- Email: [email protected]
Stratigraphic modeling of a transgressive barrier-lagoon in the Permian of Paraná Basin, southern Brazil
Accepted Manuscript Stratigraphic modeling of a transgressive barrier-lagoon in the Permian of Paraná Basin, southern Brazil Mariane Candido, Joice Cagliari, Francisco Manoel Wohnrath Tognoli, Ernesto Luiz Correa Lavina PII:
S0895-9811(18)30315-8
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2018.12.008
Reference:
SAMES 2065
To appear in:
Journal of South American Earth Sciences
Received Date: 30 July 2018 Revised Date:
11 December 2018
Accepted Date: 13 December 2018
Please cite this article as: Candido, M., Cagliari, J., Wohnrath Tognoli, F.M., Correa Lavina, E.L., Stratigraphic modeling of a transgressive barrier-lagoon in the Permian of Paraná Basin, southern Brazil, Journal of South American Earth Sciences (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2018.12.008. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
1
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Stratigraphic modeling of a transgressive barrier-lagoon in the Permian of Paraná
2
Basin, southern Brazil
3
Mariane Candido*, Joice Cagliari, Francisco Manoel Wohnrath Tognoli, Ernesto Luiz
4
Correa Lavina
5
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Geologia, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, Av. Unisinos, 950,
6
Cristo Rei, São Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Sul CEP 93022-000, Brazil.
8
* Corresponding author.
9
E-mail address: [email protected]
M AN U
10
SC
7
RI PT
1
ABSTRACT
12
Barrier-lagoon systems occur in most coastal regions worldwide. The sedimentary
13
record of these environments is of scientific and economic relevance because important
14
coal deposits are associated with them. We show the evolution of an ancient coal-
15
bearing barrier-lagoon system in the subsurface on the southern Paraná Basin, Brazil,
16
from a stratigraphic modeling approach. The main objective is to simulate and
17
understand the origin and evolution of this system controlled by relative sea level
18
changes and sediment supply. Database comprises 75 logged boreholes that provided
19
data about the main coal bed deposited in the back-barrier, as well as 19 cored and
20
logged boreholes distributed along two stratigraphic sections, one parallel (NE-SW) and
21
another perpendicular (NW-SE) to the paleocoastline. The dataset was uploaded in the
22
Diffusive Oriented Normal and Inverse Simulation of Sedimentation (DIONISOS)
23
software to establish basic parameters and simulate different scenarios. Described facies
24
are interpreted as swamp, lagoon, sandy barrier and tide-influenced deposits, developed
25
during a relative sea level rise of 16 m. The coal bearing succession was deposited
26
during the transgressive system tract of fourth-order depositional sequence and included
AC C
EP
TE D
11
1
2
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
peat deposition in a swamp in the back-barrier, barrier breakup and landward migration.
28
Results are of high relevance for understanding this paleoenvironment evolution and
29
similar systems in intracratonic basins. This environment occurs both in ancient and
30
recent coasts, and the present model supports the understanding of several barrier-
31
lagoon systems with coal formation in the world.
32
RI PT
27
Keywords: barrier-lagoon system, coal-bearing succession, Rio Bonito Formation,
34
stratigraphic modeling parameters, barrier transgression.
SC
33
35
1.
Introduction
M AN U
36
Coastal depositional environments host complex interactions between
38
continental and marine processes. Barrier islands are highly dynamic coastal systems
39
that are characteristic of these transitional environments, which require detailed studies
40
of their geology and geomorphology to understand their genesis. Barrier islands can
41
isolate lagoon bodies and are formed by the action of agents such as wind, waves and
42
currents, which transport, deposit and rework sediments along the coastline (Kjerfve,
43
1994; Boyd et al., 1992). The combination of transgressive and regressive cycles,
44
coastal physical characteristics and sedimentary supply directly influences the
45
structuring of these systems.
EP
AC C
46
TE D
37
The formation and evolution of barrier islands are mainly influenced by waves
47
and secondarily by tides, winds and river processes (Mulhern, 2017). Recent barrier
48
island systems (coast of Delaware - U.S.A., Yellow Sea - China, Wadden Sea –
49
Denmark, Adriatic Sea – Italy) were developed mainly in micro-tidal and meso-tidal
50
coasts (Hayes, 1975) where wave action and drift currents transport and deposit
51
sediments parallel to the coast, forming an extensive sandy or gravelly bar (Davis, 1994;
2
3
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 52
Reinson, 1992). One or more inlets can segment the sandy bar. Nevertheless, on the
53
landward side, estuaries, lagoons, and marshes can develop protected from the marine
54
influence processes. The preservation of ancient barrier islands in the rock record depends upon the
56
amount of erosion occurring during the subsequent transgression. Higher preservation
57
rates are related to transgressive rather than regressive settings, and the best
58
preservation occurs when the system is drowned in place during rapid relative sea level
59
rise (Reinson, 1992). Moderate to higher preservation rates are also related to
60
intracratonic basins settings, since they are usually characterized by a less intense
61
tectonism activity, when compared to other basins. Thus, the Paraná Basin, an
62
intracratonic basin in southern Brazil, provides excellent record of Permian barrier
63
island systems developed along the paleocoastlines of the epicontinental sea in the south
64
of Gondwana. In this basin, most of the economic coal measures are related to peat
65
(Cagliari, 2014; Kalkreuth et al., 2010; Kern, 2008; Holz, 2003; Lopes et al., 2003b,
66
2003c; Holz et al., 2002; Alves and Ade, 1996; Lavina and Lopes, 1987).
SC
M AN U
TE D
67
RI PT
55
The central region of Rio Grande do Sul presents a great sedimentary record of these deposits, in a high density of boreholes. They can be studied due to the availability
69
of boreholes intercepting a coal bed exploited during the 1970s and 1980s. The upper
70
Iruí coal bed belongs to the Iruí coal measure and corresponds to coal formed in swamp
71
associated with barrier-lagoon context discussed in this paper. The bed adds to 1,665 ×
72
106 t of coal. The Rio Bonito Formation is the unit of the Paraná Basin that hosts the
73
most economically important Brazilian coal measures. This formation records coastal
74
and shallow marine environments bordering an epicontinental sea (Milani et al., 2007)
75
after the end of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (LPIA) whose sediments are preserved in the
76
Itararé Group (Gordon Jr., 1947). Due to glacial melting, Rio Bonito Formation was
AC C
EP
68
3
4
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 77
deposited during approximately 20 Ma (Cagliari et al., 2014) of continuous relative sea
78
level rise, the so-called Permian transgression (Lavina et al., 1985). The complex relationship between accommodation space and sediment supply
79
that controlled barrier island migration and peat preservation is elucidated from
81
stratigraphic modeling. This study explains the sedimentary dynamics of the barrier
82
island system and evolution, with the peat-forming environment in the back-barrier,
83
preserved in the Rio Bonito Formation succession. This evolution occurred during the
84
transgressive and highstand system tract, in a fourth-order depositional sequence,
85
showing the retrogradational stacking of this system, segmentation of barrier and later
86
progradation. According to the stratigraphic modeling, a relative sea level rise of 16 m
87
in 2 Ma produced similar vertical succession as recorded in the stratigraphic sections.
88
The described facies are interpreted as swamp, lagoon, sandy barrier and tide-influenced
89
deposits. The modeling contributes to the understanding of the evolution of the barrier-
90
lagoon system in the period studied, allowing the establishment of relative sea-level
91
curve and likely sediment source locations.
93 94
2.
Geological setting
EP
92
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
80
The Rio Bonito Formation is the base of the Guatá Group and is part of a second-order depositional sequence, the Gondwana I Supersequence, of the Paraná
96
Basin (Milani, 1997). The Paraná Basin is an intracratonic basin filled with sedimentary
97
and volcanic rocks between the Late Ordovician and the Late Cretaceous (Milani et al.,
98
2007). The basin is partly preserved in Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, and Uruguay and
99
covers an area of approximately 1,600,000 km2. The basin is divided into six second-
AC C
95
100
order depositional sequences, as follows: Rio Ivaí (Ordovician-Silurian), Paraná
101
(Devonian), Gondwana I (Carboniferous-Early Triassic), Gondwana II (Late Triassic),
4
5
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 102 103
Gondwana III (Jurassic-Cretaceous) and Bauru (Late Cretaceous) (Milani et al., 2007). Gondwana I Supersequence records a wide change in the paleoenvironmental conditions, starting with the LPIA in the Carboniferous (Holz et al., 2008; Rocha-
105
Campos et al., 2008; França and Potter, 1988; Rocha-Campos, 1967; Gordon Jr., 1947),
106
passing through warmer and humid climate in the Permian (during Rio Bonito
107
Formation deposition) (Iannuzzi, 2013), up to arid conditions in the Triassic (Faccini,
108
2007; Faccini et al., 2003; Zerfass et al., 2003). Thus, the Rio Bonito Formation is a
109
post-glacial unit characterized by the deposition of coal, mudstone, siltstone,
110
carbonaceous siltstone, sandstone and conglomerate (Netto et al., 2012; Gandini et al.,
111
2010; Tognoli and Netto, 2003; Buatois et al., 2001; Lopes and Lavina, 2001; Castro et
112
al., 1999; Bortoluzzi et al., 1987; Lavina and Lopes, 1987; Schneider et al., 1974). The
113
interpreted depositional environment changed through the sedimentary succession from
114
fluvial, to tide-dominated estuarine and wave-dominated shoreface (Boardman, 2013;
115
Netto et al., 2012; Gandini et al., 2010; Buatois et al., 2007; Lopes et al., 2003a, 2003b,
116
2003c; Lopes and Lavina, 2001; Lavina and Lopes, 1987; Lavina et al., 1985).
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
104
Rio Bonito coal beds are numerous with a thickness of up to 4 m. Coal measures
118
are distributed along the eastern border with the most important reserves in the southern
119
basin (Fig. 1A), including Candiota, Capané, Iruí, Leão, Morungava-Chico Lomã, Santa
120
Terezinha and Sul-Catarinense (Gomes et al., 1998). The peat-forming environment is
121
interpreted as delta interdistributary bays, back-barrier, and estuaries (Lopes et al.,
122
2003a). Early Permian climate conditions that favored peat accumulation and
123
preservation were warm and humid (Slonski, 2002) with precipitation probably over
124
2,400 mm/yr (Ziegler et al., 1987).
125 126
AC C
EP
117
In the Iruí coal measure (study area, item 3.1), the succession reaches 120 m in thickness and the sedimentary facies were interpreted as floodplain, overbank, fluvial
5
6
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT and tidal bars, lagoon, bay-head delta, swamp, tidal flat, estuarine bay, foreshore,
128
shoreface and offshore deposits (Cagliari, 2014; Gandini et al., 2010; Kern, 2008;
129
Lavina and Lopes, 1987; Lavina et al., 1985). SW-NE elongated sand bodies composed
130
of foreshore and shoreface facies, laterally correlated to the swamp and lagoonal
131
deposits, were interpreted as barrier island systems that isolated a swamp or lagoon in
132
the back-barrier (Cagliari, 2014; Gandini et al., 2010; Kern, 2008; Lavina and Lopes,
133
1987). Sandy barrier deposits are recurrent throughout the succession (Cagliari, 2014)
134
and their formation was related to longshore currents, which drifted to N-NE during
135
summer and to SW during winter according to Cacela (2008).
SC
RI PT
127
Guatá Group (Rio Bonito and Palermo Formations) is part of the lowstand and
M AN U
136
transgressive system tracts of a second-order depositional sequence (Lopes and Lavina,
138
2001; Lopes, 1995), the Gondwana I Supersequence of Milani (1997). In the southern
139
part of the basin, the Guatá Group is subdivided into four third-order depositional
140
sequence boundaries by erosional surfaces (subaerial unconformity) that developed
141
during relative sea level fall (Lopes, 1995) (Fig. 2). In all sequences defined by Lopes
142
(1995), the subaerial unconformity is replaced by a transgressive surface and the
143
sequences record predominantly the transgressive system tract. The first depositional
144
sequence (Sequence A) is constrained to the deepest valleys and the fourth sequence
145
(Sequence D) records the transition of the Rio Bonito Formation to the Palermo
146
Formation. Sequence B and C correspond to the succession in the Iruí coal measure area
147
according to Kern (2008).
AC C
EP
TE D
137
148 149
3.
Materials and Methods
150
3.1.
Study area
151
The study area is located in the southern border of the Paraná Basin, near the
6
7
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Sul-Riograndense Shield, and comprehends part of the Iruí and Capané coal measures
153
(Fig. 1). In Brazil, the area is located in the center of the state of Rio Grande do Sul,
154
near the town of Cachoeira do Sul. The area is 26 × 24 km wide (624 km2) characterized
155
by a robust geological database based on cores drilled by the Brazilian Geological
156
Survey (CPRM) during the 1970s and 1980s (CPRM, 1980, 1983; Figueroa, 1983;
157
Ferreira, 1978). The database includes hundreds of logged and cored boreholes in which
158
75 boreholes were selected and 19 were described, including those previously described
159
by Gandini et al. (2010) and Kern (2008). The study focuses on one of the fourth-order
160
depositional sequences (Fig. 2) of the Rio Bonito Formation at the Iruí coal measure.
161
The depositional sequence includes the upper Iruí coal bed deposited in a back-barrier
162
environment and records the sandy barrier transgression (Cagliari, 2014; Kern, 2008).
SC
M AN U
163
RI PT
152
This study is based on borehole cores logging and gamma-ray logs interpretation (CPRM, 1980, 1983). About 11 cores were logged by Gandini et al. (2010) and Kern
165
(2008); we logged 9 additional cores with a higher resolution in the selected interval to
166
contribute to the understanding of this barrier island system formation and evolution.
167
Sedimentary facies were described, leading to the interpretation of depositional and
168
transport processes (Walker, 1992). Two stratigraphic sections were compiled, one
169
parallel (SW-NE) and another perpendicular (SE-NW) to the paleocoastline (Fig. 1B).
170
The stratigraphic datum assumed for lateral correlation between the logs is an ash fall
171
horizon (tonstein) within the upper Iruí coal bed, the same datum used by other authors
172
(Cagliari, 2014; Kern, 2008). This horizon represents one episode of the large volcanic
173
eruption in southwestern Gondwana paleocontinent (Matos et al., 2000). Stratigraphic
174
surfaces were mapped in the analyzed sections considering the Embry (1993) and
175
Embry and Johannssen (1992) approaches.
176
AC C
EP
TE D
164
All cores, sedimentary facies, and stratigraphic surfaces were imported into
7
8
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Recon®, 3D software developed by Seisware International Inc. for geologic
178
interpretation. In Recon®, we modeled facies spatial distribution, the depositional
179
surface prior to the analyzed sequence that corresponds to coal bed lower boundary, and
180
the volume of sediment preserved. For these models, we used a radial algorithm (3,000
181
m of radius) to interpolate data among cores. The relation between accommodation
182
space and sediment supply that controlled the barrier island landward migration and
183
peat preservation was estimated using a forward stratigraphic modeling performed in
184
DIONISOS®.
185
187
3.2.
Forward Stratigraphic Modeling
M AN U
186
SC
RI PT
177
The DIONISOS® (Diffusive Oriented Normal and Inverse Simulation of Sedimentation) is a 3D numerical stratigraphic forward model developed by Beicip-
189
Franlab, an associate company of the Institut Français du Pétrole. The model simulates
190
erosion, transport and deposition of sediments in shallow marine and coastal
191
environments in order to obtain the geometry and facies of sedimentary units over
192
regional spatial scales. The stratigraphic model is a result of the interaction of the main
193
factors that control sediment deposition, such as sediment supply, sea level change and
194
subsidence or uplift.
EP
The diffusion equation (Eq. 1), which is based on the main principles of stream
AC C
195
TE D
188
196
flow and mass conservation, expresses sediment transport and is dependent especially
197
on the slope and efficiency of transport. In Equation 1,
198
width unit;
199
concentration and D is diffusion coefficient in m/s2; h is the height above horizontal
200
datum; and x is the horizontal distance in flux direction. Sedimentation and erosion rates
201
at each point of the basin and each time are estimated from the mass balance principles
is the modified diffusion coefficient;
is the sediment influx by =
×
, where
is sediment
8
9
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 202 203
(Beicip-Franlab, 2009). = −
×
(Eq. 1)
Long-term evolution of sedimentary processes is controlled by long-term fluvial
204
and gravity transport, processes that depend on the topographic slope, diffusion
206
coefficient, and water discharge, and the short-term is induced by catastrophic rain fall,
207
slope failures, and turbidity flow, processes that are in turn depend on water velocity
208
and inertia (Beicip-Franlab, 2009). DIONISOS® was developed to simulate the long-
209
term and large-scale evolution of the sedimentary basins, although it is also considered
210
a reliable tool to model the evolution of the short-term system (Seard et al., 2013). The
211
time scale can range from tens of thousands of years to hundreds of millions of years,
212
with the shortest time step limited on tens of thousands of years. A review of the
213
DIONISOS® mathematical model and limitations can be found in the Csato et al. (2013)
214
appendix.
M AN U
SC
RI PT
205
In the same way, as in other forward stratigraphic modeling tools, DIONISOS®
TE D
215
requires a set of pre-determined parameters to perform the stratigraphic simulation
217
(Shafie and Madon, 2008). Several parameters are difficult to be extracted from ancient
218
stratigraphic succession, thus the primary uncertainty related to the stratigraphic model
219
is mostly caused by the lack of accurate and detailed input data.
221 222
AC C
220
EP
216
3.3.
Initial and boundary conditions and input data
The initial conditions correspond to relief (or basement conditions) and sea level
223
position at the beginning of simulation (when t = 0), and the boundary conditions
224
include simulation area boundary, grid spacing and interval of time considered in the
225
analysis. The basement condition, or the initial geometry of the basin, was obtained
226
from the distribution map of the coal seam basal surface (basal sequence boundary, see
9
10
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Fig. 8) after applying the datum (tonstein horizon) to correlate all borehole logs. In
228
order to constrain the sea level position at the beginning of the simulation, we assumed
229
that the lagoon level was controlled by the sea level. The water depth in modern coastal
230
lagoons is typically between 1 and 3 m but can reach 5 m in inlet channels and isolated
231
relict holes or channels (Kjerfve, 1994). Thus, based on modern environment data, we
232
have constrained the lagoon water depth to 2 m in average with the deepest part
233
reaching up 5 m (Fig. 3).
RI PT
227
The simulation area was 26 × 24 km (624 km2) with the grid spacing set at 0.5 km.
235
The depositional sequence analyzed in this study was not dated but the interval of time
236
varied between 80,000 yr and 3 Ma according to Vail et al. (1991). The sequence is
237
considered third-order by Kern (2008) and fourth-order by Cagliari et al. (2014). The
238
preservation rate estimated from two radiometric datings (Cagliari et al., 2016) of the
239
Rio Bonito Formation is ~10 m/Ma. Considering this preservation rate in the thickest
240
depositional sequence, the time span simulated was 2 Ma with a time step of 200 ka.
241
We investigated current and ancient depositional rates for these environments to
242
isolate the time span of back-barrier and barrier deposition. Nichols (1989) estimated
243
sediment accumulation and relative sea level rise rates for 22 United States lagoons and
244
discovered that most lagoons have an increased rate of about 1.6 mm/yr of sediment
245
deposition, which nearly equals to the relative sea-level rise. In this study, erosion is
246
null, thus the sedimentation rate corresponds to the preservation rate. Another limitation
247
of applying this data to our study is the anthropic occupation in the surrounding areas,
248
which can impact in the sediment budget. However, all studied lagoons are shallow (~3
249
m depth) environments and share the same depositional context of relative sea-level
250
rise, providing a good analogous model.
