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Students Experience Self-Esteem Improvement During Mountaineering
Wilderness and Environmental Medicine, 19, 181 185 (2008)
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Students Experience Self-Esteem Improvement During Mountaineering Saeid Bahaeloo-Horeh, MD; Shervin Assari, MD From the Mountain Medicine Committee of Mountaineering Federation of Iran; Resident of Sports Medicine of Tehran University of Medical Sciences (Dr Bahaeloo-Horeh); and the Medicine and Health Promotion Research Institute (Dr Assari), Tehran, Iran.
Introduction.—Despite ample evidence in the literature of the correlation between sports participation in general and self-esteem, there is a dearth of information regarding the probable impact of specific sporting activities on self-concept. We, therefore, sought to assess the effect of mountaineering on self-esteem and its correlates in university students. Methods.—This longitudinal study recruited 54 students (male 26%, female 74%) from different universities in the capital city of Iran, Tehran. The students participated in a mountaineering program in Mt. Damavand in July 2006. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), SF-36, and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) were completed by all the participants before and after this activity. Their demographic data and mountaineering experience were also collected. Results.—Mean RSES after climbing was significantly higher than before the experience (24.78 ⫾ 2.4 vs. 23.67 ⫾ 3.3; P ⫽ .002). Self-esteem was correlated with bodily pain, and its improvement was correlated with mental health and depression (P ⬍ .05). Self-esteem and its improvement were not significantly correlated with age, sex, marital status, prior personal and family history of mountaineering, past history of mountain sickness, and reaching the summit (P ⬎ .05). Conclusion.—This study showed that participation in a single mountaineering program improved students’ sense of self-esteem. We suggest that taking up this activity might have benefits for students with depression. Key words: self-esteem, mountaineering, sport, Damavand, students
Introduction For all the various definitions of self-esteem, for instance, ‘‘one’s evaluative judgment of the self,’’1 ‘‘one’s feelings of self-worth,’’2 ‘‘level of global regard one has for the self,’’3 and how well a person ‘‘prizes, values, approves, or likes’’ him or herself,4 there is no doubt that a positive self-esteem is the desired outcome of academic, sport, and psychotherapeutic settings.5 High self-esteem is noted for its positive influence on a variety of achievement behaviors6 and is associated with greater well-being than is low self-esteem.7,8 An overarching aim of any educational system is the enhancement of students’ self-respect,9 and to that end, efforts should be made in order to widen the scope of activities that can contribute to a better self-concept. Corresponding author: Saeid Bahaeloo-Horeh, Sports Medicine Research Center; Tehran University/Medical Sciences, No. 7, Jalal-AleAhmad st., Opp Shariati Hospital, Tehran, Iran (e-mail: saeid㛮baha@ yahoo.com).
Sport is widely believed to build self-esteem,10 and research shows a positive association between general exercise and self-concept.11 Our review of the existing literature on the subject showed that there is a paucity of data regarding the influence of specific sporting activities on self-respect. The only research that we could find explored the impact of swimming on self-esteem.10,12 We are inclined to believe that the association between different sports and self-concept should be assessed separately, because the type of sport has been judged a moderator of the effect of exercise on selfesteem.13 Mountaineering is a sport pursued by many in different age groups, and it was our desire to assess its impact on self-esteem and its correlates, such as depression, anxiety, and quality of life in university students. Material and methods This study was approved by the Sports Medicine Research Center of the Tehran University of Medical Sci-
182 ences. Fifty-four students from different universities in Tehran were enrolled in this longitudinal study and participated in a climbing program on Mt. Damavand in July 2006. Their demographic data (age, sex, and marital status) and mountaineering history (history of mountain sickness and prior personal and family history of mountaineering) were recorded. Mountaineering experience was categorized into (1) amateur: no climbing of mountains with height over 4000 meters during the previous 6 months; (2) semi-expert: 1 to 5 such climbs; and (3) expert: more than 5 such climbs.14 MOUNTAINEERING PROGRAM Lying 50 km to the northeast of Tehran, Mt. Damavand is Iran’s highest mountain at a height of 5671 meters and is the highest single-peak mountain in the world after Mt. Kilimanjaro. The mountaineering program was planned for a 3-day period. On the first day, the students left Tehran for the Polour town on a 2-hour bus journey and spent the night at a Mountaineering Federation camp. The team embarked on climbing the southern aspect of Mt. Damavand at 10:00 AM on the second day and returned to the camp at 6:00 PM on the third day. Climbing the southern aspect of Mt. Damavand does not involve technical mountaineering.
Bahaeloo-Horeh and Assari problems, and mental health. It also provides total scores and 2 summary scores of physical health and mental health. All the scores are between 0 and 100 and are calculated on the basis of well-defined guidelines; a higher score signifies a better state of health.17 The HADS is a self-assessment instrument for detecting anxiety and depression. Each has 7 items providing a score between 0 and 21, with a higher score indicative of higher anxiety or depression.18 This questionnaire could assess depression and anxiety concurrently, and its completion takes little time making it suitable for use in wilderness medicine studies. The HADS has been used widely, and it is validated in Iran.19 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS We performed a data analysis using SPSS software (version 13, Chicago, IL). A paired t test was used for comparing self-esteem in the participants before and after mountaineering. A Pearson’s bivariate correlation test was employed for correlation assessment between selfesteem and its change and age, depression, and QoL and its subscales. A Mann Whitney’s nonparametric test was performed in order to compare self-esteem change between the 2 groups of students (ie, those who reached and those who did not reach the top of the mountain). A P value less than .05 was considered significant.
