches, the main trends in demography influencing higher education include a low birth rate, an aging population, high immigration, and increasing percentages of racial minorities. Although the US population will grow 12 per cent by the year 2000, the largest age group in the 1990s will be those between the ages of 35 and 50 years. Although nontraditional aged learners constitute 40 per cent of enrollment at institutions of higher education nationally, only 27 per cent of this college's total enrollment consists of nontraditional students. According to the US Census Bureau, minorities will constitute nearly one fourth of the total population by the year 2000, and more than half of the population by the year 2080. By comparison, this ins~tution's data show that minority enrollment accounts for less than 1 per cent of the total student body in a geographic area in which minorities constitute 14 per cent of the total population.

110

MARGARET M. ANDREWS

1988-89

Notes Board Meeting

Mar.>

Apr. - -

I. Environmental Assessment:

a. STEP d. Product/Market b. Education Industry e. Self-Assessment c. Competitors Outcome: Strategic Issues, Strengths, Weaknesses, and Marketing Plan. Involvement: Planning Comm~ee, Administration, and Departments.

May-Faculty Leave

> Jun.

Jul.

2. Mission and Objectives (Strategic Direction) Outcome: Mission Statement, Instffutlon

Direction, and Objectives. Involvement: Planning Committee and

Administration. Aug.-Board Meeting

3. Develop Unit Plans

a. Strategic Issues d. Tasks and Timetables b. Strategies e. Capital Needs c. Action Plans Outcome; Departmefital-" Business Plans. Involvement: Faculty, Staff, and Departments.

)

" 9

Sep. Faculty Return ) Oct. -Board Meeting

) 4. Strategic Plan Document

NOV.

a. Buslness Plan Summaries b. Financial Plans c. Executive Summary Outcome: Strategic Plan Document. Involvement: Administration and Planning Commiffee.

Dec. Jan. Board Meeting

) Feb. m

I

5, Budget Development

a. Prepare Detailed Budget Outcome: Budget for 1989-90.

Mar.-Apr. / Board Meeting

I

)

M:y ~ In analyzing national, state, and local census data, it became apparent that the institution's student profile reflected missed opportunities for recruitment and 9marketing. Among the outcomes of the analysis were the hiring of a nontraditional and minority recruiter, development of additional financial aid opportunities-for nontraditional and part-time students, expansion of college support services during evening hours, de-

Figure I. Strategic planning timetable.

velopment of a special college orientation program for nontraditional students, establishment of support groups for nontraditional students, and provision of assistance with child care needs. The admissions and public relations offices revised promotional brochures to be sure that nontraditional and minority students were adequately represented in promotional materials. Academic departments were invited to suggest

STRATEGIC PLANNING

Il I

ways in which marketing for nontraditional and minority students could be targeted. The nursing department increased its efforts to recruit nontraditional and minority students by focusing on the untapped market of licensed practical nurses (LPNs) and on individuals holding nonnursing bachelor's degrees. Collaborative programs with area hospitals and long-term care facilities are currently under way to expand financial aid opportunities for LPNs and other nontraditional students. A listing of LPNs within a 100mile radius of the institution was purchased from the state board of nursing, and marketing efforts were focused on this group. In collaboration with an education consultant from the National League for Nursing, LPN mobility was explored from both curricular and marketing perspectives. Special symposia for LPNs were offered, and recruitment efforts were focused on their unique learning and scheduling needs. PRESENTATION OF THE STRATEGICPLAN

A preliminary draft of the 3-year strategic plan was shared with the faculty, staff, and board of trustees, who were asked to review the plan and make suggestions for revision. The final strategic planning document consists of three volumes. Volume 1 is a public document and contains a brief summary of the entire 3-year plan. This document is intended for use during accreditation visits, for supportive documentation when seeking funds from foundations, and for use with potential donors and others interested in the development of the institution. Volume 2 is an internal document containing specific details of the plan as described previously and is intended for the board of trustees, high-ranking administrators, academic department heads, and nonacademic unit heads. Volume 3 is a lengthy, internal document containing the business plans (see Table 5) for all academic and nonacademic departments and units. High-ranking administrators use this volume to monitor the progress of the departments for which they are responsible. Copies of all three volumes are

available in the library and other key campus location., for review by all staff and faculty members. Summary and Conclusion

If educational institutions for nursing are to survive these uncertain times and to experience new life in the advent of the 21st century, careful planning for the future must be undertaken. Strategic planning, a relatively new concept in nursing education, is designed to achieve goals in dynamic, competitive environments through the judicious allocation of resources. The primary purpose of strategic planning is t~ achieve success with mission while linking the institution's future to anticipated changes in the environment. Strategic planning enables an institution to function in such a manner that the acquisition of resources exceeds their depletion. A case example of a private, liberal arts college in a midwestern state was presented. Using private foundation funds, this college has been able to engage in ~/comprehensive strategic planning process and to retain the services of a nationally recognized consultant to assist in the development of a 3-year strategic plan. Although the case example focuses on a small, liberal arts college, the strategic planning process is applicable to other types of educational settings. Although strategic planning has reportedly provided desirable outcomes in the fields of nursing, education, and business, it has done so without being subjected to scientific rigor. The underlying assumptions of strategic planning make logical sense and provide a mechanism for ongoing evaluation, but a causal relationship between strategic planning and the desired outcomes has not yet been demonstrated. The credibility of strategic planning's theoretical assertions would be enhanced markedly by research-based evidence. In the meantime, however, deans are encouraged to draw from the successes cited by strategic planners and to choose selectively from the array of suggestions proposed by advocates of strategic planning.

References

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proach to Business Policy for Growth and Expansion. New York, NY, McGraw-Hill, 1965 4. Chaffee EE, Tierney WG: Collegiate Cultures and Leadership Strategies. New York, NY, Macmillan, 1988 . . . . ~. Cope RG: Strategic Policy Planning: A Guide for College and University Administrators. Englewood, CO, Ireland Corp, 1978 6. Cope RG: Strategic Planning, Management, and De-

112

cision. Washington, DC, American Associationfor Higher Education, 1981 7. Cope RG: Enterprise. and Environment. Oxford, OH, Planning Forum, 1988 8. KellerG: AcademicStrategy: The Management Revolution in American Higher Education. Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University, 1983 9. Peterson MW: Analyzing alternative appproaches to planning, in Jedamus P, Peterson M (eds): Improving Academic Management: A Handbook of Planning Institu-

MARGARET M. ANDREWS

tional Research. San Francisco, CA, Jossey-Bass, 1980, pp 45-68 10. Peterson MW, Cameron KS, Mets LA, et al: The Organizational Context for Teaching and Learning: A Review of the Research Literature. Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan, 1986 11. Cope RG: Opportunity From Strength: Strategic Planning Clarified With Case Examples. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 18, Washington, DC, Association for the Study of Higher Education, 1987