251
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
234
Peat accumulation rates vary with climate, type of vegetation and local drivers. A
10
11
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT paleolatitude estimation of the southern Paraná Basin in the Carboniferous-Permian
253
transition (~50° S; Franco et al., 2012) point out to a temperate climate, and according
254
to different studies approaches, the Rio Bonito Formation coal seams are described as
255
being formed in limno-telmatic moors, where pteridophytic arborescent and herbaceous
256
plant material was accumulated (see review of Correa da Silva, 2004). Due to the
257
absence of peat accumulation rates for the studied coal seams we have considered
258
published rates for different modern environments as an approximation: 0.1 –2.3 mm/yr
259
(lowest rate in the Arctic and the highest in the tropics, McCabe, 1984), 0.35 – 1.13
260
mm/yr (Siberian peatlands, Borren et al., 2004), and 0.16 – 0.97 mm/yr (Congo Basin
261
peatland complex, Dargie et al., 2017). However, over the trial and error simulations,
262
the best result was achieved with a peat accumulation rate of 0.03 mm/yr. The time span
263
of the peat-forming was approximated at 0.5 Ma, based on coal thickness, decompaction
264
rate of 3:1 (Ryer and Langer, 1980; Courel, 1987) and peat accumulation rates of 0.03
265
mm/yr. We used the same time span for the lagoon system because lagoonal deposits
266
are thicker than peat forming successions and the depositional rates of these
267
environments are higher. A total of 1 Ma was set for modeling barrier migration
268
landwards, once the barrier thickness is about 10 m and the preservation rate estimated
269
for the Rio Bonito Formation is ~10 m/Ma (Cagliari et al., 2016).
271 272
SC
M AN U
TE D
EP
The input data for stratigraphic simulation were extracted from the sedimentary
AC C
270
RI PT
252
record, published studies and data from depositional environments documented in modern analogous (Table 1 and Supplementary file). Multiple scenarios were simulated
273
to adjust parameters and obtain the best result fitting with real data. The quality of the
274
results was evaluated by comparing the simulated one with the vertical and lateral
275
sedimentary succession expressed in the stratigraphic sections and individual core logs.
276
11
12
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 277
4.
Results
278
4.1.
Sedimentary facies The described depositional sequence ranges between 12 and 16 m in thickness.
279
Nine sedimentary facies were described and interpreted: coal, laminated siltstones,
281
structureless siltstone, heterolithic sandstone, trough cross-bedded arkosic sandstone,
282
parallel to subhorizontal lamination quartz sandstone, trough cross-bedded quartz
283
sandstone, hummocky cross-stratification quartz sandstone, and bioturbated heterolithic
284
sandstone (Tab. 2). Considering the main processes that control the deposition of the
285
sedimentary facies described above we grouped them into three facies association: the
286
wave-dominated facies, the tidal-dominated facies, and the standing-water-dominated
287
facies.
SC
M AN U
288
RI PT
280
The wave-dominated facies association includes the parallel to subhorizontal lamination quartz sandstone (F6), trough cross-bedded quartz sandstone (F7),
290
bioturbated heterolithic sandstone (F8), and hummocky cross-stratification quartz
291
sandstone (F9). Tidal-dominated facies association includes heterolithic sandstone (F4)
292
and trough cross-bedded arkosic sandstone (F5), and the standing-water-dominated
293
facies comprehends the coal (F1), laminated siltstones (F2) and structureless siltstones
294
facies (F3).
EP
The vertical succession of facies that predominates is coarsening-upward,
AC C
295
TE D
289
296
composed from base to top by, coal (F1), laminated and structureless siltstone (F2 and
297
F3), parallel to subhorizontal lamination quartz sandstone (F6), trough cross-bedding
298
quartz sandstone (F7), bioturbated heterolithic sandstone (F8) and hummocky cross-
299
stratification quartz sandstone (F9) (Fig. 5A). The transition from coal (F1) to siltstone
300
facies (F2 or F3) is gradual and from siltstone to quartz (F6-9) or arkosic sandstone (F5)
301
facies is abrupt.
12
13
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT F1 – Coal: Most drilled and cored coal intervals are lacking in the boxes because of
303
previous studies (the Brazilian Geological Survey (CPRM) sampled these intervals to
304
run several analyses in the 1970s and 1980s), but detailed descriptions of these missing
305
intervals by CPRM (1980, 1983), Figueroa (1983) and Ferreira (1978) are available.
306
These authors described coal in the selected cores as black frosted coal with lenses of
307
fusinite, laminae of vitrinite, pyrite nodules, cracks filled with calcium carbonate and
308
abundant plant fragments (Fig. 4A). Thickness reaches up to 3.94 m in core IC-099-RS.
309
Interpretation: Coal facies is the result of organic matter deposition in a shallow
SC
RI PT
302
water environment under anoxic conditions and with some marine influence, as
311
indicated by the presence of pyrite nodules (Frey and Basan, 1985; McCabe, 1984).
312
According to Cúneo (1996), the main vegetation in the mid early Permian was
313
glossopterids, conifers, cordaitales, early ginkgophytes, shrubby ferns and Botrychiopsis
314
(understory). The gymnosperms Rubidgea and Ginkgophyllum represent the endemic
315
forms in the Brazilian unit. The productivity of vegetation and climate contributed to
316
the formation of peat deposits, which formed the coal beds of Rio Bonito Formation in
317
southern Brazil, also yielding an assemblage dominated by Glossopteridales (Boardman
318
et al., 2012; Guerra-Sommer, 1991).
319
F2 – Laminated siltstone: Whitish-gray to dark-gray siltstone with horizontal
320
lamination, weak bioturbation, sparse plant fragments, locally carbonaceous, and bed
321
thickness ranging from 0.35 to 1.80 m (Fig. 4B).
TE D
EP
AC C
322
M AN U
310
Interpretation: Siltstone deposited by suspension settling from standing water
323
with the horizontal lamination recording the pulses of sediment supply (Collinson,
324
1996; Reinson, 1984). Weak bioturbation and sparse plant fragments facilitated the
325
preservation of the sedimentary structure.
326
F3 – Structureless siltstone: Whitish-gray to medium-gray siltstone, structureless, with
13
14
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 327
root marks and plant fragments, locally with weak bioturbation (Fig. 4C). Some
328
horizons show blocky texture and slickensides. Carbonaceous siltstones occur locally
329
underlying coal facies. This facies is widespread and the thickness reaches up 7.4 m in
330
IC-050-RS. Interpretation: Siltstone deposited by suspension settling from standing water,
RI PT
331
same as F2 (Collinson, 1996; Reinson, 1984). The lack of depositional structure is
333
explained by rapid deposition or later destruction by plant roots and soil-forming
334
processes (Collinson, 2006). Blocky texture and slickensides suggest subaerial exposure
335
and soil-forming process corroborating the possibility of later destruction of primary
336
sedimentary structures. Gandini et al. (2010) described Glossopteris flora in this facies.
337
F4 – Heterolithic sandstone: Centimeter- to millimeter-thick intercalation of fine- to
338
medium-grained sandstone and dark-gray siltstone, wavy and lenticular bedding, mud
339
drapes and flaser (Fig. 4D). Siltstone is locally carbonaceous, and bioturbation range
340
from weak to moderate.
M AN U
TE D
341
SC
332
Interpretation: Alternation of bedload sand migration as ripples and suspension settling from standing water (Rahmani, 1988; Smith, 1988; Reineck and Singh, 1986).
343
Mud drapes and flaser deposits during the slack-water period were produced by the
344
variation in the tidal current over semi-diurnal to longer cyclicity (Collinson, 1996).
345
Gandini (2010) found in the same facies Helminthopsis, Palaeophycus, Planolites,
346
Thalassinoides, Thalassinoides-Palaeophycus, Thalassinoides-Palaeophycus-
347
Helminthopsis, and interpreted as estuarine bay or lower shoreface/transition offshore.
348
F5 - Trough cross-bedded arkosic sandstone: Fine- to coarse-grained arkosic
349
sandstone, locally composed by granules and pebbles; grains are poorly-sorted,
350
subangular to angular, with low sphericity, exhibiting trough cross-bedding and
351
carbonaceous mud drapes (Fig. 4E). Succession is frequently fining-upward with
AC C
EP
342
14
15
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 352 353
erosive boundary contact. Interpretation: This facies represents the migration of subaqueous dunes under low flow regime (Collinson, 1996; Collinson and Thompson, 1989; Miall, 1977). Grain
355
composition and characteristics indicate transport over short distances. Mud and
356
carbonaceous mud drapes, as in heterolithic facies (F4), is evidence of variation in tidal
357
current.
358
F6 - Parallel to subhorizontal laminated quartz sandstone: Fine- to medium-grained
359
quartz sandstone, locally coarse-grained, well-sorted, subrounded to rounded grains,
360
with parallel to subhorizontal cross lamination with erosive contact at the base (Fig. 4F).
SC
Interpretation: Deposition under upper flow regime with high flow velocity and
M AN U
361
RI PT
354
shallow water depth (Reinson, 1992; McCubbin, 1982; Heward, 1981; Clifton, 1969)
363
indicated by the presence of Macaronichnus icnofabric, described by Gandini et al.
364
(2010), the classical signature of high-energy shallow marine deposits. This icnofabric
365
contains information on the bioturbation rate and horizontal excavations resulting from
366
the reworking of the substrate by detritus-eating vermiform organisms (Pemberton et
367
al., 2001).
368
F7 - Trough cross-bedded quartz sandstone: fine- to medium-grained quartz
369
sandstone, locally very coarse-grained, well-sorted, high-sphericity and rounded grains,
370
medium- and small-scale uni- and bidirectional trough cross-bedding (Fig. 4G).
371
Bioturbation is absent.
EP
AC C
372
TE D
362
Interpretation: Migration of subaqueous 3D dunes under lower flow regime due
373
to unidirectional and oscillatory currents (Reinson, 1992; McCubbin, 1982). The
374
absence of bioturbation also reflects high-energy condition and high rate of velocity
375
migration.
376
F8 - Bioturbated heterolithic sandstone: Interbeds of fine-grained quartz sandstone
15
16
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 377
and dark-gray, carbonaceous in places, siltstone with wavy and lenticular bedding, with
378
moderate to high bioturbated. Locally the sedimentary structures are obliterated by
379
bioturbation (Fig. 4H). Interpretation: This facies is interpreted as the alternation of suspension settling
380
from standing water and migration of ripples (Collinson, 1996; Reinson, 1992;
382
McCubbin, 1982). The high intensity of bioturbation and the ichnological signature
383
reflects a relatively calm marine environment below the fair-weather wave base.
384
Gandini et al. (2010) studied the same area and described for this facies the occurrence
385
of Cruziana and Skolitos ichnofacies.
386
F9 - Hummocky cross-stratification quartz sandstone: Fine-grained quartz sandstone
387
with intercalated laminae of siltstone, moderately well-sorted and light-colored grains,
388
low-angle cross-stratification (hummocky cross-stratification) (Fig. 4I).
M AN U
SC
RI PT
381
Interpretation: Fallout of sediment from suspension and lateral tractive flow
390
under wave oscillation generated by storm (Dott and Bourgeois, 1982; Harms et al.,
391
1975). The presence of hummocky cross-stratification is the diagnosis of the offshore
392
transition zone, which lies between fair-weather and storm wave base.
393
395
4.2.
Stacking pattern of the studied succession The succession has a retrogradational stacking pattern, with lagoon and swamp
AC C
394
EP
TE D
389
396
underlying foreshore and shoreface deposits. Thus, the succession records a vertical
397
shift from proximal (swamp and lagoon) to more distal depositional environments
398
(lower shoreface). This succession does not represent a typical succession formed
399
during the transgression of a barrier island according to Reinson (1992). In this case,
400
the Walther’s Law of facies is not respected, due to the absence of intermediate facies,
401
originally located along an individual depositional profile. Otherwise, it is similar to the
16
17
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 402
partial preservation of facies succession recording by erosional shoreface retreat (Kraft
403
and Chrzastowski, 1985; Reinson, 1984, 1992; Heward, 1981) where shoreface facies
404
overlie more landward facies across a planar erosion surface.
405
The succession described above does not occur in cores IB-182-RS, IC-029-R, and IC-045-RS (section AA’, where the sandy barrier is totally or partially replaced by
407
tidal-influenced facies association, heterolithic and trough cross-bedded arkosic
408
sandstone facies) (Fig. 5B and Fig. 7). In other cores, sandy barrier facies is
409
interdigitated with tidal-influenced facies (IB-010-RS and IB-006-RS, section BB’) or
410
absent (CA-040-RS, section BB’).
SC
Coal facies is distributed into two beds, the lower one named upper Iruí coal bed
M AN U
411
RI PT
406
and has a wide occurrence in the study area and the upper one is restricted to the west
413
portion. The upper Iruí coal bed has an elongated geometry with the long axis of
414
approximately 32 km in the SW-NE direction and the short axis of approximately 5 km
415
in the NW-SE direction (Fig. 6). It is laterally correlated to the laminated and
416
structureless siltstone facies (F2 and F3, respectively), as presented in the NE and SE of
417
sections AA’ and BB’ (Fig. 7), which are also widely distributed in the area although
418
the thicknesses change along the sections.
EP
419
TE D
412
The sandy barrier facies association occurs along the entire area although tideinfluenced facies association locally interrupts it. This feature likely suggests that tidal
421
channels segmented the sandy barrier. However, tidal deposits would not have been
422
deposited in the inlets due to the high-energy flow. The tidal sediments would be
423
probably deposited in a more protected area, as like as the flood tidal delta. Its location
424
in a partially protected environment is indicated by carbonaceous silty interlaminations
425
that occur in the middle of poorly selected sandstones, possibly close to a tidal, flat or a
426
barred lagoon for example.
AC C
420
17
18
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 427 428 429
4.3.
Sequence stratigraphy and depositional model The depositional sequence is bounded below and above by subaerial
unconformities (Fig. 7). The lower sequence boundary (SB1) is at the base of the upper
431
Iruí coal bed and records an abrupt contact between the coal facies (F1) and the
432
underlying structureless/laminated siltstones (F2 and F3). Root marks and blocky
433
texture in the underlying siltstone facies likely indicate subaerial exposure. As showed
434
in Figure 2 and described by Gandini et al. (2010), the SB1 marks the contact between
435
lagoonal and swampy depositional environment.
SC
RI PT
430
The upper sequence boundary (SB2) records the contact between marine
437
deposits below (F6-F9) and coastal (F2-F5) or shallow marine above in the BB’ section
438
(Fig. 7B). The same contact is seen in some of the AA’ section cores. The deposition of
439
coastal facies overlying marine facies records a coastline regression. A sharp and
440
erosive contact between coastal (F2 and F3) deposits below and shallow marine (F6-F9)
441
above records a transgressive surface (TS), more specifically the wave ravinement
442
surface. Considering the gamma ray log shape and the stacking pattern of facies a
443
maximum flooding surface (MFS) is identified in the upper portion of the depositional
444
sequence. The change between the lower retrogradational and the upper progradational
445
stacking pattern in the sandy barrier succession marks the MFS and records the most
446
extensive marine incursion in this depositional sequence.
TE D
EP
AC C
447
M AN U
436
Facies succession between SB1 and MFS records the transgressive systems tract
448
and facies succession between MFS and SB2 the highstand systems tract. In the
449
transgressive systems tract, the stacking pattern of facies is retrogradational with facies
450
deposited in even more marine and deep conditions towards the top. In the highstand
451
systems tract, the low thicknesses preserved prevent the recognition of the stacking
18
19
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 452 453
pattern. The elongated and widespread coal bed and the vertical succession of facies indicate that deposition took place in a swamps environment in a protected coastal area.
455
Nodules of pyrite indicate occasional seawater incursion, e.g. through tidal inlets or
456
washover fans formed during storms (cf. McCabe 1984) although these features were
457
not identified in the study area. Based on that, the SW-NE coal bed orientation likely
458
indicates the coastline position.
The structureless and laminated siltstone facies that are laterally correlated and
SC
459
RI PT
454
overlies the coal facies were deposited in a lagoon and records an increase in the
461
sediment influx and ventilation conditions (increase in the concentration of oxygen in
462
water) that prevents the continuous establishment of the peat-forming environment. The
463
sediment supply and oxygen increase can be explained by the presence of inlets that had
464
segmented the sandy barrier, thus changing the previous sheltered environment into a
465
wave- and tide-influenced one, or by the climatic condition that supplied more sediment
466
from the river run-off.
TE D
M AN U
460
The parallel to sub-horizontal lamination quartz sandstone, trough cross-bedded
468
quartz sandstone, bioturbated heterolithic sandstone and hummocky cross-stratification
469
quartz sandstone facies are interpreted as foreshore to shoreface/offshore-transition
470
during storm conditions deposits. This facies, as explained before, comprehends the
471
sandy barrier system, which has a thickness ranging between 3.6 m (IC-045-RS) and
472
10.7 m (IB-10-RS) and abruptly overlies the siltstone and/or coal facies. The sandy
473
barrier is locally eroded by tide-influenced channel bars in section AA’ and in the
474
northwest of section BB’, which likely indicate the barrier segmentation by tidal inlets.
475 476
AC C
EP
467
The sedimentary facies characteristics and lateral and vertical successions suggest a depositional environment consisting of a beach barrier and a protected back-
19
20
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT barrier lagoon, belonging to a barrier-lagoon system. The stratigraphic reconstruction
478
shows the establishment of a barrier-island system and landward migration due to
479
increasing accommodation space. The coastal area was influenced by the combination
480
of wave and tidal processes although wave processes predominated to develop extensive
481
sandy barrier strandplain.
RI PT
477
482
484
4.4.
Forward stratigraphic model
During the processes of stratigraphic simulation, a relative sea level curve was
SC
483
established for the deposition of the analyzed succession, the result of the balance
486
between the sediment supply and accommodation space (Fig. 8). The relative sea level
487
rose 16 m during the sequence deposition simulation, with rates ranging from 0 to 10
488
m/Ma. This assumption was made based on the total amount of preserved thickness in
489
the depositional sequence and the estimated interval time, therefore has a relatively low
490
degree of stratigraphic resolution. The relative sea level rise and the sediment supply
491
controlled the formation of the barrier-lagoon system and further barrier island
492
landward migration.
TE D
The coal facies was formed in a back-barrier environment widespread over an
EP
493
M AN U
485
area of 32 km in the SW-NE direction and 5 km in the NW-SE (Fig. 9A). The estimated
495
peat production rate was 30 m/Ma, the equivalent of 15 m during 500 ka (the time
496
interval simulated for peat deposition), which corresponds with the maximum depth of
497
peat generation (5 m) transformed by the adopted rate 3:1 (5 m coal = 15 m peat) (Ryer
498
and Langer, 1980; Courel, 1987). Peat was deposited during the transgressive systems
499
tract and total peat accumulation was controlled by the 5 m relative sea level rise during
500
500 ka (sea level rise rate of 1 cm/ka). The peat-bearing environment was probably
501
developed in the borders of a coastal lagoon, which is preserved only in the core CA-
AC C
494
20
21
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 502
40-RS (BB’, Fig. 7), recorded in the laminated/structureless siltstones facies laterally
503
correlated with the upper Iruí coal bed. At this time, the lagoon is outside the studied
504
area and was not simulated. The lagoon environment, where the laminated/structureless siltstone facies was
505
likely deposited, was simulated until reaching the preserved thickness of siltstone in the
507
stratigraphic sections (Fig. 9B). The distribution of siltstone facies over the upper Iruí
508
coal bed suggests that sediment was supplied from the northeast. However, only this
509
source was not sufficient to distribute the sediments, being necessary to add another
510
source to the simulation. Considering that this source is continental, it was positioned in
511
the southwest, since there are tidal channels near that are filled with arkosic sandstones.
512
Furthermore, there are sandstones (or even conglomerates) directly overlying the Upper
513
Iruí coal bed in some boreholes (IB-097-RS, IB-098-RS, and IB-157-RS) which are out
514
of the stratigraphic section, but inside coal bed area, indicating a probable fluvial
515
source.
SC
M AN U
TE D
516
RI PT
506
In order to establish values for discharge (in m³/s), it was considered a system with low flow due to the existence of peat initially and after the predominance of
518
siltstones. Thus, values below 250 m³/s were tested and the values that generated the
519
best result of sedimentary distribution were used. The best result was obtained
520
considering a balance between marine (source northeast seawater discharge = 110 m3/s)
521
and a continental (fluvial discharge = 100 m3/s) source. To simulate the siltstone facies
522
deposition and the lagoon system evolution, we considered 3 m relative sea level rise
523
during 500 ka (0.6 cm/ka). Although the preserved sediment corresponds to 0.9
524
km³/Ma, the best result was achieved with 0.8 km³/Ma (corresponding to 0.4 km³ of
525
sediment supplied during the time interval simulated).
526
AC C
EP
517
Sandy barrier was simulated considering the continuous increase in the relative
21
22
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT sea level during the transgressive systems tract, and a relative sea level still stand,
528
recorded in the highstand systems tract (Fig. 9C, 9D). The sandy barrier thickness
529
preserved in the geologic record reached 10.7 m (IB-10-RS). The forward stratigraphic
530
model shows the barrier transgression over 1 Ma and producing a similar thickness as
531
presented in the sedimentary record. The sandy barrier is composed mainly of quartz
532
sandstone transported onshore and secondarily by arkosic sandstone (tide-influenced
533
fluvial sediments) deriving from continental sources. The 3.9 km³/Ma of sediment
534
supplied and the relative sea level rise of 8 m during 1 Ma (0.8 cm/ka) caused a barrier
535
island landward shift of 9 km.
SC
RI PT
527
The resulting sedimentary succession is shown in Figure 10. In the simulated
M AN U
536
sections, sandy sediments are not differentiated by composition. The simulated sections,
538
as well as the stratigraphic sections, first show the migration of the barrier-lagoon
539
system landwards and seawards. This landward migration, according to the model,
540
occurred during about 1.6 Ma, when the progradation of the barrier began at the
541
maximum sea level ingression, corresponding with the flooding surface. The
542
transgressive surface shows the overlap of marine sediments on to the underlying
543
lagoonal deposits.
EP
TE D
537
Erosive processes were not simulated, but the resulting forward stratigraphic
544
model shows the sediment distribution and succession similar to the stratigraphic
546
model. Especially the siltstones are shown thicker in the simulating boreholes compared
547
to real boreholes (Fig. 11). Since the absence of erosion produced thicker successions
548
than the sedimentary record, this difference can indicate, in a simplified way, the
549
erosion occurred during the relative sea level rise.
AC C
545
550 551
5.
Discussion
22
23
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 552
The simulated stratigraphic sections (Fig. 10) are similar to the stratigraphic sections (Fig. 7) when considering the sediment distribution both vertically and
554
laterally. The sediment supply in the best scenario (0.8 km³/Ma for the back-barrier
555
system and 3.9 km³/Ma for the sandy barrier) corresponds with more than 80% of the
556
estimated from the sedimentary record (0.9 km³/Ma and 4.6 km³/Ma, respectively).
557
After the drowning of the lagoon, the barrier moved seawards while the relative sea
558
level was rising at increasingly lower rates and there was a positive balance of
559
sediments, corresponding with the highstand systems tract.
SC
560
RI PT
553
Continuous and less continuous thick coal beds are usually deposited during the middle transgressive systems tract when accommodation space is high (Bohac and
562
Suter, 1997). However, in the stratigraphic model, peat was likely deposited during the
563
early transgressive systems tract, first in the morphologically depressed sectors of the
564
investigated area and then over a larger area during the late relative sea level rise. This
565
suggests that even at lower rates of relative sea level rise, the amount of organic matter
566
allowed the generation of peat early in TST. The upper Iruí coal bed has high mineral
567
content indicating that during peat formation sediments were deposited in the peat-
568
forming environment. This indicates the peat-forming environment was located on the
569
border of a lagoon next to the sandy barrier, thus receiving sporadically sediments from
570
the barrier.
TE D
EP
AC C
571
M AN U
561
The estimated relative sea level curve (Fig. 8) was constructed from data
572
extracted from the facies thickness, considering that the sediment deposition in coastal
573
and marine environments are mainly controlled by relative sea level changes and,
574
subordinately, by sediment discharge from river run-off, alongshore transport and by in
575
situ sediment production. However, these additional elements have not been taking into
576
account, for simplicity. The curve was refined through modeling by trial and error
23
24
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 577
during successive simulations in DIONISOS®. Despite the rate of the sea level rise
578
reduction hypothesized after the accumulation of the peat (1 cm/ka for 0.6/ka), the
579
interruption of its deposition can be explained by the increase of the sedimentary supply
580
compared to accommodation. In coastal environments with gentle slopes, sediment deposition can be
RI PT
581
controlled by many factors, but in this simulation, it was observed that the main
583
controlling factors are relative sea level change and sediment supply, once the
584
subsidence was not considered as input parameter. DIONISOS® software was originally
585
developed for deltaic and shelf environment simulation, both with significant slopes.
586
However, this software simulates long-term basin scale sediment distribution in large-
587
scale, what is crucial in this case. As seen from the simulation results, relative sea level
588
change controlled the barrier island landward migration over the lagoon deposits.
589
Therefore, this result is in accordance with the depositional history recorded in the
590
sedimentary succession. The forward stratigraphic simulation, not even considering the
591
erosion, displays a similar sediments distribution as in the stratigraphic section,
592
although the thickness is slightly different.
M AN U
TE D
Results presented here can be applied to the construction of system
EP
593
SC
582
understanding in intracratonic sedimentary basins such as the Paraná basin, especially in
595
wave-dominated paleocoastlines. A better understanding of environments helps set the
596
evolutionary history of basins, including processes and products generated during their
597
formation. Economically, depositional sequences are better understood associated with
598
deposits such as coal, greater optimization of economic viability and exploration
599
studies. These facies associations are found all over the world, being a matter of general
600
interest, because a large part of coal deposits is found associated with barrier-lagoon.
AC C
594
601
24
25
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 602 603
6.
Conclusions Forward stratigraphic simulation applied to the stratigraphic succession
preserved in the subsurface of the Paraná Basin shows that a possible scenario that
605
explains the formation and preservation of a barrier-lagoon system during a relative sea
606
level rise of 16 m. The analyzed stratigraphic interval of the Rio Bonito Formation was
607
strongly influenced by waves, which controlled the longshore drift and thus the
608
sediment distribution along the coast. Both marine and fluvial flows have significant
609
control in the sediment distribution, as well as the depositional surface slope, sediment
610
supply, and relative sea level change.
SC
Stratigraphic modeling contributed to the understanding of the processes
M AN U
611
RI PT
604
controlling the Rio Bonito Formation barrier-lagoon system evolution through time,
613
focusing on the estimation of the relative sea level rise and the likely location of the
614
sediment sources. The model shows that clastic sedimentary supply derives initially
615
from continental and marine sources, which are equally important and, later, almost
616
exclusively from marine sources (e.g., alongshore transport and flood-tidal deltas
617
entering through tidal inlets breaching the barrier). Competition between marine and
618
continental environments is visualized along the sea level curve created during the
619
modeling, as time steps progress.
EP
AC C
620
TE D
612
Stratigraphic modeling is a powerful tool to reconstruct sedimentary settings and
621
estimate specific conditions that are not preserved in the geological record. Although
622
stratigraphic modeling, as such as other modeling approaches, presupposes a
623
simplification of the reality, the obtained model is satisfactory to explain the presented
624
questions. Thus, the results and interpretations addressed in this study may clarify issues
625
not only regarding the evolution of the barrier-lagoon systems of the Rio Bonito
626
Formation, in the Paraná Basin, but also in similar contexts of other basins. 25
26
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 627
Acknowledgments
629
This article is the result of the master's thesis of the first author developed in the
630
Graduate Program in Geology of the Unisinos University (Universidade do Vale do Rio
631
dos Sinos) and supported by CAPES/PROSUP and FAPERGS [ARD/PPP 16/2551-
632
000274-6]. The authors thank the Brazilian Geological Survey (CPRM) for permission
633
to cores description and Léo Afraneo Hartmann for his contributions.
RI PT
628
636
References
Alves, R.G., Ade, M.V.B., 1996. Sequence stratigraphy and coal petrography applied to
M AN U
635
SC
634
637
the Candiota Coal Field, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil: A depositional model.
638
International Journal of Coal Geology, 30, 231-248.
640 641
Beicip-Franlab. 2009. Training guide for Dionisos 3.0 Industrial Version: 3D basin modeling. Beicip-Franlab, Paris, 137 p.
TE D
639
Boardman, D., Souza, P.A., Iannuzzi, R., Mori, A.L.O., 2013. Paleobotany and palynology of the Rio Bonito Formation (Lower Permian, Paraná Basin, Brazil)
643
at the Quitéria Outcrop. Ameghiniana, 49, 451-472.
EP
642
Bohacs, K.M., Suter, J., 1997. Sequence stratigraphic distribution of coaly rocks:
645
Fundamental controls and examples. American Association of Petroleum
646
AC C
644
Geologists Bulletin, 81, 1612-1639.
647
Borren, W., Bleuten, W., Lapshina, E.D. Holocene peat and carbon accumulation rates
648
in the southern taiga of western Siberia. Quaternary Research, 61, 42-51.
649
Bortoluzzi, C.A., Awdziej, J., Zardo, S.M., 1987. Geologia da Bacia do Paraná em
650
Santa Catarina. In: Silva, L.C., Bortoluzzi, C.A. (Eds.), Textos básicos de
651
geologia e recursos minerais de Santa Catarina - Mapa geológico do Estado de
26
27
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 652
Santa Catarina escala 1:50.000: texto explicativo e mapa. Departamento
653
Nacional de Produção Mineral, Brasil, 135-167.
654 655
Boyd, R., Dalrymple, R., Zaitlin, B.A., 1992. Classification of clastic coastal depositional environments. Sedimentary Geology, 80, 139–150. Buatois, L.A., Netto, R.G., Mángano, M.G., 2001. Reinterpretación paleoambiental de
657
la Formación Rio Bonito (Pérmico de la Cuenca de Paraná) en el yacimiento de
658
carbón de Iruí, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil: integración de análisis de fácies,
659
icnología y estratigrafia secuencial de alta resolución. Geogaceta, 29, 27-30.
SC
660
RI PT
656
Buatois, L.A., Netto, R.G., Mangano, M.G., 2007. Ichnology of Permian marginal- to shallow-marine coal-bearing successions: Rio Bonito and Palermo Formations,
662
Paraná Basin, Brazil. In: MacEachern, J.A., Bann, K.L., Gingras, M.K.,
663
Pemberton, S.G. (Eds.), Applied Ichnology e SEPM Short Course Notes. SEPM,
664
Tulsa, 167-178.
M AN U
661
Cacela, A.S.M., 2008. Paleoclima e dinâmica costeira como fatores controladores da
666
distribuição de arenitos em sistemas parálicos – Um estudo para reservatórios
667
análogos no Eopermiano da Bacia do Paraná. Master thesis, UFRGS University. Cagliari, J., 2014. Contexto deposicional e modelagem estratigráfica direta dos
EP
668
TE D
665
depósitos sedimentares Permocarboníferos nas jazidas de carvão Capané e Iruí
670
Central (Formação Rio Bonito, Bacia do Paraná). Ph.D. thesis, UNISINOS
671 672
AC C
669
University.
Cagliari, J., Tognoli, F.M.W., Lavina, E.L.C., 2014. Influência dos controles externos
673
na deposição da Formação Rio Bonito na borda sudeste da Bacia do Paraná: uma
674
análise a partir da modelagem estratigráfica direta. In: Contexto deposicional e
675
modelagem estratigráfica direta dos depósitos sedimentares Permocarboníferos
676
nas jazidas de carvão Capané e Iruí Central (Formação Rio Bonito, Bacia do
27
28
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 677 678
Paraná). PPG Universidade do Vale dos Sinos, Brasil, 188-216. Cagliari, J., Philipp, R.P., Buso, V.V., Netto, R.G., Hillebrand, P.K., Lopes R. da C., Basei, M.A.S., Faccini, U.F., 2016. Age constraints of the glaciation in the
680
Parana Basin: evidence from new U-Pb dates. Journal of the Geological Society,
681
173, 871-874.
RI PT
679
Castro, M.R., Perinotto, J.A.J., Castro, J.C., 1999. Fácies, análise estratigráfica e
683
evolução pós-glacial do Membro Triunfo/Formação Rio Bonito, na faixa
684
subaflorante do norte catarinense. Revista Brasileira de Geociências, 29, 533-
685
538.
687
Christofoletti, A., 1999. Modelagem de Sistemas Ambientais, Edgard Blücher, São
M AN U
686
SC
682
Paulo.
688
Clifton, H.E., 1969. Beach lamination: nature and origin. Marine Geology, 7, 553-559.
689
Collinson, J.D., 1996. Alluvial sediments. In: Reading, H.G. (Ed.), Sedimentary Environments: Process, Facies and Stratigraphy. Blackwell Science, Oxford, 37-
691
82.
694 695
and Hall, London.
EP
693
Collinson, J.D., Thompson, D.B., 1989. Sedimentary structures, second ed. Chapman
Collinson, J.D., Mountney, N., Thompson, D.B., 2006. Sedimentary Structures, third ed. Dunedin Academic Press, United Kingdom.
AC C
692
TE D
690
696
Companhia de Pesquisa de Recursos Minerais (CPRM), 1980. Projeto Iruí/Butiá, Bloco
697
Iruí, Carvão Mineral: Relatório Final de Pesquisa, Alvarás n° 2396, 2397, 2471,
698 699
3835, 3956, 3957, 3996, 3997/77 e 7957/78. DNPM/CPRM, Porto Alegre. Companhia de Pesquisa de Recursos Minerais (CPRM), 1983. Projeto Iruí/Butiá Área
700
Cordilheira: Relatório Final de Pesquisa, Alvarás nº 2573, 4616/80.
701
DNPM/CPRM, Porto Alegre, 2v.
28
29
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 702 703
Corrêa da Silva, Z.C., 2004. Coal facies studies in Brazil: a short review. International Journal of Coal Geology, 58, 119-124. Courel, L. 1987. Stages in the compaction of peat; examples from the Stephanian and
705
Permian of the Massif Central, France. Journal of the Geological Society, 144,
706
489-493.
707
RI PT
704
Csato, I., Granjeon, D., Catuneanu, O., Baum, G.R. 2013. A three-dimensional
stratigraphic model for the Messianian crisis in the Pannonian Basin, eastern
709
Hungary. Basin Research, 25, 121-148.
711 712
Cúneo, N.R., 1996. Permian phytogeography in Gondwana. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 125, 75-104.
M AN U
710
SC
708
Dargie, G.C., Lewis, S.L., Lawson, I.T., Mitchard, E.T.A., Page, S.E., Bocko, Y.E.,
713
Ifo,A.A. Age, extend and carbon storage of central Congo Basin peatland
714
complex. Nature, 542, 86-90.
716
Davis, R.A., 1994. Geology of Holocene barrier island systems, Springer-Verlag, New York.
TE D
715
Dott, R.H.Jr., Bourgeois, J., 1982. Hummocky stratification: Significance of its variable
718
bedding sequences. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 93, 663-680.
720 721 722
Embry, A.F., 1993. Transgressive–regressive (T–R) sequence analysis of the Jurassic succession of the Sverdrup basin, Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Canadian
AC C
719
EP
717
Journal of Earth Sciences, 30, 301–320.
Embry, A.F., Johannessen, E.P., 1992. T–R sequence stratigraphy, facies analysis and
723
reservoir distribution in the uppermost Triassic- Lower Jurassic succession,
724
western Sverdrup basin, Arctic Canada. In: Vorren, T.O., Bergsager, E., Dahl-
725
Stamnes, O.A., Holter, E., Johansen, B., Lie, E., Lund, T.B. (Eds.), Arctic
726
Geology and Petroleum Potential, Special Publication. Norwegian Petroleum
29
30
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 727
Society, Norway, 121–146.
728
Faccini, U.F., 2007. Tectonic and climatic induced changes in depositional styles of the
729
Mesozoic sedimentary record of Southern Parana Basin, Brazil. In: Problems in
730
Western Gondwana Geology I, Gramado, 42–45. Faccini, U.F., Giardin, A., Garcia, A.J.V., Machado, J.L.F., 2003.
RI PT
731
Megaheterogeneidades e hidroestratigrafia do Aqüífero Guarani na região de
733
SantaMaria (RS). In: Paim, P.S.G., Faccini, U.F., Netto, R.G. (Eds.), Geometria,
734
arquitetura e heterogeneidade de corpos sedimentares: estudo de casos. Unisinos,
735
São Leopoldo, 78-92.
738 739 740
M AN U
737
Ferreira, J.A.F., Süfert, T., Santos, A.P., 1978. Projeto Carvão no Rio Grande do Sul: Relatório Final. DNPM/CPRM, Porto Alegre, 16v.
Figueroa, I., Dias, A. de A., 1983. Projeto Carvão na Área do Iruí: Relatório Final. DNPM/CPRM, Porto Alegre, 5v.
Franco, D. R., Ernesto, M., Ponte-Neto, C. F., Hinnov, L. A., Berquo, T. S., Fabris, J.
TE D
736
SC
732
D., Rosie, C. A., 2012. Magnetostratigraphy and mid-palaeolatitude VGP
742
dispersion during the Permo-Carboniferous Superchron: results from Parana ́
743
Basin (Southern Brazil) rhythmites. Geophysical Journal International, 191, 993-
744
1014.
746 747 748
França, A.D., Potter, P.E., 1988. Estratigrafia, ambiente deposicional e análise de
AC C
745
EP
741
reservatório do Grupo Itararé (Permocarbonífero), Bacia do Paraná (parte I). BoI. Geoc. Petrobrás, 2, 147-191.
Frey, R.W., Basan, P., 1985. Coastal Salt Marshes. In: Davis, R.A. (Ed.), Coastal
749
sedimentary environments. Spring-Verlag, Massachusetts, 101-169.
750
Gandini, R., 2010. Assinaturas icnológicas da sucessão sedimentar Rio Bonito no
751
bloco central da jazida carbonífera de Iruí, Cachoeira do Sul (RS). Master thesis,
30
31
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 752 753
UNISINOS University. Gandini, R., Netto, R.G., Kern, H.P., Lavina, E.L.C., 2010. Assinaturas icnológicas da
754
sucessão sedimentar Rio Bonito no bloco central da jazida carbonífera de Iruí,
755
Cachoeira do Sul (RS). Gaea, 6, 21-43.
757 758
Gomes, A.P., Ferreira, J.A.F., Albuquerque, L.F., Süffert, T., 1998. Carvão Fóssil.
RI PT
756
Estudos Avançados, 12, 89-106.
Gordon Jr., M.J., 1947. Classificação das formações gondwânicas do Paraná, Santa Catarina e Rio Grande do Sul. Notas Preliminares e Estudos da Divisão de
760
Geologia e Mineralogia do DNPM, 38, 1-20.
Granjeon, D., 2014. 3D forward modelling of the impact of sediment transport and
M AN U
761
SC
759
762
base level cycles on continental margins and incised valleys. Int. Assoc.
763
Sedimentol. Spec. Publ., 46, 453–472.
764
Harms, J.C., Southard, J.B., Spearing, D.R., Walker, R.G., 1975. Depositional environments as interpreted from primary sedimentary structures and
766
stratification sequences, first ed. Society of Economic Paleontologists and
767
Mineralogists, Dallas.
TE D
765
Hayes, M.O., 1975. Morphology of sand accumulation in estuaries: an introduction to
769
the symposium. In: Eugene Cronin, L. (Ed.), Estuarine Research. Geology and
770
engineering. Academic Press, New York, 3–22.
772 773
AC C
771
EP
768
Heward, A.P., 1981. A review of wave-dominated clastic shoreline deposits. Earth-Sci. Rev., 17, 223-276.
Holz, M., 2003. Sequence stratigraphy of a lagoonal estuarine system - an example from
774
the lower Permian Rio Bonito Formation, Paraná Basin, Brazil. Sedimentary
775
Geology, 162, 305–331.
776
Holz, M., Kalkreuth, W., Banerjee, I., 2002. Sequence stratigraphy of paralic coal-
31
32
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 777
bearing strata: an overview. International Journal of Coal Geology, Amsterdam,
778
48, 1– 33.
779
Holz, M., Souza, P.A., Ianuzzi, R., 2008. Sequence stratigraphy and biostratigraphy of the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian glacial succession (Itararé Subgroup) at
781
the eastern-southeastern margin of the Paraná Basin, Brazil. Geological Society
782
of America Special, 441, 115–129.
784 785
Huang, Z., Gradstein, F., 1990. Depth-porosity relationship from deep sea sediments. Sci. Drill., 1, 157-162.
SC
783
RI PT
780
Ianuzzi, R., 2013. The Carboniferous-Permian floral transition in the Paraná Basin. In: Lucas, S.G., DiMichele, W.A., Barrick, J.E., Schneider, J.A., Spielmann, J.A.
787
(Eds.), The Carboniferous-Permian Transition. Museum of Natural History and
788
Science, New Mexico, 132-136.
789
M AN U
786
Kalkreuth, W., Holz, M., Mexias, A., Balbinot, M., Levandowski, J., Willett, J., Finkelman, R., Burger, H., 2010. Depositional setting, petrology and chemistry
791
of Permian coals from the Paraná Basin: South Santa Catarina Coalfield, Brazil.
792
International Journal of Coal Geology, 84, 213–236. Kern, H.P., 2008. Arquitetura estratigráfica de corpos arenosos gerados por ondas e
EP
793
TE D
790
marés no Bloco Central da Mina do Iruí (Formação Rio Bonito, eopermiano da
795
Bacia do Paraná, RS). Master thesis, UNISINOS University.
AC C
794
796
Kjerfve, B., 1994. Coastal lagoons. Elsevier Oceanography Series, 60, 1–8.
797
Kraft, J.C., Chrzastowski, M.J., 1985. Coastal stratigraphic sequences. In: Davis, R.A.
798
(Ed.), Coastal sedimentary environments. Spring-Verlag, Massachusetts, 187-
799
224.
800 801
Lavina, E.L., Nowatzki, C.H., Santos, M.A.A., Leão, H.Z., 1985. Ambientes de sedimentação do Super-Grupo Tubarão na região de Cachoeira do Sul. Acta
32
33
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 802 803
Geolog. Leopoldensia, 9, 5-75. Lavina, E.L.C., Lopes, R.C., 1987. A Transgressão Marinha do Permiano Inferior e a
804
Evolução Paleogeográfica do Supergrupo Tubarão no Estado do Rio Grande do
805
Sul. Paula-Coutiana, 1, 51-103. Lopes, R.C., 1995. Arcabouço aloestratigráfico para o intervalo “Rio Bonito Palermo”
RI PT
806 807
(Eopermiano da Bacia do Paraná), entre Butiá e São Sepé, Rio Grande do Sul.
808
Master thesis, UNISINOS University.
Lopes, R.C., Lavina, E.L.C., 2001. Estratigrafia de sequências nas formações Rio
SC
809
Bonito e Parlermo (Bacia do Paraná), na região carbonífera do Jacuí, Rio Grande
811
do Sul. In: Ribeiro, H.J.P.S. (Eds.), Estratigrafia de Sequências: Fundamentos e
812
Aplicações. Edunisinos, São Leopoldo, 391-419.
813
M AN U
810
Lopes, R.C., Faccini, U.F., Paim, P.S.G., Garcia, A.J.V., Lavina, E.L., 2003a. Barras de maré na formação Rio Bonito: elementos arquiteturais e geometria dos corpos
815
(Iruí e Capané - RS). In: Paim, P.S.G., Faccini, U.F., Netto, R.G. (Eds.),
816
Geometria, arquitetura e heterogeneidade de corpos sedimentares: estudo de
817
casos. Unisinos, São Leopoldo, 78 -92. Lopes, R.C., Lavina, E.L., Paim, P.S.G., Goldberg, K., 2003b. Controle estratigráfico e
EP
818
TE D
814
deposicional da gênese dos carvões da região do Rio Jacuí (RS). In: Paim,
820
P.S.G., Faccini, U.F., Netto, R.G. (Eds.), Geometria, arquitetura e
821 822 823
AC C
819
heterogeneidade de corpos sedimentares: estudo de casos. Unisinos, São Leopoldo, 187-206.
Lopes, R.C., Paim, P.S.G., Lavina, E.L., 2003c. Modelo de reservatório em arenitos
824
litorâneos: ilha de barreira Permiana na Formação Rio Bonito (Minas do Leão -
825
RS). In: Paim, P.S.G., Faccini, U.F., Netto, R.G. (Eds.), Geometria, arquitetura e
826
heterogeneidade de corpos sedimentares: estudo de casos. Unisinos, São
33
34
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 827 828
Leopoldo, 60-77. Matos, S.L.F., Yamamoto, J.K., Hachiro, J., Coimbra, A.M., 2000. Tonsteins da
829
Formação Rio Bonito no depósito de carvão Candiota, RS. Revista Brasileira de
830
Geociências, 30, 679-684.
832 833
McCabe, P.J., 1984. Depositional envinronments of coal and coal-bearing strata. Spec.
RI PT
831
Publs int. Ass. Sediment., 7, 13-42.
McCubbin, D.G., 1982. Barrier-Island and Strand-Plain Facies. In: Scholle, P.A., Spearing, D. (Eds.), Sandstone Depositional Environments. American
835
Association of Petroleum Geologist, Tulsa, 247-279.
837 838
Miall, A.D., 1977. A review of the braided river depositional environment. Earth Science Reviews, 13, 1-62.
M AN U
836
SC
834
Milani, E.J., 1997. Evolução tectono-estratigráfica da Bacia do Paraná e seu relacionamento com a geodinâmica fanerozóica do Gondwana sul-ocidental.
840
Ph.D. thesis, UFRGS University.
841 842
TE D
839
Milani, E.J., Melo, J.H.G., Souza, P.A., Fernandes, L.A., França, A.B., 2007. Bacia do Paraná. Boletim de Geociências da Petrobrás, 8, 69-82. Mulhern, J.S., Johnson, C.L., Martin, J.M., 2017. Is barrier island morphology a
844
function of tidal and wave regime? Marine Geology, 387, 74-84.
846 847 848
Netto, R.G., 2001. Icnologia e Estratigrafia de Sequências. In: Ribeiro, H.J.P.S. (Ed.),
AC C
845
EP
843
Estratigrafia de Sequências: Fundamentos e Aplicações. Edunisinos, São Leopoldo, 219-259.
Netto, R.G., Tognoli, F.M.W., Gandini, R., Lima, J.H.D., Gibert, J.M., Bosetti, E.P.,
849
2012. Ichnology of the Phanerozoic Deposits of Southern Brazil: Synthetic
850
Review. In: Netto, R.G., Carmona, N.B., Tognoli, F.M.W. (Eds.), Ichnology of
851
Latin America - Selected Papers. Sociedade Brasileira de Geologia, Porto
34
35
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
853 854 855 856
Alegre, 37-68. Nichols, M.M., 1989. Sediment accumulation rates and relative sea-level rise in lagoons. Marine Geology, 88, 201-219. Nirmala Khandan, N., 2002. Modeling tools for environmental engineers and scientists, CRC Press LLC, Florida.
RI PT
852
Pemberton, S.G., Spila, M., Pulham, A.J., Saunders, T., MacEachern, J.A., Robbins, D.,
858
Sinclair, I.K., 2001. Ichnology and sedimentology of shallow to marginal marine
859
systems: Ben Nevis and Avalon reservoirs, Jeanne D’Arc Basin, Geological
860
Association of Canada Short Course Notes, St John’s.
Rahmani, R.A., 1988. Estuarine tidal channel and nearshore sedimentation of a Late
M AN U
861
SC
857
862
Cretaceous epicontinental sea, Drumheller, Alberta, Canada. In: Boer, P.L., Van
863
Gelder, A., Nio, S.D. (Eds.), Tide-Influenced Sedimentary Environments and
864
Facies. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Holland, 433-471.
866 867
Reineck, H.E., Singh, I.B., 1986. Depositional sedimentary environments with reference
TE D
865
to terrigenous clastics, second ed. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Reinson, G.E., 1984. Barrier island and associated strand-plain systems. In: Walker, R.G. (Ed.), Facies Models. Geological Association of Canada , Toronto, 119-
869
140.
871 872 873
Reinson, G.E., 1992. Transgressive barrier island and estuarine systems. In: Walker,
AC C
870
EP
868
R.G., James, N.P. (Eds.), Facies Models - Response to Sea Level Change. Geological Association of Canada Publications, Canada, 179-194.
Ryer, T. A., Langer, A. W., 1980. Thickness change involved in the peat-to-coal
874
transformation for a bituminous coal of Cretaceous age in central Utah. Journal
875
of Sedimentary Petrology, 50, 987-992.
876
Rocha-Campos, A.C., 1967. The Tubarão group in the Brazilian portion of the Paraná
35
36
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 877 878 879 880
basin. Problems in Brazilian Gondwana Geology, 27-102. Rocha-Campos, A.C., Santos, P.R., Canuto, J.R., 2008. Late Paleozoic glacial deposits of Brazil: Paraná Basin. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 441, 97-114. Schneider, R.L., Mühlmann, H., Tommasi, I.E., Medeiros, R.S., Daemon, R.F., Nogueira, A.A., 1974. Revisão estratigráfica da Bacia do Paraná. In: XXVIII
882
Congresso Brasileiro de Geologia, Porto Alegre, 41-66.
883
RI PT
881
Sclater, J.G., Christie, P.A.F., 1980. Continental stretching: Na explanation of the postmid-Cretaceous subsidence of the Central North Sea Basin. Journal Geophysical
885
Research, 85, 3711-3739.
Seard, C., Borgomano, J., Granjeon, D., Camoin, G. Impact of environmental
M AN U
886
SC
884
887
parameters on coral reef development and drowning: forward modeling on the
888
last deglacial reefs from Tahiti (French Polynesia, IODP Expedition #310).
889
Sedimentology, 60, 1357-1388.
Schafie, K.R., Madon, M. 2008. A review of stratigraphic simulation techniques and
TE D
890 891
their applications in sequence stratigraphy and basin analysis. Geological
892
Society of Malaysia, 54, 81-89.
Slonski, G.T., 2002. Interpretação paleoclimática do Permiano Inferior da Bacia do
EP
893
Paraná em Santa Catarina, Brasil (Formação Rio Bonito). Master thesis, UFSC
895
University.
AC C
894
896
Smith, D.B., 1988. Bypassing of sand over sand waves and through a sand wave field in
897
the central region of the southern North Sea. In: Boer, P.L., Van Gelder, A., Nio,
898
S.D. (Eds.), Tide-Influenced Sedimentary Environments and Facies. D. Reidel
899
Publishing Company, Holland, 39-50.
900 901
Tognoli, F.M.W., Netto, R.G., 2003. Ichnological signature of paleozoic estuarine deposits from the Rio Bonito-Palermo succession, eastern Paraná Basin, Brazil.
36
37
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 902 903
Asociación Paleontológica Argentina, 1, 141-155. Vail, P.R., Audemard, F., Bowman, S.A., Eisner, P.N., Perez-Cruz, G., 1991. The stratigraphic signature of tectonics, eustasy and sedimentation: An overview. In:
905
Einsele, G., Ricker, W., Seilacher, A. (Eds.), Cycles and Events in Stratigraphy.
906
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 617-659.
907
RI PT
904
Walker, R., 1992. Facies, facies models and modern stratigraphic concepts. In: Walker, R.G., James, N.P. (Eds.), Facies Models - Response to Sea Level Change.
909
Geological Association of Canada Publications, Canadá, 1-14.
911 912
Wentworth, C.K., 1992. A Scale of Grade and Class Terms for Clastic Sediments. The Journal of Geology, 30, 377-392.
M AN U
910
SC
908
Zerfass, H., Lavina, E.L., Schultz, C.L., Garcia, A.J.V., Faccini, U.F., Chemale Jr., F., 2003. Sequence-stratigraphy of continental strata of Southernmost Brazil: a
914
contribution to Southwestern Gondwana palaeogeography and palaeoclimate.
915
Sedimentary Geology, 161, 85-105.
916
TE D
913
Ziegler, A.M., Raymond, A.L., Gierlowski, T.C., Horrell, M.A., Rowley, D.B., Lottes, A.L., 1987. Coal, climate and terrestrial productivity: the present and early
918
Cretaceous compared. Geological Society, 32, 25-49.
920 921
TABLE CAPTIONS
AC C
919
EP
917
922
Table 1 – Input data of stratigraphic simulation.
923
Table 2 – Summary of sedimentary facies of Rio Bonito Formation in analyzed
924
depositional sequence.
925 926
FIGURE CAPTIONS
37
38
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 927
Figure 1 – A: Study area located in the southern Paraná Basin; B: Detailed study area
929
with cores and stratigraphic sections (white section is from Cagliari, 2014, see Fig. 2);
930
Insert figure shows the location in South America; C: Paleogeographic map of the
931
eastern border of the Paraná Basin (Lavina and Lopes, 1987).
932
Figure 2 – Capané-Iruí stratigraphic section with third-order depositional sequences
933
according to Lopes (1995) and fourth-order depositional sequence, which is the focus of
934
this study (adapted from Cagliari, 2014).
935
Figure 3 – Paleobathymetric map for the studied area prior to coal deposition. The NE-
936
SW direction is parallel to the paleocoastline.
937
Figure 4 – Core photographs of the sedimentary facies.
938
Figure 5 – Vertical succession of facies. A: Detailed profile showing sandy barrier
939
succession; B: Sandy barrier interleaved with lagoonal deposits.
940
Figure 6 – Isopach map of the upper Iruí coal seam. Isocontours are in meters.
941
Figure 7 – Stratigraphic sections. AA’ corresponds to SW-NE section, parallel to
942
paleocoastline, and BB’ corresponds to NW-SE section, perpendicular to
943
paleocoastline. Facies code: F1 - Coal; F2 - Laminated siltstone; F3 - Structureless
944
siltstone; F4 – Heterolithic sandstone; F5 - Trough cross-bedded arkosic sandstone; F6 -
945
Parallel to subhorizontal lamination quartz sandstone; F7 - Trough cross-bedded quartz
946
sandstone; F8 – Bioturbated heterolithic sandstone; F9 - Hummocky cross-stratification
947
quartz sandstone.
948
Figure 8 – Relative sea level curve and sediment supply established for the stratigraphic
949
simulation.
950
Figure 9 – Results of stratigraphic simulation in different stages, shown as sediments
951
relative distribution. A: Peat accumulation at 0.5 Ma; B, C: Lagoon deposition at 0.7
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
928
38
39
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Ma and 1.05 Ma; D: Sandy barrier transgression over continental deposits.
953
Figure 10 – A: W-E simulated stratigraphic section, corresponding to stratigraphic
954
section AA’; B: N-S simulated stratigraphic section, corresponding to stratigraphic
955
section BB’ (complete section in Figure 7). The red arrows and values show the
956
locations and extensions (in kilometers) of the sedimentary sources.
957
Figure 11 – Real (left) and predicted (right) lithologies. The real cores are from Figure 7
958
and predicted ones are the result of the forward stratigraphic simulation. A: Similar
959
thickness obtained for IB-174-RS; B-C: Predicted deposits are shifted upward due to the
960
absence of the erosion processes in the simulation (note coal in B and siltstone in C); D:
961
Sandstone succession in core IB-012-RS is thicker than predicted one.
M AN U
SC
RI PT
952
AC C
EP
TE D
962
39
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPTReference Value
Parameter
Sand: ≤ 2 mm Silt: ≤ 0.06 mm Coal: ≤ 0.004 mm
Wentworth (1922)
Amplitude of the relative sea level rise
16 m
Estimated from the sedimentary record considering the preserved thickness equal to the creation of the accommodation space
Rate of the relative sea level rise
0-10 m/Ma
Obtained from the stratigraphic simulation
Compaction parameters
Sand: ∅ = 0.49; c = 270 Silt: ∅ = 0.75; c = 580 Coal: ∅ = 0.48; c = 900
Sclater and Christie (1980) Huang and Gradstein (1990) Beicip-Franlab (2009)
Total buried depth
3,000 m
Cagliari (2014)
Erosion
Not considered
-
Subsidence
Not configured
Volume of compacted sediment
Sand: 4.6 km³ Silt: 0.45 km³ Coal: 0.59 km³
Total sediment supply
2.38 km³/Ma
Obtained from stratigraphic simulation
Peat accumulation
30 m/Ma
Obtained from boreholes and simulation, according to paleobathymetry
Precipitation
2,400 mm/y
Annual averages necessary for peat accumulation according to Ziegler et al. (1987)
SC
TE D
Supply
Obtained from stratigraphic simulation
Average depositional slope
Continental: 0.2 m/km Marine: 200 m/km
Beicip-Franlab (2009) Beicip-Franlab (2009)
Gravity-driven (sand + silt)
Continental: 26.52 km²/ka Marine: 0.018335 km²/ka
Obtained from stratigraphic simulation
Water-driven (sand + silt)
Continental: 26.52 km²/ka Marine: 0.018335 km²/ka
Obtained from the stratigraphic simulation
Wave influence (sand + silt)
53.14 km²/ka
Obtained from the stratigraphic simulation
Wave incidence
Summer waves (constructive): NE Winter waves (destructive): SW
Rio Bonito Formation waves incidence estimated by Cacela (2008)
AC C Transport
Estimated from the volume of sediment preserved in the studied depositional sequence
Position: wide - flow rate East: 0.05 km - 22 m3/s South: 2 km - 5 m3/s North: 0.05 km - 37.5 m3/s South: 0.05 km - 12.5 m3/s East: 1.8 km - 2.5 m3/s North: 1 km - 3.75 m3/s West: 0.8 km - 37.5 m³/s
EP
Fluvial discharge (average)
-
M AN U
Basin
RI PT
Grain size Lithology
∅ : depositional porosity; c: exponential coefficient.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Code
Sedimentary Facies
F1
Coal
Facies Association
Interpretation Swamp
Heterolithic sandstone
F5
Trough cross-bedding arkosic sandstone
F6
Parallel to subhorizontal lamination quartz sandstone
F7
Trough cross-bedding quartz sandstone Bioturbated heterolithic sandstone
F9
Hummocky crossstratification quartz sandstone
EP AC C
Channel-fill bars
Foreshore
Tide-influenced deposits
Upper shoreface Wave-dominated facies association
TE D
F8
Tidal-dominated facies association
Estuary/open lagoon
RI PT
F4
Back-barrier
Lagoon
SC
Laminated siltstones and massive siltstone
M AN U
F2, F3
Standing-waterdominated facies
Lower shoreface
Lower shoreface under storm conditions
Sandy barrier
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT - Facies interpretation: swamp, lagoon, sandy barrier and tide-influenced deposits; - The coal bearing succession was deposited during the transgressive system tract; - Peat deposition, barrier breakup and migration landward occurred in sequence; - Relative sea level curve and sedimentary sources location were obtained from modeling;
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
- Relative sea level rose 16 meters during simulation period;
S0895-9811(18)30315-8
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2018.12.008
Reference:
SAMES 2065
To appear in:
Journal of South American Earth Sciences
Received Date: 30 July 2018 Revised Date:
11 December 2018
Accepted Date: 13 December 2018
Please cite this article as: Candido, M., Cagliari, J., Wohnrath Tognoli, F.M., Correa Lavina, E.L., Stratigraphic modeling of a transgressive barrier-lagoon in the Permian of Paraná Basin, southern Brazil, Journal of South American Earth Sciences (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2018.12.008. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
1
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Stratigraphic modeling of a transgressive barrier-lagoon in the Permian of Paraná
2
Basin, southern Brazil
3
Mariane Candido*, Joice Cagliari, Francisco Manoel Wohnrath Tognoli, Ernesto Luiz
4
Correa Lavina
5
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Geologia, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, Av. Unisinos, 950,
6
Cristo Rei, São Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Sul CEP 93022-000, Brazil.
8
* Corresponding author.
9
E-mail address: [email protected]
M AN U
10
SC
7
RI PT
1
ABSTRACT
12
Barrier-lagoon systems occur in most coastal regions worldwide. The sedimentary
13
record of these environments is of scientific and economic relevance because important
14
coal deposits are associated with them. We show the evolution of an ancient coal-
15
bearing barrier-lagoon system in the subsurface on the southern Paraná Basin, Brazil,
16
from a stratigraphic modeling approach. The main objective is to simulate and
17
understand the origin and evolution of this system controlled by relative sea level
18
changes and sediment supply. Database comprises 75 logged boreholes that provided
19
data about the main coal bed deposited in the back-barrier, as well as 19 cored and
20
logged boreholes distributed along two stratigraphic sections, one parallel (NE-SW) and
21
another perpendicular (NW-SE) to the paleocoastline. The dataset was uploaded in the
22
Diffusive Oriented Normal and Inverse Simulation of Sedimentation (DIONISOS)
23
software to establish basic parameters and simulate different scenarios. Described facies
24
are interpreted as swamp, lagoon, sandy barrier and tide-influenced deposits, developed
25
during a relative sea level rise of 16 m. The coal bearing succession was deposited
26
during the transgressive system tract of fourth-order depositional sequence and included
AC C
EP
TE D
11
1
2
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
peat deposition in a swamp in the back-barrier, barrier breakup and landward migration.
28
Results are of high relevance for understanding this paleoenvironment evolution and
29
similar systems in intracratonic basins. This environment occurs both in ancient and
30
recent coasts, and the present model supports the understanding of several barrier-
31
lagoon systems with coal formation in the world.
32
RI PT
27
Keywords: barrier-lagoon system, coal-bearing succession, Rio Bonito Formation,
34
stratigraphic modeling parameters, barrier transgression.
SC
33
35
1.
Introduction
M AN U
36
Coastal depositional environments host complex interactions between
38
continental and marine processes. Barrier islands are highly dynamic coastal systems
39
that are characteristic of these transitional environments, which require detailed studies
40
of their geology and geomorphology to understand their genesis. Barrier islands can
41
isolate lagoon bodies and are formed by the action of agents such as wind, waves and
42
currents, which transport, deposit and rework sediments along the coastline (Kjerfve,
43
1994; Boyd et al., 1992). The combination of transgressive and regressive cycles,
44
coastal physical characteristics and sedimentary supply directly influences the
45
structuring of these systems.
EP
AC C
46
TE D
37
The formation and evolution of barrier islands are mainly influenced by waves
47
and secondarily by tides, winds and river processes (Mulhern, 2017). Recent barrier
48
island systems (coast of Delaware - U.S.A., Yellow Sea - China, Wadden Sea –
49
Denmark, Adriatic Sea – Italy) were developed mainly in micro-tidal and meso-tidal
50
coasts (Hayes, 1975) where wave action and drift currents transport and deposit
51
sediments parallel to the coast, forming an extensive sandy or gravelly bar (Davis, 1994;
2
3
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 52
Reinson, 1992). One or more inlets can segment the sandy bar. Nevertheless, on the
53
landward side, estuaries, lagoons, and marshes can develop protected from the marine
54
influence processes. The preservation of ancient barrier islands in the rock record depends upon the
56
amount of erosion occurring during the subsequent transgression. Higher preservation
57
rates are related to transgressive rather than regressive settings, and the best
58
preservation occurs when the system is drowned in place during rapid relative sea level
59
rise (Reinson, 1992). Moderate to higher preservation rates are also related to
60
intracratonic basins settings, since they are usually characterized by a less intense
61
tectonism activity, when compared to other basins. Thus, the Paraná Basin, an
62
intracratonic basin in southern Brazil, provides excellent record of Permian barrier
63
island systems developed along the paleocoastlines of the epicontinental sea in the south
64
of Gondwana. In this basin, most of the economic coal measures are related to peat
65
(Cagliari, 2014; Kalkreuth et al., 2010; Kern, 2008; Holz, 2003; Lopes et al., 2003b,
66
2003c; Holz et al., 2002; Alves and Ade, 1996; Lavina and Lopes, 1987).
SC
M AN U
TE D
67
RI PT
55
The central region of Rio Grande do Sul presents a great sedimentary record of these deposits, in a high density of boreholes. They can be studied due to the availability
69
of boreholes intercepting a coal bed exploited during the 1970s and 1980s. The upper
70
Iruí coal bed belongs to the Iruí coal measure and corresponds to coal formed in swamp
71
associated with barrier-lagoon context discussed in this paper. The bed adds to 1,665 ×
72
106 t of coal. The Rio Bonito Formation is the unit of the Paraná Basin that hosts the
73
most economically important Brazilian coal measures. This formation records coastal
74
and shallow marine environments bordering an epicontinental sea (Milani et al., 2007)
75
after the end of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (LPIA) whose sediments are preserved in the
76
Itararé Group (Gordon Jr., 1947). Due to glacial melting, Rio Bonito Formation was
AC C
EP
68
3
4
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 77
deposited during approximately 20 Ma (Cagliari et al., 2014) of continuous relative sea
78
level rise, the so-called Permian transgression (Lavina et al., 1985). The complex relationship between accommodation space and sediment supply
79
that controlled barrier island migration and peat preservation is elucidated from
81
stratigraphic modeling. This study explains the sedimentary dynamics of the barrier
82
island system and evolution, with the peat-forming environment in the back-barrier,
83
preserved in the Rio Bonito Formation succession. This evolution occurred during the
84
transgressive and highstand system tract, in a fourth-order depositional sequence,
85
showing the retrogradational stacking of this system, segmentation of barrier and later
86
progradation. According to the stratigraphic modeling, a relative sea level rise of 16 m
87
in 2 Ma produced similar vertical succession as recorded in the stratigraphic sections.
88
The described facies are interpreted as swamp, lagoon, sandy barrier and tide-influenced
89
deposits. The modeling contributes to the understanding of the evolution of the barrier-
90
lagoon system in the period studied, allowing the establishment of relative sea-level
91
curve and likely sediment source locations.
93 94
2.
Geological setting
EP
92
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
80
The Rio Bonito Formation is the base of the Guatá Group and is part of a second-order depositional sequence, the Gondwana I Supersequence, of the Paraná
96
Basin (Milani, 1997). The Paraná Basin is an intracratonic basin filled with sedimentary
97
and volcanic rocks between the Late Ordovician and the Late Cretaceous (Milani et al.,
98
2007). The basin is partly preserved in Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, and Uruguay and
99
covers an area of approximately 1,600,000 km2. The basin is divided into six second-
AC C
95
100
order depositional sequences, as follows: Rio Ivaí (Ordovician-Silurian), Paraná
101
(Devonian), Gondwana I (Carboniferous-Early Triassic), Gondwana II (Late Triassic),
4
5
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 102 103
Gondwana III (Jurassic-Cretaceous) and Bauru (Late Cretaceous) (Milani et al., 2007). Gondwana I Supersequence records a wide change in the paleoenvironmental conditions, starting with the LPIA in the Carboniferous (Holz et al., 2008; Rocha-
105
Campos et al., 2008; França and Potter, 1988; Rocha-Campos, 1967; Gordon Jr., 1947),
106
passing through warmer and humid climate in the Permian (during Rio Bonito
107
Formation deposition) (Iannuzzi, 2013), up to arid conditions in the Triassic (Faccini,
108
2007; Faccini et al., 2003; Zerfass et al., 2003). Thus, the Rio Bonito Formation is a
109
post-glacial unit characterized by the deposition of coal, mudstone, siltstone,
110
carbonaceous siltstone, sandstone and conglomerate (Netto et al., 2012; Gandini et al.,
111
2010; Tognoli and Netto, 2003; Buatois et al., 2001; Lopes and Lavina, 2001; Castro et
112
al., 1999; Bortoluzzi et al., 1987; Lavina and Lopes, 1987; Schneider et al., 1974). The
113
interpreted depositional environment changed through the sedimentary succession from
114
fluvial, to tide-dominated estuarine and wave-dominated shoreface (Boardman, 2013;
115
Netto et al., 2012; Gandini et al., 2010; Buatois et al., 2007; Lopes et al., 2003a, 2003b,
116
2003c; Lopes and Lavina, 2001; Lavina and Lopes, 1987; Lavina et al., 1985).
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
104
Rio Bonito coal beds are numerous with a thickness of up to 4 m. Coal measures
118
are distributed along the eastern border with the most important reserves in the southern
119
basin (Fig. 1A), including Candiota, Capané, Iruí, Leão, Morungava-Chico Lomã, Santa
120
Terezinha and Sul-Catarinense (Gomes et al., 1998). The peat-forming environment is
121
interpreted as delta interdistributary bays, back-barrier, and estuaries (Lopes et al.,
122
2003a). Early Permian climate conditions that favored peat accumulation and
123
preservation were warm and humid (Slonski, 2002) with precipitation probably over
124
2,400 mm/yr (Ziegler et al., 1987).
125 126
AC C
EP
117
In the Iruí coal measure (study area, item 3.1), the succession reaches 120 m in thickness and the sedimentary facies were interpreted as floodplain, overbank, fluvial
5
6
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT and tidal bars, lagoon, bay-head delta, swamp, tidal flat, estuarine bay, foreshore,
128
shoreface and offshore deposits (Cagliari, 2014; Gandini et al., 2010; Kern, 2008;
129
Lavina and Lopes, 1987; Lavina et al., 1985). SW-NE elongated sand bodies composed
130
of foreshore and shoreface facies, laterally correlated to the swamp and lagoonal
131
deposits, were interpreted as barrier island systems that isolated a swamp or lagoon in
132
the back-barrier (Cagliari, 2014; Gandini et al., 2010; Kern, 2008; Lavina and Lopes,
133
1987). Sandy barrier deposits are recurrent throughout the succession (Cagliari, 2014)
134
and their formation was related to longshore currents, which drifted to N-NE during
135
summer and to SW during winter according to Cacela (2008).
SC
RI PT
127
Guatá Group (Rio Bonito and Palermo Formations) is part of the lowstand and
M AN U
136
transgressive system tracts of a second-order depositional sequence (Lopes and Lavina,
138
2001; Lopes, 1995), the Gondwana I Supersequence of Milani (1997). In the southern
139
part of the basin, the Guatá Group is subdivided into four third-order depositional
140
sequence boundaries by erosional surfaces (subaerial unconformity) that developed
141
during relative sea level fall (Lopes, 1995) (Fig. 2). In all sequences defined by Lopes
142
(1995), the subaerial unconformity is replaced by a transgressive surface and the
143
sequences record predominantly the transgressive system tract. The first depositional
144
sequence (Sequence A) is constrained to the deepest valleys and the fourth sequence
145
(Sequence D) records the transition of the Rio Bonito Formation to the Palermo
146
Formation. Sequence B and C correspond to the succession in the Iruí coal measure area
147
according to Kern (2008).
AC C
EP
TE D
137
148 149
3.
Materials and Methods
150
3.1.
Study area
151
The study area is located in the southern border of the Paraná Basin, near the
6
7
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Sul-Riograndense Shield, and comprehends part of the Iruí and Capané coal measures
153
(Fig. 1). In Brazil, the area is located in the center of the state of Rio Grande do Sul,
154
near the town of Cachoeira do Sul. The area is 26 × 24 km wide (624 km2) characterized
155
by a robust geological database based on cores drilled by the Brazilian Geological
156
Survey (CPRM) during the 1970s and 1980s (CPRM, 1980, 1983; Figueroa, 1983;
157
Ferreira, 1978). The database includes hundreds of logged and cored boreholes in which
158
75 boreholes were selected and 19 were described, including those previously described
159
by Gandini et al. (2010) and Kern (2008). The study focuses on one of the fourth-order
160
depositional sequences (Fig. 2) of the Rio Bonito Formation at the Iruí coal measure.
161
The depositional sequence includes the upper Iruí coal bed deposited in a back-barrier
162
environment and records the sandy barrier transgression (Cagliari, 2014; Kern, 2008).
SC
M AN U
163
RI PT
152
This study is based on borehole cores logging and gamma-ray logs interpretation (CPRM, 1980, 1983). About 11 cores were logged by Gandini et al. (2010) and Kern
165
(2008); we logged 9 additional cores with a higher resolution in the selected interval to
166
contribute to the understanding of this barrier island system formation and evolution.
167
Sedimentary facies were described, leading to the interpretation of depositional and
168
transport processes (Walker, 1992). Two stratigraphic sections were compiled, one
169
parallel (SW-NE) and another perpendicular (SE-NW) to the paleocoastline (Fig. 1B).
170
The stratigraphic datum assumed for lateral correlation between the logs is an ash fall
171
horizon (tonstein) within the upper Iruí coal bed, the same datum used by other authors
172
(Cagliari, 2014; Kern, 2008). This horizon represents one episode of the large volcanic
173
eruption in southwestern Gondwana paleocontinent (Matos et al., 2000). Stratigraphic
174
surfaces were mapped in the analyzed sections considering the Embry (1993) and
175
Embry and Johannssen (1992) approaches.
176
AC C
EP
TE D
164
All cores, sedimentary facies, and stratigraphic surfaces were imported into
7
8
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Recon®, 3D software developed by Seisware International Inc. for geologic
178
interpretation. In Recon®, we modeled facies spatial distribution, the depositional
179
surface prior to the analyzed sequence that corresponds to coal bed lower boundary, and
180
the volume of sediment preserved. For these models, we used a radial algorithm (3,000
181
m of radius) to interpolate data among cores. The relation between accommodation
182
space and sediment supply that controlled the barrier island landward migration and
183
peat preservation was estimated using a forward stratigraphic modeling performed in
184
DIONISOS®.
185
187
3.2.
Forward Stratigraphic Modeling
M AN U
186
SC
RI PT
177
The DIONISOS® (Diffusive Oriented Normal and Inverse Simulation of Sedimentation) is a 3D numerical stratigraphic forward model developed by Beicip-
189
Franlab, an associate company of the Institut Français du Pétrole. The model simulates
190
erosion, transport and deposition of sediments in shallow marine and coastal
191
environments in order to obtain the geometry and facies of sedimentary units over
192
regional spatial scales. The stratigraphic model is a result of the interaction of the main
193
factors that control sediment deposition, such as sediment supply, sea level change and
194
subsidence or uplift.
EP
The diffusion equation (Eq. 1), which is based on the main principles of stream
AC C
195
TE D
188
196
flow and mass conservation, expresses sediment transport and is dependent especially
197
on the slope and efficiency of transport. In Equation 1,
198
width unit;
199
concentration and D is diffusion coefficient in m/s2; h is the height above horizontal
200
datum; and x is the horizontal distance in flux direction. Sedimentation and erosion rates
201
at each point of the basin and each time are estimated from the mass balance principles
is the modified diffusion coefficient;
is the sediment influx by =
×
, where
is sediment
8
9
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 202 203
(Beicip-Franlab, 2009). = −
×
(Eq. 1)
Long-term evolution of sedimentary processes is controlled by long-term fluvial
204
and gravity transport, processes that depend on the topographic slope, diffusion
206
coefficient, and water discharge, and the short-term is induced by catastrophic rain fall,
207
slope failures, and turbidity flow, processes that are in turn depend on water velocity
208
and inertia (Beicip-Franlab, 2009). DIONISOS® was developed to simulate the long-
209
term and large-scale evolution of the sedimentary basins, although it is also considered
210
a reliable tool to model the evolution of the short-term system (Seard et al., 2013). The
211
time scale can range from tens of thousands of years to hundreds of millions of years,
212
with the shortest time step limited on tens of thousands of years. A review of the
213
DIONISOS® mathematical model and limitations can be found in the Csato et al. (2013)
214
appendix.
M AN U
SC
RI PT
205
In the same way, as in other forward stratigraphic modeling tools, DIONISOS®
TE D
215
requires a set of pre-determined parameters to perform the stratigraphic simulation
217
(Shafie and Madon, 2008). Several parameters are difficult to be extracted from ancient
218
stratigraphic succession, thus the primary uncertainty related to the stratigraphic model
219
is mostly caused by the lack of accurate and detailed input data.
221 222
AC C
220
EP
216
3.3.
Initial and boundary conditions and input data
The initial conditions correspond to relief (or basement conditions) and sea level
223
position at the beginning of simulation (when t = 0), and the boundary conditions
224
include simulation area boundary, grid spacing and interval of time considered in the
225
analysis. The basement condition, or the initial geometry of the basin, was obtained
226
from the distribution map of the coal seam basal surface (basal sequence boundary, see
9
10
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Fig. 8) after applying the datum (tonstein horizon) to correlate all borehole logs. In
228
order to constrain the sea level position at the beginning of the simulation, we assumed
229
that the lagoon level was controlled by the sea level. The water depth in modern coastal
230
lagoons is typically between 1 and 3 m but can reach 5 m in inlet channels and isolated
231
relict holes or channels (Kjerfve, 1994). Thus, based on modern environment data, we
232
have constrained the lagoon water depth to 2 m in average with the deepest part
233
reaching up 5 m (Fig. 3).
RI PT
227
The simulation area was 26 × 24 km (624 km2) with the grid spacing set at 0.5 km.
235
The depositional sequence analyzed in this study was not dated but the interval of time
236
varied between 80,000 yr and 3 Ma according to Vail et al. (1991). The sequence is
237
considered third-order by Kern (2008) and fourth-order by Cagliari et al. (2014). The
238
preservation rate estimated from two radiometric datings (Cagliari et al., 2016) of the
239
Rio Bonito Formation is ~10 m/Ma. Considering this preservation rate in the thickest
240
depositional sequence, the time span simulated was 2 Ma with a time step of 200 ka.
241
We investigated current and ancient depositional rates for these environments to
242
isolate the time span of back-barrier and barrier deposition. Nichols (1989) estimated
243
sediment accumulation and relative sea level rise rates for 22 United States lagoons and
244
discovered that most lagoons have an increased rate of about 1.6 mm/yr of sediment
245
deposition, which nearly equals to the relative sea-level rise. In this study, erosion is
246
null, thus the sedimentation rate corresponds to the preservation rate. Another limitation
247
of applying this data to our study is the anthropic occupation in the surrounding areas,
248
which can impact in the sediment budget. However, all studied lagoons are shallow (~3
249
m depth) environments and share the same depositional context of relative sea-level
250
rise, providing a good analogous model.
251
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
234
Peat accumulation rates vary with climate, type of vegetation and local drivers. A
10
11
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT paleolatitude estimation of the southern Paraná Basin in the Carboniferous-Permian
253
transition (~50° S; Franco et al., 2012) point out to a temperate climate, and according
254
to different studies approaches, the Rio Bonito Formation coal seams are described as
255
being formed in limno-telmatic moors, where pteridophytic arborescent and herbaceous
256
plant material was accumulated (see review of Correa da Silva, 2004). Due to the
257
absence of peat accumulation rates for the studied coal seams we have considered
258
published rates for different modern environments as an approximation: 0.1 –2.3 mm/yr
259
(lowest rate in the Arctic and the highest in the tropics, McCabe, 1984), 0.35 – 1.13
260
mm/yr (Siberian peatlands, Borren et al., 2004), and 0.16 – 0.97 mm/yr (Congo Basin
261
peatland complex, Dargie et al., 2017). However, over the trial and error simulations,
262
the best result was achieved with a peat accumulation rate of 0.03 mm/yr. The time span
263
of the peat-forming was approximated at 0.5 Ma, based on coal thickness, decompaction
264
rate of 3:1 (Ryer and Langer, 1980; Courel, 1987) and peat accumulation rates of 0.03
265
mm/yr. We used the same time span for the lagoon system because lagoonal deposits
266
are thicker than peat forming successions and the depositional rates of these
267
environments are higher. A total of 1 Ma was set for modeling barrier migration
268
landwards, once the barrier thickness is about 10 m and the preservation rate estimated
269
for the Rio Bonito Formation is ~10 m/Ma (Cagliari et al., 2016).
271 272
SC
M AN U
TE D
EP
The input data for stratigraphic simulation were extracted from the sedimentary
AC C
270
RI PT
252
record, published studies and data from depositional environments documented in modern analogous (Table 1 and Supplementary file). Multiple scenarios were simulated
273
to adjust parameters and obtain the best result fitting with real data. The quality of the
274
results was evaluated by comparing the simulated one with the vertical and lateral
275
sedimentary succession expressed in the stratigraphic sections and individual core logs.
276
11
12
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 277
4.
Results
278
4.1.
Sedimentary facies The described depositional sequence ranges between 12 and 16 m in thickness.
279
Nine sedimentary facies were described and interpreted: coal, laminated siltstones,
281
structureless siltstone, heterolithic sandstone, trough cross-bedded arkosic sandstone,
282
parallel to subhorizontal lamination quartz sandstone, trough cross-bedded quartz
283
sandstone, hummocky cross-stratification quartz sandstone, and bioturbated heterolithic
284
sandstone (Tab. 2). Considering the main processes that control the deposition of the
285
sedimentary facies described above we grouped them into three facies association: the
286
wave-dominated facies, the tidal-dominated facies, and the standing-water-dominated
287
facies.
SC
M AN U
288
RI PT
280
The wave-dominated facies association includes the parallel to subhorizontal lamination quartz sandstone (F6), trough cross-bedded quartz sandstone (F7),
290
bioturbated heterolithic sandstone (F8), and hummocky cross-stratification quartz
291
sandstone (F9). Tidal-dominated facies association includes heterolithic sandstone (F4)
292
and trough cross-bedded arkosic sandstone (F5), and the standing-water-dominated
293
facies comprehends the coal (F1), laminated siltstones (F2) and structureless siltstones
294
facies (F3).
EP
The vertical succession of facies that predominates is coarsening-upward,
AC C
295
TE D
289
296
composed from base to top by, coal (F1), laminated and structureless siltstone (F2 and
297
F3), parallel to subhorizontal lamination quartz sandstone (F6), trough cross-bedding
298
quartz sandstone (F7), bioturbated heterolithic sandstone (F8) and hummocky cross-
299
stratification quartz sandstone (F9) (Fig. 5A). The transition from coal (F1) to siltstone
300
facies (F2 or F3) is gradual and from siltstone to quartz (F6-9) or arkosic sandstone (F5)
301
facies is abrupt.
12
13
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT F1 – Coal: Most drilled and cored coal intervals are lacking in the boxes because of
303
previous studies (the Brazilian Geological Survey (CPRM) sampled these intervals to
304
run several analyses in the 1970s and 1980s), but detailed descriptions of these missing
305
intervals by CPRM (1980, 1983), Figueroa (1983) and Ferreira (1978) are available.
306
These authors described coal in the selected cores as black frosted coal with lenses of
307
fusinite, laminae of vitrinite, pyrite nodules, cracks filled with calcium carbonate and
308
abundant plant fragments (Fig. 4A). Thickness reaches up to 3.94 m in core IC-099-RS.
309
Interpretation: Coal facies is the result of organic matter deposition in a shallow
SC
RI PT
302
water environment under anoxic conditions and with some marine influence, as
311
indicated by the presence of pyrite nodules (Frey and Basan, 1985; McCabe, 1984).
312
According to Cúneo (1996), the main vegetation in the mid early Permian was
313
glossopterids, conifers, cordaitales, early ginkgophytes, shrubby ferns and Botrychiopsis
314
(understory). The gymnosperms Rubidgea and Ginkgophyllum represent the endemic
315
forms in the Brazilian unit. The productivity of vegetation and climate contributed to
316
the formation of peat deposits, which formed the coal beds of Rio Bonito Formation in
317
southern Brazil, also yielding an assemblage dominated by Glossopteridales (Boardman
318
et al., 2012; Guerra-Sommer, 1991).
319
F2 – Laminated siltstone: Whitish-gray to dark-gray siltstone with horizontal
320
lamination, weak bioturbation, sparse plant fragments, locally carbonaceous, and bed
321
thickness ranging from 0.35 to 1.80 m (Fig. 4B).
TE D
EP
AC C
322
M AN U
310
Interpretation: Siltstone deposited by suspension settling from standing water
323
with the horizontal lamination recording the pulses of sediment supply (Collinson,
324
1996; Reinson, 1984). Weak bioturbation and sparse plant fragments facilitated the
325
preservation of the sedimentary structure.
326
F3 – Structureless siltstone: Whitish-gray to medium-gray siltstone, structureless, with
13
14
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 327
root marks and plant fragments, locally with weak bioturbation (Fig. 4C). Some
328
horizons show blocky texture and slickensides. Carbonaceous siltstones occur locally
329
underlying coal facies. This facies is widespread and the thickness reaches up 7.4 m in
330
IC-050-RS. Interpretation: Siltstone deposited by suspension settling from standing water,
RI PT
331
same as F2 (Collinson, 1996; Reinson, 1984). The lack of depositional structure is
333
explained by rapid deposition or later destruction by plant roots and soil-forming
334
processes (Collinson, 2006). Blocky texture and slickensides suggest subaerial exposure
335
and soil-forming process corroborating the possibility of later destruction of primary
336
sedimentary structures. Gandini et al. (2010) described Glossopteris flora in this facies.
337
F4 – Heterolithic sandstone: Centimeter- to millimeter-thick intercalation of fine- to
338
medium-grained sandstone and dark-gray siltstone, wavy and lenticular bedding, mud
339
drapes and flaser (Fig. 4D). Siltstone is locally carbonaceous, and bioturbation range
340
from weak to moderate.
M AN U
TE D
341
SC
332
Interpretation: Alternation of bedload sand migration as ripples and suspension settling from standing water (Rahmani, 1988; Smith, 1988; Reineck and Singh, 1986).
343
Mud drapes and flaser deposits during the slack-water period were produced by the
344
variation in the tidal current over semi-diurnal to longer cyclicity (Collinson, 1996).
345
Gandini (2010) found in the same facies Helminthopsis, Palaeophycus, Planolites,
346
Thalassinoides, Thalassinoides-Palaeophycus, Thalassinoides-Palaeophycus-
347
Helminthopsis, and interpreted as estuarine bay or lower shoreface/transition offshore.
348
F5 - Trough cross-bedded arkosic sandstone: Fine- to coarse-grained arkosic
349
sandstone, locally composed by granules and pebbles; grains are poorly-sorted,
350
subangular to angular, with low sphericity, exhibiting trough cross-bedding and
351
carbonaceous mud drapes (Fig. 4E). Succession is frequently fining-upward with
AC C
EP
342
14
15
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 352 353
erosive boundary contact. Interpretation: This facies represents the migration of subaqueous dunes under low flow regime (Collinson, 1996; Collinson and Thompson, 1989; Miall, 1977). Grain
355
composition and characteristics indicate transport over short distances. Mud and
356
carbonaceous mud drapes, as in heterolithic facies (F4), is evidence of variation in tidal
357
current.
358
F6 - Parallel to subhorizontal laminated quartz sandstone: Fine- to medium-grained
359
quartz sandstone, locally coarse-grained, well-sorted, subrounded to rounded grains,
360
with parallel to subhorizontal cross lamination with erosive contact at the base (Fig. 4F).
SC
Interpretation: Deposition under upper flow regime with high flow velocity and
M AN U
361
RI PT
354
shallow water depth (Reinson, 1992; McCubbin, 1982; Heward, 1981; Clifton, 1969)
363
indicated by the presence of Macaronichnus icnofabric, described by Gandini et al.
364
(2010), the classical signature of high-energy shallow marine deposits. This icnofabric
365
contains information on the bioturbation rate and horizontal excavations resulting from
366
the reworking of the substrate by detritus-eating vermiform organisms (Pemberton et
367
al., 2001).
368
F7 - Trough cross-bedded quartz sandstone: fine- to medium-grained quartz
369
sandstone, locally very coarse-grained, well-sorted, high-sphericity and rounded grains,
370
medium- and small-scale uni- and bidirectional trough cross-bedding (Fig. 4G).
371
Bioturbation is absent.
EP
AC C
372
TE D
362
Interpretation: Migration of subaqueous 3D dunes under lower flow regime due
373
to unidirectional and oscillatory currents (Reinson, 1992; McCubbin, 1982). The
374
absence of bioturbation also reflects high-energy condition and high rate of velocity
375
migration.
376
F8 - Bioturbated heterolithic sandstone: Interbeds of fine-grained quartz sandstone
15
16
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 377
and dark-gray, carbonaceous in places, siltstone with wavy and lenticular bedding, with
378
moderate to high bioturbated. Locally the sedimentary structures are obliterated by
379
bioturbation (Fig. 4H). Interpretation: This facies is interpreted as the alternation of suspension settling
380
from standing water and migration of ripples (Collinson, 1996; Reinson, 1992;
382
McCubbin, 1982). The high intensity of bioturbation and the ichnological signature
383
reflects a relatively calm marine environment below the fair-weather wave base.
384
Gandini et al. (2010) studied the same area and described for this facies the occurrence
385
of Cruziana and Skolitos ichnofacies.
386
F9 - Hummocky cross-stratification quartz sandstone: Fine-grained quartz sandstone
387
with intercalated laminae of siltstone, moderately well-sorted and light-colored grains,
388
low-angle cross-stratification (hummocky cross-stratification) (Fig. 4I).
M AN U
SC
RI PT
381
Interpretation: Fallout of sediment from suspension and lateral tractive flow
390
under wave oscillation generated by storm (Dott and Bourgeois, 1982; Harms et al.,
391
1975). The presence of hummocky cross-stratification is the diagnosis of the offshore
392
transition zone, which lies between fair-weather and storm wave base.
393
395
4.2.
Stacking pattern of the studied succession The succession has a retrogradational stacking pattern, with lagoon and swamp
AC C
394
EP
TE D
389
396
underlying foreshore and shoreface deposits. Thus, the succession records a vertical
397
shift from proximal (swamp and lagoon) to more distal depositional environments
398
(lower shoreface). This succession does not represent a typical succession formed
399
during the transgression of a barrier island according to Reinson (1992). In this case,
400
the Walther’s Law of facies is not respected, due to the absence of intermediate facies,
401
originally located along an individual depositional profile. Otherwise, it is similar to the
16
17
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 402
partial preservation of facies succession recording by erosional shoreface retreat (Kraft
403
and Chrzastowski, 1985; Reinson, 1984, 1992; Heward, 1981) where shoreface facies
404
overlie more landward facies across a planar erosion surface.
405
The succession described above does not occur in cores IB-182-RS, IC-029-R, and IC-045-RS (section AA’, where the sandy barrier is totally or partially replaced by
407
tidal-influenced facies association, heterolithic and trough cross-bedded arkosic
408
sandstone facies) (Fig. 5B and Fig. 7). In other cores, sandy barrier facies is
409
interdigitated with tidal-influenced facies (IB-010-RS and IB-006-RS, section BB’) or
410
absent (CA-040-RS, section BB’).
SC
Coal facies is distributed into two beds, the lower one named upper Iruí coal bed
M AN U
411
RI PT
406
and has a wide occurrence in the study area and the upper one is restricted to the west
413
portion. The upper Iruí coal bed has an elongated geometry with the long axis of
414
approximately 32 km in the SW-NE direction and the short axis of approximately 5 km
415
in the NW-SE direction (Fig. 6). It is laterally correlated to the laminated and
416
structureless siltstone facies (F2 and F3, respectively), as presented in the NE and SE of
417
sections AA’ and BB’ (Fig. 7), which are also widely distributed in the area although
418
the thicknesses change along the sections.
EP
419
TE D
412
The sandy barrier facies association occurs along the entire area although tideinfluenced facies association locally interrupts it. This feature likely suggests that tidal
421
channels segmented the sandy barrier. However, tidal deposits would not have been
422
deposited in the inlets due to the high-energy flow. The tidal sediments would be
423
probably deposited in a more protected area, as like as the flood tidal delta. Its location
424
in a partially protected environment is indicated by carbonaceous silty interlaminations
425
that occur in the middle of poorly selected sandstones, possibly close to a tidal, flat or a
426
barred lagoon for example.
AC C
420
17
18
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 427 428 429
4.3.
Sequence stratigraphy and depositional model The depositional sequence is bounded below and above by subaerial
unconformities (Fig. 7). The lower sequence boundary (SB1) is at the base of the upper
431
Iruí coal bed and records an abrupt contact between the coal facies (F1) and the
432
underlying structureless/laminated siltstones (F2 and F3). Root marks and blocky
433
texture in the underlying siltstone facies likely indicate subaerial exposure. As showed
434
in Figure 2 and described by Gandini et al. (2010), the SB1 marks the contact between
435
lagoonal and swampy depositional environment.
SC
RI PT
430
The upper sequence boundary (SB2) records the contact between marine
437
deposits below (F6-F9) and coastal (F2-F5) or shallow marine above in the BB’ section
438
(Fig. 7B). The same contact is seen in some of the AA’ section cores. The deposition of
439
coastal facies overlying marine facies records a coastline regression. A sharp and
440
erosive contact between coastal (F2 and F3) deposits below and shallow marine (F6-F9)
441
above records a transgressive surface (TS), more specifically the wave ravinement
442
surface. Considering the gamma ray log shape and the stacking pattern of facies a
443
maximum flooding surface (MFS) is identified in the upper portion of the depositional
444
sequence. The change between the lower retrogradational and the upper progradational
445
stacking pattern in the sandy barrier succession marks the MFS and records the most
446
extensive marine incursion in this depositional sequence.
TE D
EP
AC C
447
M AN U
436
Facies succession between SB1 and MFS records the transgressive systems tract
448
and facies succession between MFS and SB2 the highstand systems tract. In the
449
transgressive systems tract, the stacking pattern of facies is retrogradational with facies
450
deposited in even more marine and deep conditions towards the top. In the highstand
451
systems tract, the low thicknesses preserved prevent the recognition of the stacking
18
19
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 452 453
pattern. The elongated and widespread coal bed and the vertical succession of facies indicate that deposition took place in a swamps environment in a protected coastal area.
455
Nodules of pyrite indicate occasional seawater incursion, e.g. through tidal inlets or
456
washover fans formed during storms (cf. McCabe 1984) although these features were
457
not identified in the study area. Based on that, the SW-NE coal bed orientation likely
458
indicates the coastline position.
The structureless and laminated siltstone facies that are laterally correlated and
SC
459
RI PT
454
overlies the coal facies were deposited in a lagoon and records an increase in the
461
sediment influx and ventilation conditions (increase in the concentration of oxygen in
462
water) that prevents the continuous establishment of the peat-forming environment. The
463
sediment supply and oxygen increase can be explained by the presence of inlets that had
464
segmented the sandy barrier, thus changing the previous sheltered environment into a
465
wave- and tide-influenced one, or by the climatic condition that supplied more sediment
466
from the river run-off.
TE D
M AN U
460
The parallel to sub-horizontal lamination quartz sandstone, trough cross-bedded
468
quartz sandstone, bioturbated heterolithic sandstone and hummocky cross-stratification
469
quartz sandstone facies are interpreted as foreshore to shoreface/offshore-transition
470
during storm conditions deposits. This facies, as explained before, comprehends the
471
sandy barrier system, which has a thickness ranging between 3.6 m (IC-045-RS) and
472
10.7 m (IB-10-RS) and abruptly overlies the siltstone and/or coal facies. The sandy
473
barrier is locally eroded by tide-influenced channel bars in section AA’ and in the
474
northwest of section BB’, which likely indicate the barrier segmentation by tidal inlets.
475 476
AC C
EP
467
The sedimentary facies characteristics and lateral and vertical successions suggest a depositional environment consisting of a beach barrier and a protected back-
19
20
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT barrier lagoon, belonging to a barrier-lagoon system. The stratigraphic reconstruction
478
shows the establishment of a barrier-island system and landward migration due to
479
increasing accommodation space. The coastal area was influenced by the combination
480
of wave and tidal processes although wave processes predominated to develop extensive
481
sandy barrier strandplain.
RI PT
477
482
484
4.4.
Forward stratigraphic model
During the processes of stratigraphic simulation, a relative sea level curve was
SC
483
established for the deposition of the analyzed succession, the result of the balance
486
between the sediment supply and accommodation space (Fig. 8). The relative sea level
487
rose 16 m during the sequence deposition simulation, with rates ranging from 0 to 10
488
m/Ma. This assumption was made based on the total amount of preserved thickness in
489
the depositional sequence and the estimated interval time, therefore has a relatively low
490
degree of stratigraphic resolution. The relative sea level rise and the sediment supply
491
controlled the formation of the barrier-lagoon system and further barrier island
492
landward migration.
TE D
The coal facies was formed in a back-barrier environment widespread over an
EP
493
M AN U
485
area of 32 km in the SW-NE direction and 5 km in the NW-SE (Fig. 9A). The estimated
495
peat production rate was 30 m/Ma, the equivalent of 15 m during 500 ka (the time
496
interval simulated for peat deposition), which corresponds with the maximum depth of
497
peat generation (5 m) transformed by the adopted rate 3:1 (5 m coal = 15 m peat) (Ryer
498
and Langer, 1980; Courel, 1987). Peat was deposited during the transgressive systems
499
tract and total peat accumulation was controlled by the 5 m relative sea level rise during
500
500 ka (sea level rise rate of 1 cm/ka). The peat-bearing environment was probably
501
developed in the borders of a coastal lagoon, which is preserved only in the core CA-
AC C
494
20
21
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 502
40-RS (BB’, Fig. 7), recorded in the laminated/structureless siltstones facies laterally
503
correlated with the upper Iruí coal bed. At this time, the lagoon is outside the studied
504
area and was not simulated. The lagoon environment, where the laminated/structureless siltstone facies was
505
likely deposited, was simulated until reaching the preserved thickness of siltstone in the
507
stratigraphic sections (Fig. 9B). The distribution of siltstone facies over the upper Iruí
508
coal bed suggests that sediment was supplied from the northeast. However, only this
509
source was not sufficient to distribute the sediments, being necessary to add another
510
source to the simulation. Considering that this source is continental, it was positioned in
511
the southwest, since there are tidal channels near that are filled with arkosic sandstones.
512
Furthermore, there are sandstones (or even conglomerates) directly overlying the Upper
513
Iruí coal bed in some boreholes (IB-097-RS, IB-098-RS, and IB-157-RS) which are out
514
of the stratigraphic section, but inside coal bed area, indicating a probable fluvial
515
source.
SC
M AN U
TE D
516
RI PT
506
In order to establish values for discharge (in m³/s), it was considered a system with low flow due to the existence of peat initially and after the predominance of
518
siltstones. Thus, values below 250 m³/s were tested and the values that generated the
519
best result of sedimentary distribution were used. The best result was obtained
520
considering a balance between marine (source northeast seawater discharge = 110 m3/s)
521
and a continental (fluvial discharge = 100 m3/s) source. To simulate the siltstone facies
522
deposition and the lagoon system evolution, we considered 3 m relative sea level rise
523
during 500 ka (0.6 cm/ka). Although the preserved sediment corresponds to 0.9
524
km³/Ma, the best result was achieved with 0.8 km³/Ma (corresponding to 0.4 km³ of
525
sediment supplied during the time interval simulated).
526
AC C
EP
517
Sandy barrier was simulated considering the continuous increase in the relative
21
22
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT sea level during the transgressive systems tract, and a relative sea level still stand,
528
recorded in the highstand systems tract (Fig. 9C, 9D). The sandy barrier thickness
529
preserved in the geologic record reached 10.7 m (IB-10-RS). The forward stratigraphic
530
model shows the barrier transgression over 1 Ma and producing a similar thickness as
531
presented in the sedimentary record. The sandy barrier is composed mainly of quartz
532
sandstone transported onshore and secondarily by arkosic sandstone (tide-influenced
533
fluvial sediments) deriving from continental sources. The 3.9 km³/Ma of sediment
534
supplied and the relative sea level rise of 8 m during 1 Ma (0.8 cm/ka) caused a barrier
535
island landward shift of 9 km.
SC
RI PT
527
The resulting sedimentary succession is shown in Figure 10. In the simulated
M AN U
536
sections, sandy sediments are not differentiated by composition. The simulated sections,
538
as well as the stratigraphic sections, first show the migration of the barrier-lagoon
539
system landwards and seawards. This landward migration, according to the model,
540
occurred during about 1.6 Ma, when the progradation of the barrier began at the
541
maximum sea level ingression, corresponding with the flooding surface. The
542
transgressive surface shows the overlap of marine sediments on to the underlying
543
lagoonal deposits.
EP
TE D
537
Erosive processes were not simulated, but the resulting forward stratigraphic
544
model shows the sediment distribution and succession similar to the stratigraphic
546
model. Especially the siltstones are shown thicker in the simulating boreholes compared
547
to real boreholes (Fig. 11). Since the absence of erosion produced thicker successions
548
than the sedimentary record, this difference can indicate, in a simplified way, the
549
erosion occurred during the relative sea level rise.
AC C
545
550 551
5.
Discussion
22
23
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 552
The simulated stratigraphic sections (Fig. 10) are similar to the stratigraphic sections (Fig. 7) when considering the sediment distribution both vertically and
554
laterally. The sediment supply in the best scenario (0.8 km³/Ma for the back-barrier
555
system and 3.9 km³/Ma for the sandy barrier) corresponds with more than 80% of the
556
estimated from the sedimentary record (0.9 km³/Ma and 4.6 km³/Ma, respectively).
557
After the drowning of the lagoon, the barrier moved seawards while the relative sea
558
level was rising at increasingly lower rates and there was a positive balance of
559
sediments, corresponding with the highstand systems tract.
SC
560
RI PT
553
Continuous and less continuous thick coal beds are usually deposited during the middle transgressive systems tract when accommodation space is high (Bohac and
562
Suter, 1997). However, in the stratigraphic model, peat was likely deposited during the
563
early transgressive systems tract, first in the morphologically depressed sectors of the
564
investigated area and then over a larger area during the late relative sea level rise. This
565
suggests that even at lower rates of relative sea level rise, the amount of organic matter
566
allowed the generation of peat early in TST. The upper Iruí coal bed has high mineral
567
content indicating that during peat formation sediments were deposited in the peat-
568
forming environment. This indicates the peat-forming environment was located on the
569
border of a lagoon next to the sandy barrier, thus receiving sporadically sediments from
570
the barrier.
TE D
EP
AC C
571
M AN U
561
The estimated relative sea level curve (Fig. 8) was constructed from data
572
extracted from the facies thickness, considering that the sediment deposition in coastal
573
and marine environments are mainly controlled by relative sea level changes and,
574
subordinately, by sediment discharge from river run-off, alongshore transport and by in
575
situ sediment production. However, these additional elements have not been taking into
576
account, for simplicity. The curve was refined through modeling by trial and error
23
24
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 577
during successive simulations in DIONISOS®. Despite the rate of the sea level rise
578
reduction hypothesized after the accumulation of the peat (1 cm/ka for 0.6/ka), the
579
interruption of its deposition can be explained by the increase of the sedimentary supply
580
compared to accommodation. In coastal environments with gentle slopes, sediment deposition can be
RI PT
581
controlled by many factors, but in this simulation, it was observed that the main
583
controlling factors are relative sea level change and sediment supply, once the
584
subsidence was not considered as input parameter. DIONISOS® software was originally
585
developed for deltaic and shelf environment simulation, both with significant slopes.
586
However, this software simulates long-term basin scale sediment distribution in large-
587
scale, what is crucial in this case. As seen from the simulation results, relative sea level
588
change controlled the barrier island landward migration over the lagoon deposits.
589
Therefore, this result is in accordance with the depositional history recorded in the
590
sedimentary succession. The forward stratigraphic simulation, not even considering the
591
erosion, displays a similar sediments distribution as in the stratigraphic section,
592
although the thickness is slightly different.
M AN U
TE D
Results presented here can be applied to the construction of system
EP
593
SC
582
understanding in intracratonic sedimentary basins such as the Paraná basin, especially in
595
wave-dominated paleocoastlines. A better understanding of environments helps set the
596
evolutionary history of basins, including processes and products generated during their
597
formation. Economically, depositional sequences are better understood associated with
598
deposits such as coal, greater optimization of economic viability and exploration
599
studies. These facies associations are found all over the world, being a matter of general
600
interest, because a large part of coal deposits is found associated with barrier-lagoon.
AC C
594
601
24
25
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 602 603
6.
Conclusions Forward stratigraphic simulation applied to the stratigraphic succession
preserved in the subsurface of the Paraná Basin shows that a possible scenario that
605
explains the formation and preservation of a barrier-lagoon system during a relative sea
606
level rise of 16 m. The analyzed stratigraphic interval of the Rio Bonito Formation was
607
strongly influenced by waves, which controlled the longshore drift and thus the
608
sediment distribution along the coast. Both marine and fluvial flows have significant
609
control in the sediment distribution, as well as the depositional surface slope, sediment
610
supply, and relative sea level change.
SC
Stratigraphic modeling contributed to the understanding of the processes
M AN U
611
RI PT
604
controlling the Rio Bonito Formation barrier-lagoon system evolution through time,
613
focusing on the estimation of the relative sea level rise and the likely location of the
614
sediment sources. The model shows that clastic sedimentary supply derives initially
615
from continental and marine sources, which are equally important and, later, almost
616
exclusively from marine sources (e.g., alongshore transport and flood-tidal deltas
617
entering through tidal inlets breaching the barrier). Competition between marine and
618
continental environments is visualized along the sea level curve created during the
619
modeling, as time steps progress.
EP
AC C
620
TE D
612
Stratigraphic modeling is a powerful tool to reconstruct sedimentary settings and
621
estimate specific conditions that are not preserved in the geological record. Although
622
stratigraphic modeling, as such as other modeling approaches, presupposes a
623
simplification of the reality, the obtained model is satisfactory to explain the presented
624
questions. Thus, the results and interpretations addressed in this study may clarify issues
625
not only regarding the evolution of the barrier-lagoon systems of the Rio Bonito
626
Formation, in the Paraná Basin, but also in similar contexts of other basins. 25
26
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 627
Acknowledgments
629
This article is the result of the master's thesis of the first author developed in the
630
Graduate Program in Geology of the Unisinos University (Universidade do Vale do Rio
631
dos Sinos) and supported by CAPES/PROSUP and FAPERGS [ARD/PPP 16/2551-
632
000274-6]. The authors thank the Brazilian Geological Survey (CPRM) for permission
633
to cores description and Léo Afraneo Hartmann for his contributions.
RI PT
628
636
References
Alves, R.G., Ade, M.V.B., 1996. Sequence stratigraphy and coal petrography applied to
M AN U
635
SC
634
637
the Candiota Coal Field, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil: A depositional model.
638
International Journal of Coal Geology, 30, 231-248.
640 641
Beicip-Franlab. 2009. Training guide for Dionisos 3.0 Industrial Version: 3D basin modeling. Beicip-Franlab, Paris, 137 p.
TE D
639
Boardman, D., Souza, P.A., Iannuzzi, R., Mori, A.L.O., 2013. Paleobotany and palynology of the Rio Bonito Formation (Lower Permian, Paraná Basin, Brazil)
643
at the Quitéria Outcrop. Ameghiniana, 49, 451-472.
EP
642
Bohacs, K.M., Suter, J., 1997. Sequence stratigraphic distribution of coaly rocks:
645
Fundamental controls and examples. American Association of Petroleum
646
AC C
644
Geologists Bulletin, 81, 1612-1639.
647
Borren, W., Bleuten, W., Lapshina, E.D. Holocene peat and carbon accumulation rates
648
in the southern taiga of western Siberia. Quaternary Research, 61, 42-51.
649
Bortoluzzi, C.A., Awdziej, J., Zardo, S.M., 1987. Geologia da Bacia do Paraná em
650
Santa Catarina. In: Silva, L.C., Bortoluzzi, C.A. (Eds.), Textos básicos de
651
geologia e recursos minerais de Santa Catarina - Mapa geológico do Estado de
26
27
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 652
Santa Catarina escala 1:50.000: texto explicativo e mapa. Departamento
653
Nacional de Produção Mineral, Brasil, 135-167.
654 655
Boyd, R., Dalrymple, R., Zaitlin, B.A., 1992. Classification of clastic coastal depositional environments. Sedimentary Geology, 80, 139–150. Buatois, L.A., Netto, R.G., Mángano, M.G., 2001. Reinterpretación paleoambiental de
657
la Formación Rio Bonito (Pérmico de la Cuenca de Paraná) en el yacimiento de
658
carbón de Iruí, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil: integración de análisis de fácies,
659
icnología y estratigrafia secuencial de alta resolución. Geogaceta, 29, 27-30.
SC
660
RI PT
656
Buatois, L.A., Netto, R.G., Mangano, M.G., 2007. Ichnology of Permian marginal- to shallow-marine coal-bearing successions: Rio Bonito and Palermo Formations,
662
Paraná Basin, Brazil. In: MacEachern, J.A., Bann, K.L., Gingras, M.K.,
663
Pemberton, S.G. (Eds.), Applied Ichnology e SEPM Short Course Notes. SEPM,
664
Tulsa, 167-178.
M AN U
661
Cacela, A.S.M., 2008. Paleoclima e dinâmica costeira como fatores controladores da
666
distribuição de arenitos em sistemas parálicos – Um estudo para reservatórios
667
análogos no Eopermiano da Bacia do Paraná. Master thesis, UFRGS University. Cagliari, J., 2014. Contexto deposicional e modelagem estratigráfica direta dos
EP
668
TE D
665
depósitos sedimentares Permocarboníferos nas jazidas de carvão Capané e Iruí
670
Central (Formação Rio Bonito, Bacia do Paraná). Ph.D. thesis, UNISINOS
671 672
AC C
669
University.
Cagliari, J., Tognoli, F.M.W., Lavina, E.L.C., 2014. Influência dos controles externos
673
na deposição da Formação Rio Bonito na borda sudeste da Bacia do Paraná: uma
674
análise a partir da modelagem estratigráfica direta. In: Contexto deposicional e
675
modelagem estratigráfica direta dos depósitos sedimentares Permocarboníferos
676
nas jazidas de carvão Capané e Iruí Central (Formação Rio Bonito, Bacia do
27
28
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 677 678
Paraná). PPG Universidade do Vale dos Sinos, Brasil, 188-216. Cagliari, J., Philipp, R.P., Buso, V.V., Netto, R.G., Hillebrand, P.K., Lopes R. da C., Basei, M.A.S., Faccini, U.F., 2016. Age constraints of the glaciation in the
680
Parana Basin: evidence from new U-Pb dates. Journal of the Geological Society,
681
173, 871-874.
RI PT
679
Castro, M.R., Perinotto, J.A.J., Castro, J.C., 1999. Fácies, análise estratigráfica e
683
evolução pós-glacial do Membro Triunfo/Formação Rio Bonito, na faixa
684
subaflorante do norte catarinense. Revista Brasileira de Geociências, 29, 533-
685
538.
687
Christofoletti, A., 1999. Modelagem de Sistemas Ambientais, Edgard Blücher, São
M AN U
686
SC
682
Paulo.
688
Clifton, H.E., 1969. Beach lamination: nature and origin. Marine Geology, 7, 553-559.
689
Collinson, J.D., 1996. Alluvial sediments. In: Reading, H.G. (Ed.), Sedimentary Environments: Process, Facies and Stratigraphy. Blackwell Science, Oxford, 37-
691
82.
694 695
and Hall, London.
EP
693
Collinson, J.D., Thompson, D.B., 1989. Sedimentary structures, second ed. Chapman
Collinson, J.D., Mountney, N., Thompson, D.B., 2006. Sedimentary Structures, third ed. Dunedin Academic Press, United Kingdom.
AC C
692
TE D
690
696
Companhia de Pesquisa de Recursos Minerais (CPRM), 1980. Projeto Iruí/Butiá, Bloco
697
Iruí, Carvão Mineral: Relatório Final de Pesquisa, Alvarás n° 2396, 2397, 2471,
698 699
3835, 3956, 3957, 3996, 3997/77 e 7957/78. DNPM/CPRM, Porto Alegre. Companhia de Pesquisa de Recursos Minerais (CPRM), 1983. Projeto Iruí/Butiá Área
700
Cordilheira: Relatório Final de Pesquisa, Alvarás nº 2573, 4616/80.
701
DNPM/CPRM, Porto Alegre, 2v.
28
29
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 702 703
Corrêa da Silva, Z.C., 2004. Coal facies studies in Brazil: a short review. International Journal of Coal Geology, 58, 119-124. Courel, L. 1987. Stages in the compaction of peat; examples from the Stephanian and
705
Permian of the Massif Central, France. Journal of the Geological Society, 144,
706
489-493.
707
RI PT
704
Csato, I., Granjeon, D., Catuneanu, O., Baum, G.R. 2013. A three-dimensional
stratigraphic model for the Messianian crisis in the Pannonian Basin, eastern
709
Hungary. Basin Research, 25, 121-148.
711 712
Cúneo, N.R., 1996. Permian phytogeography in Gondwana. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 125, 75-104.
M AN U
710
SC
708
Dargie, G.C., Lewis, S.L., Lawson, I.T., Mitchard, E.T.A., Page, S.E., Bocko, Y.E.,
713
Ifo,A.A. Age, extend and carbon storage of central Congo Basin peatland
714
complex. Nature, 542, 86-90.
716
Davis, R.A., 1994. Geology of Holocene barrier island systems, Springer-Verlag, New York.
TE D
715
Dott, R.H.Jr., Bourgeois, J., 1982. Hummocky stratification: Significance of its variable
718
bedding sequences. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 93, 663-680.
720 721 722
Embry, A.F., 1993. Transgressive–regressive (T–R) sequence analysis of the Jurassic succession of the Sverdrup basin, Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Canadian
AC C
719
EP
717
Journal of Earth Sciences, 30, 301–320.
Embry, A.F., Johannessen, E.P., 1992. T–R sequence stratigraphy, facies analysis and
723
reservoir distribution in the uppermost Triassic- Lower Jurassic succession,
724
western Sverdrup basin, Arctic Canada. In: Vorren, T.O., Bergsager, E., Dahl-
725
Stamnes, O.A., Holter, E., Johansen, B., Lie, E., Lund, T.B. (Eds.), Arctic
726
Geology and Petroleum Potential, Special Publication. Norwegian Petroleum
29
30
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 727
Society, Norway, 121–146.
728
Faccini, U.F., 2007. Tectonic and climatic induced changes in depositional styles of the
729
Mesozoic sedimentary record of Southern Parana Basin, Brazil. In: Problems in
730
Western Gondwana Geology I, Gramado, 42–45. Faccini, U.F., Giardin, A., Garcia, A.J.V., Machado, J.L.F., 2003.
RI PT
731
Megaheterogeneidades e hidroestratigrafia do Aqüífero Guarani na região de
733
SantaMaria (RS). In: Paim, P.S.G., Faccini, U.F., Netto, R.G. (Eds.), Geometria,
734
arquitetura e heterogeneidade de corpos sedimentares: estudo de casos. Unisinos,
735
São Leopoldo, 78-92.
738 739 740
M AN U
737
Ferreira, J.A.F., Süfert, T., Santos, A.P., 1978. Projeto Carvão no Rio Grande do Sul: Relatório Final. DNPM/CPRM, Porto Alegre, 16v.
Figueroa, I., Dias, A. de A., 1983. Projeto Carvão na Área do Iruí: Relatório Final. DNPM/CPRM, Porto Alegre, 5v.
Franco, D. R., Ernesto, M., Ponte-Neto, C. F., Hinnov, L. A., Berquo, T. S., Fabris, J.
TE D
736
SC
732
D., Rosie, C. A., 2012. Magnetostratigraphy and mid-palaeolatitude VGP
742
dispersion during the Permo-Carboniferous Superchron: results from Parana ́
743
Basin (Southern Brazil) rhythmites. Geophysical Journal International, 191, 993-
744
1014.
746 747 748
França, A.D., Potter, P.E., 1988. Estratigrafia, ambiente deposicional e análise de
AC C
745
EP
741
reservatório do Grupo Itararé (Permocarbonífero), Bacia do Paraná (parte I). BoI. Geoc. Petrobrás, 2, 147-191.
Frey, R.W., Basan, P., 1985. Coastal Salt Marshes. In: Davis, R.A. (Ed.), Coastal
749
sedimentary environments. Spring-Verlag, Massachusetts, 101-169.
750
Gandini, R., 2010. Assinaturas icnológicas da sucessão sedimentar Rio Bonito no
751
bloco central da jazida carbonífera de Iruí, Cachoeira do Sul (RS). Master thesis,
30
31
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 752 753
UNISINOS University. Gandini, R., Netto, R.G., Kern, H.P., Lavina, E.L.C., 2010. Assinaturas icnológicas da
754
sucessão sedimentar Rio Bonito no bloco central da jazida carbonífera de Iruí,
755
Cachoeira do Sul (RS). Gaea, 6, 21-43.
757 758
Gomes, A.P., Ferreira, J.A.F., Albuquerque, L.F., Süffert, T., 1998. Carvão Fóssil.
RI PT
756
Estudos Avançados, 12, 89-106.
Gordon Jr., M.J., 1947. Classificação das formações gondwânicas do Paraná, Santa Catarina e Rio Grande do Sul. Notas Preliminares e Estudos da Divisão de
760
Geologia e Mineralogia do DNPM, 38, 1-20.
Granjeon, D., 2014. 3D forward modelling of the impact of sediment transport and
M AN U
761
SC
759
762
base level cycles on continental margins and incised valleys. Int. Assoc.
763
Sedimentol. Spec. Publ., 46, 453–472.
764
Harms, J.C., Southard, J.B., Spearing, D.R., Walker, R.G., 1975. Depositional environments as interpreted from primary sedimentary structures and
766
stratification sequences, first ed. Society of Economic Paleontologists and
767
Mineralogists, Dallas.
TE D
765
Hayes, M.O., 1975. Morphology of sand accumulation in estuaries: an introduction to
769
the symposium. In: Eugene Cronin, L. (Ed.), Estuarine Research. Geology and
770
engineering. Academic Press, New York, 3–22.
772 773
AC C
771
EP
768
Heward, A.P., 1981. A review of wave-dominated clastic shoreline deposits. Earth-Sci. Rev., 17, 223-276.
Holz, M., 2003. Sequence stratigraphy of a lagoonal estuarine system - an example from
774
the lower Permian Rio Bonito Formation, Paraná Basin, Brazil. Sedimentary
775
Geology, 162, 305–331.
776
Holz, M., Kalkreuth, W., Banerjee, I., 2002. Sequence stratigraphy of paralic coal-
31
32
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 777
bearing strata: an overview. International Journal of Coal Geology, Amsterdam,
778
48, 1– 33.
779
Holz, M., Souza, P.A., Ianuzzi, R., 2008. Sequence stratigraphy and biostratigraphy of the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian glacial succession (Itararé Subgroup) at
781
the eastern-southeastern margin of the Paraná Basin, Brazil. Geological Society
782
of America Special, 441, 115–129.
784 785
Huang, Z., Gradstein, F., 1990. Depth-porosity relationship from deep sea sediments. Sci. Drill., 1, 157-162.
SC
783
RI PT
780
Ianuzzi, R., 2013. The Carboniferous-Permian floral transition in the Paraná Basin. In: Lucas, S.G., DiMichele, W.A., Barrick, J.E., Schneider, J.A., Spielmann, J.A.
787
(Eds.), The Carboniferous-Permian Transition. Museum of Natural History and
788
Science, New Mexico, 132-136.
789
M AN U
786
Kalkreuth, W., Holz, M., Mexias, A., Balbinot, M., Levandowski, J., Willett, J., Finkelman, R., Burger, H., 2010. Depositional setting, petrology and chemistry
791
of Permian coals from the Paraná Basin: South Santa Catarina Coalfield, Brazil.
792
International Journal of Coal Geology, 84, 213–236. Kern, H.P., 2008. Arquitetura estratigráfica de corpos arenosos gerados por ondas e
EP
793
TE D
790
marés no Bloco Central da Mina do Iruí (Formação Rio Bonito, eopermiano da
795
Bacia do Paraná, RS). Master thesis, UNISINOS University.
AC C
794
796
Kjerfve, B., 1994. Coastal lagoons. Elsevier Oceanography Series, 60, 1–8.
797
Kraft, J.C., Chrzastowski, M.J., 1985. Coastal stratigraphic sequences. In: Davis, R.A.
798
(Ed.), Coastal sedimentary environments. Spring-Verlag, Massachusetts, 187-
799
224.
800 801
Lavina, E.L., Nowatzki, C.H., Santos, M.A.A., Leão, H.Z., 1985. Ambientes de sedimentação do Super-Grupo Tubarão na região de Cachoeira do Sul. Acta
32
33
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 802 803
Geolog. Leopoldensia, 9, 5-75. Lavina, E.L.C., Lopes, R.C., 1987. A Transgressão Marinha do Permiano Inferior e a
804
Evolução Paleogeográfica do Supergrupo Tubarão no Estado do Rio Grande do
805
Sul. Paula-Coutiana, 1, 51-103. Lopes, R.C., 1995. Arcabouço aloestratigráfico para o intervalo “Rio Bonito Palermo”
RI PT
806 807
(Eopermiano da Bacia do Paraná), entre Butiá e São Sepé, Rio Grande do Sul.
808
Master thesis, UNISINOS University.
Lopes, R.C., Lavina, E.L.C., 2001. Estratigrafia de sequências nas formações Rio
SC
809
Bonito e Parlermo (Bacia do Paraná), na região carbonífera do Jacuí, Rio Grande
811
do Sul. In: Ribeiro, H.J.P.S. (Eds.), Estratigrafia de Sequências: Fundamentos e
812
Aplicações. Edunisinos, São Leopoldo, 391-419.
813
M AN U
810
Lopes, R.C., Faccini, U.F., Paim, P.S.G., Garcia, A.J.V., Lavina, E.L., 2003a. Barras de maré na formação Rio Bonito: elementos arquiteturais e geometria dos corpos
815
(Iruí e Capané - RS). In: Paim, P.S.G., Faccini, U.F., Netto, R.G. (Eds.),
816
Geometria, arquitetura e heterogeneidade de corpos sedimentares: estudo de
817
casos. Unisinos, São Leopoldo, 78 -92. Lopes, R.C., Lavina, E.L., Paim, P.S.G., Goldberg, K., 2003b. Controle estratigráfico e
EP
818
TE D
814
deposicional da gênese dos carvões da região do Rio Jacuí (RS). In: Paim,
820
P.S.G., Faccini, U.F., Netto, R.G. (Eds.), Geometria, arquitetura e
821 822 823
AC C
819
heterogeneidade de corpos sedimentares: estudo de casos. Unisinos, São Leopoldo, 187-206.
Lopes, R.C., Paim, P.S.G., Lavina, E.L., 2003c. Modelo de reservatório em arenitos
824
litorâneos: ilha de barreira Permiana na Formação Rio Bonito (Minas do Leão -
825
RS). In: Paim, P.S.G., Faccini, U.F., Netto, R.G. (Eds.), Geometria, arquitetura e
826
heterogeneidade de corpos sedimentares: estudo de casos. Unisinos, São
33
34
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 827 828
Leopoldo, 60-77. Matos, S.L.F., Yamamoto, J.K., Hachiro, J., Coimbra, A.M., 2000. Tonsteins da
829
Formação Rio Bonito no depósito de carvão Candiota, RS. Revista Brasileira de
830
Geociências, 30, 679-684.
832 833
McCabe, P.J., 1984. Depositional envinronments of coal and coal-bearing strata. Spec.
RI PT
831
Publs int. Ass. Sediment., 7, 13-42.
McCubbin, D.G., 1982. Barrier-Island and Strand-Plain Facies. In: Scholle, P.A., Spearing, D. (Eds.), Sandstone Depositional Environments. American
835
Association of Petroleum Geologist, Tulsa, 247-279.
837 838
Miall, A.D., 1977. A review of the braided river depositional environment. Earth Science Reviews, 13, 1-62.
M AN U
836
SC
834
Milani, E.J., 1997. Evolução tectono-estratigráfica da Bacia do Paraná e seu relacionamento com a geodinâmica fanerozóica do Gondwana sul-ocidental.
840
Ph.D. thesis, UFRGS University.
841 842
TE D
839
Milani, E.J., Melo, J.H.G., Souza, P.A., Fernandes, L.A., França, A.B., 2007. Bacia do Paraná. Boletim de Geociências da Petrobrás, 8, 69-82. Mulhern, J.S., Johnson, C.L., Martin, J.M., 2017. Is barrier island morphology a
844
function of tidal and wave regime? Marine Geology, 387, 74-84.
846 847 848
Netto, R.G., 2001. Icnologia e Estratigrafia de Sequências. In: Ribeiro, H.J.P.S. (Ed.),
AC C
845
EP
843
Estratigrafia de Sequências: Fundamentos e Aplicações. Edunisinos, São Leopoldo, 219-259.
Netto, R.G., Tognoli, F.M.W., Gandini, R., Lima, J.H.D., Gibert, J.M., Bosetti, E.P.,
849
2012. Ichnology of the Phanerozoic Deposits of Southern Brazil: Synthetic
850
Review. In: Netto, R.G., Carmona, N.B., Tognoli, F.M.W. (Eds.), Ichnology of
851
Latin America - Selected Papers. Sociedade Brasileira de Geologia, Porto
34
35
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
853 854 855 856
Alegre, 37-68. Nichols, M.M., 1989. Sediment accumulation rates and relative sea-level rise in lagoons. Marine Geology, 88, 201-219. Nirmala Khandan, N., 2002. Modeling tools for environmental engineers and scientists, CRC Press LLC, Florida.
RI PT
852
Pemberton, S.G., Spila, M., Pulham, A.J., Saunders, T., MacEachern, J.A., Robbins, D.,
858
Sinclair, I.K., 2001. Ichnology and sedimentology of shallow to marginal marine
859
systems: Ben Nevis and Avalon reservoirs, Jeanne D’Arc Basin, Geological
860
Association of Canada Short Course Notes, St John’s.
Rahmani, R.A., 1988. Estuarine tidal channel and nearshore sedimentation of a Late
M AN U
861
SC
857
862
Cretaceous epicontinental sea, Drumheller, Alberta, Canada. In: Boer, P.L., Van
863
Gelder, A., Nio, S.D. (Eds.), Tide-Influenced Sedimentary Environments and
864
Facies. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Holland, 433-471.
866 867
Reineck, H.E., Singh, I.B., 1986. Depositional sedimentary environments with reference
TE D
865
to terrigenous clastics, second ed. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Reinson, G.E., 1984. Barrier island and associated strand-plain systems. In: Walker, R.G. (Ed.), Facies Models. Geological Association of Canada , Toronto, 119-
869
140.
871 872 873
Reinson, G.E., 1992. Transgressive barrier island and estuarine systems. In: Walker,
AC C
870
EP
868
R.G., James, N.P. (Eds.), Facies Models - Response to Sea Level Change. Geological Association of Canada Publications, Canada, 179-194.
Ryer, T. A., Langer, A. W., 1980. Thickness change involved in the peat-to-coal
874
transformation for a bituminous coal of Cretaceous age in central Utah. Journal
875
of Sedimentary Petrology, 50, 987-992.
876
Rocha-Campos, A.C., 1967. The Tubarão group in the Brazilian portion of the Paraná
35
36
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 877 878 879 880
basin. Problems in Brazilian Gondwana Geology, 27-102. Rocha-Campos, A.C., Santos, P.R., Canuto, J.R., 2008. Late Paleozoic glacial deposits of Brazil: Paraná Basin. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 441, 97-114. Schneider, R.L., Mühlmann, H., Tommasi, I.E., Medeiros, R.S., Daemon, R.F., Nogueira, A.A., 1974. Revisão estratigráfica da Bacia do Paraná. In: XXVIII
882
Congresso Brasileiro de Geologia, Porto Alegre, 41-66.
883
RI PT
881
Sclater, J.G., Christie, P.A.F., 1980. Continental stretching: Na explanation of the postmid-Cretaceous subsidence of the Central North Sea Basin. Journal Geophysical
885
Research, 85, 3711-3739.
Seard, C., Borgomano, J., Granjeon, D., Camoin, G. Impact of environmental
M AN U
886
SC
884
887
parameters on coral reef development and drowning: forward modeling on the
888
last deglacial reefs from Tahiti (French Polynesia, IODP Expedition #310).
889
Sedimentology, 60, 1357-1388.
Schafie, K.R., Madon, M. 2008. A review of stratigraphic simulation techniques and
TE D
890 891
their applications in sequence stratigraphy and basin analysis. Geological
892
Society of Malaysia, 54, 81-89.
Slonski, G.T., 2002. Interpretação paleoclimática do Permiano Inferior da Bacia do
EP
893
Paraná em Santa Catarina, Brasil (Formação Rio Bonito). Master thesis, UFSC
895
University.
AC C
894
896
Smith, D.B., 1988. Bypassing of sand over sand waves and through a sand wave field in
897
the central region of the southern North Sea. In: Boer, P.L., Van Gelder, A., Nio,
898
S.D. (Eds.), Tide-Influenced Sedimentary Environments and Facies. D. Reidel
899
Publishing Company, Holland, 39-50.
900 901
Tognoli, F.M.W., Netto, R.G., 2003. Ichnological signature of paleozoic estuarine deposits from the Rio Bonito-Palermo succession, eastern Paraná Basin, Brazil.
36
37
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 902 903
Asociación Paleontológica Argentina, 1, 141-155. Vail, P.R., Audemard, F., Bowman, S.A., Eisner, P.N., Perez-Cruz, G., 1991. The stratigraphic signature of tectonics, eustasy and sedimentation: An overview. In:
905
Einsele, G., Ricker, W., Seilacher, A. (Eds.), Cycles and Events in Stratigraphy.
906
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 617-659.
907
RI PT
904
Walker, R., 1992. Facies, facies models and modern stratigraphic concepts. In: Walker, R.G., James, N.P. (Eds.), Facies Models - Response to Sea Level Change.
909
Geological Association of Canada Publications, Canadá, 1-14.
911 912
Wentworth, C.K., 1992. A Scale of Grade and Class Terms for Clastic Sediments. The Journal of Geology, 30, 377-392.
M AN U
910
SC
908
Zerfass, H., Lavina, E.L., Schultz, C.L., Garcia, A.J.V., Faccini, U.F., Chemale Jr., F., 2003. Sequence-stratigraphy of continental strata of Southernmost Brazil: a
914
contribution to Southwestern Gondwana palaeogeography and palaeoclimate.
915
Sedimentary Geology, 161, 85-105.
916
TE D
913
Ziegler, A.M., Raymond, A.L., Gierlowski, T.C., Horrell, M.A., Rowley, D.B., Lottes, A.L., 1987. Coal, climate and terrestrial productivity: the present and early
918
Cretaceous compared. Geological Society, 32, 25-49.
920 921
TABLE CAPTIONS
AC C
919
EP
917
922
Table 1 – Input data of stratigraphic simulation.
923
Table 2 – Summary of sedimentary facies of Rio Bonito Formation in analyzed
924
depositional sequence.
925 926
FIGURE CAPTIONS
37
38
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 927
Figure 1 – A: Study area located in the southern Paraná Basin; B: Detailed study area
929
with cores and stratigraphic sections (white section is from Cagliari, 2014, see Fig. 2);
930
Insert figure shows the location in South America; C: Paleogeographic map of the
931
eastern border of the Paraná Basin (Lavina and Lopes, 1987).
932
Figure 2 – Capané-Iruí stratigraphic section with third-order depositional sequences
933
according to Lopes (1995) and fourth-order depositional sequence, which is the focus of
934
this study (adapted from Cagliari, 2014).
935
Figure 3 – Paleobathymetric map for the studied area prior to coal deposition. The NE-
936
SW direction is parallel to the paleocoastline.
937
Figure 4 – Core photographs of the sedimentary facies.
938
Figure 5 – Vertical succession of facies. A: Detailed profile showing sandy barrier
939
succession; B: Sandy barrier interleaved with lagoonal deposits.
940
Figure 6 – Isopach map of the upper Iruí coal seam. Isocontours are in meters.
941
Figure 7 – Stratigraphic sections. AA’ corresponds to SW-NE section, parallel to
942
paleocoastline, and BB’ corresponds to NW-SE section, perpendicular to
943
paleocoastline. Facies code: F1 - Coal; F2 - Laminated siltstone; F3 - Structureless
944
siltstone; F4 – Heterolithic sandstone; F5 - Trough cross-bedded arkosic sandstone; F6 -
945
Parallel to subhorizontal lamination quartz sandstone; F7 - Trough cross-bedded quartz
946
sandstone; F8 – Bioturbated heterolithic sandstone; F9 - Hummocky cross-stratification
947
quartz sandstone.
948
Figure 8 – Relative sea level curve and sediment supply established for the stratigraphic
949
simulation.
950
Figure 9 – Results of stratigraphic simulation in different stages, shown as sediments
951
relative distribution. A: Peat accumulation at 0.5 Ma; B, C: Lagoon deposition at 0.7
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
928
38
39
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Ma and 1.05 Ma; D: Sandy barrier transgression over continental deposits.
953
Figure 10 – A: W-E simulated stratigraphic section, corresponding to stratigraphic
954
section AA’; B: N-S simulated stratigraphic section, corresponding to stratigraphic
955
section BB’ (complete section in Figure 7). The red arrows and values show the
956
locations and extensions (in kilometers) of the sedimentary sources.
957
Figure 11 – Real (left) and predicted (right) lithologies. The real cores are from Figure 7
958
and predicted ones are the result of the forward stratigraphic simulation. A: Similar
959
thickness obtained for IB-174-RS; B-C: Predicted deposits are shifted upward due to the
960
absence of the erosion processes in the simulation (note coal in B and siltstone in C); D:
961
Sandstone succession in core IB-012-RS is thicker than predicted one.
M AN U
SC
RI PT
952
AC C
EP
TE D
962
39
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPTReference Value
Parameter
Sand: ≤ 2 mm Silt: ≤ 0.06 mm Coal: ≤ 0.004 mm
Wentworth (1922)
Amplitude of the relative sea level rise
16 m
Estimated from the sedimentary record considering the preserved thickness equal to the creation of the accommodation space
Rate of the relative sea level rise
0-10 m/Ma
Obtained from the stratigraphic simulation
Compaction parameters
Sand: ∅ = 0.49; c = 270 Silt: ∅ = 0.75; c = 580 Coal: ∅ = 0.48; c = 900
Sclater and Christie (1980) Huang and Gradstein (1990) Beicip-Franlab (2009)
Total buried depth
3,000 m
Cagliari (2014)
Erosion
Not considered
-
Subsidence
Not configured
Volume of compacted sediment
Sand: 4.6 km³ Silt: 0.45 km³ Coal: 0.59 km³
Total sediment supply
2.38 km³/Ma
Obtained from stratigraphic simulation
Peat accumulation
30 m/Ma
Obtained from boreholes and simulation, according to paleobathymetry
Precipitation
2,400 mm/y
Annual averages necessary for peat accumulation according to Ziegler et al. (1987)
SC
TE D
Supply
Obtained from stratigraphic simulation
Average depositional slope
Continental: 0.2 m/km Marine: 200 m/km
Beicip-Franlab (2009) Beicip-Franlab (2009)
Gravity-driven (sand + silt)
Continental: 26.52 km²/ka Marine: 0.018335 km²/ka
Obtained from stratigraphic simulation
Water-driven (sand + silt)
Continental: 26.52 km²/ka Marine: 0.018335 km²/ka
Obtained from the stratigraphic simulation
Wave influence (sand + silt)
53.14 km²/ka
Obtained from the stratigraphic simulation
Wave incidence
Summer waves (constructive): NE Winter waves (destructive): SW
Rio Bonito Formation waves incidence estimated by Cacela (2008)
AC C Transport
Estimated from the volume of sediment preserved in the studied depositional sequence
Position: wide - flow rate East: 0.05 km - 22 m3/s South: 2 km - 5 m3/s North: 0.05 km - 37.5 m3/s South: 0.05 km - 12.5 m3/s East: 1.8 km - 2.5 m3/s North: 1 km - 3.75 m3/s West: 0.8 km - 37.5 m³/s
EP
Fluvial discharge (average)
-
M AN U
Basin
RI PT
Grain size Lithology
∅ : depositional porosity; c: exponential coefficient.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Code
Sedimentary Facies
F1
Coal
Facies Association
Interpretation Swamp
Heterolithic sandstone
F5
Trough cross-bedding arkosic sandstone
F6
Parallel to subhorizontal lamination quartz sandstone
F7
Trough cross-bedding quartz sandstone Bioturbated heterolithic sandstone
F9
Hummocky crossstratification quartz sandstone
EP AC C
Channel-fill bars
Foreshore
Tide-influenced deposits
Upper shoreface Wave-dominated facies association
TE D
F8
Tidal-dominated facies association
Estuary/open lagoon
RI PT
F4
Back-barrier
Lagoon
SC
Laminated siltstones and massive siltstone
M AN U
F2, F3
Standing-waterdominated facies
Lower shoreface
Lower shoreface under storm conditions
Sandy barrier
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT - Facies interpretation: swamp, lagoon, sandy barrier and tide-influenced deposits; - The coal bearing succession was deposited during the transgressive system tract; - Peat deposition, barrier breakup and migration landward occurred in sequence; - Relative sea level curve and sedimentary sources location were obtained from modeling;
AC C
EP
TE D
M AN U
SC
RI PT
- Relative sea level rose 16 meters during simulation period;