ADMINISTRATION OF QUESTIONNAIRES The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), SF-36, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), and the checklist including demographic data were completed by all the students in the Mountaineering Federation camp on the first night of the trip. On the third night in the camp, the participants were asked to complete the RSES questionnaire again. The participants were divided into 2 groups based on whether or not they had reached the mountain peak. INSTRUMENTS The RSES is perhaps the most widely used self-esteem measure in social science research. The questionnaire has 10 items and the scale ranges from 0 to 30 with higher scores representing more positive self-esteem.15 The RSES has good internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and convergent and discriminate validity.16 The SF-36 is a quality of life (QoL) scale with 36 items. It is a self-administered questionnaire consisting of 8 subscales: physical functioning, role limitation due to physical problems, bodily pain, general health, vitality, social functioning, role limitation due to emotional
Results Our 54 participants were comprised of 40 (74%) females and 14 (26%) males. The mean age ⫾ standard deviation (SD) was 23.3 ⫾ 2.6 years (range, 19–32 years). The participants were studying in various fields such as sports sciences, engineering, business, and human sciences. The mean ⫾ SD and range of the duration of the participants’ mountaineering history were 3.65 ⫾ 3.06 and 1–14 years, respectively. Table 1 shows the demographic and mountaineering data of the participants. The mean ⫾ SD scales of the students’ self-esteem before and after climbing were 23.67 ⫾ 3.3 and 24.78 ⫾ 2.4, respectively (Figure 1), which shows a significant increase (P ⫽ .002). Self-esteem change had no significant correlation with age, sex, marital status, previous self and family history of mountaineering, past history of mountain sickness, and mountaineering experience (P ⬎ .05). Self-esteem before mountaineering was significantly correlated with bodily pain score (higher score indicating lower pain)17 as a subscale of QoL (r ⫽ .42, P ⫽ .044). There was also a significant negative correlation between
Self-Esteem Improvement during Mountaineering
183
Table 1. Demographic and mountaineering data of studied students Variable
Number (%)
Female sex Unmarried Positive history of mountain sickness Positive history of mountaineering in family
40 44 20 20
(74.1) (81.5) (37) (37)
Mountaineering experience Amateur Semi-expert Expert
17 (31.5) 27 (50) 10 (18.5)
self-esteem after mountaineering and bodily pain (r ⫽ .40, P ⫽ .05). Furthermore, self-esteem improvement was significantly correlated with depression (r ⫽ .54, P ⫽ .010) and general mental health as a subscale of QoL (r ⫽ ⫺.51, P ⫽ .015). Self-esteem was not correlated with a total score of QoL and anxiety (P ⬎ .05) (Table 2). In this study, 43 (79.6%) students reached the peak of Damavand. Mountaineering experience was not significantly correlated with reaching the summit. Self-esteem in the participants that did not reach the peak improved more than that of the others (mean ⫾ SD of self-esteem scale improvement ⫽ 2.56 ⫾ 2.29 vs. 0.39 ⫾ 2.38; P ⫽ .041).
Figure 1. Self-esteem of students, before and after mountaineering.
Discussion The present study shows that a mountaineering program can bolster university students’ self-esteem. It seems that this self-based activity of challenging nature affects the psychological aspects of a climber. This effect has been seen in swimming as well.10,12 The bulk of related research has thus far been inclined to focus on the association between self-concept and sport in general.13,20–22 The evidence for this correlation comes mainly from meta-analytic studies and studies using large, nationally representative samples from the
Table 2. Correlation coefficient between self-esteem, before and after climbing, and its changes with anxiety, depression, and quality of life Variables
Subscales
Self-esteem before climbing
Self-esteem after climbing
HADS
Anxiety Depression
⫺0.28 0.034
⫺0.39 ⫺0.25
Quality of life
Total score Physical function Role-physical Role-emotional Social functioning Bodily pain General mental health Fatigue General health perception Physical health Mental health
0.07 ⫺0.06 0.35 ⫺0.06 ⫺0.18 0.42* 0.10 0.32 0.35 0.17 0.03
0.13 ⫺0.01 0.31 0.09 ⫺0.05 0.40* 0.40 0.40 0.26 0.17 0.19
*P ⬍ .05. HADS ⫽ Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale.
Self-esteem changes 0.16 0.54* ⫺0.23 ⫺0.13 ⫺0.07 ⫺0.25 ⫺0.16 ⫺0.14 ⫺0.51* ⫺0.31 0.08 ⫺0.17 ⫺0.29
184 United States.23,24 Sonstroem and Morgan have suggested that exercising is associated with global self-esteem via perceptions of self-efficacy, physical competence, and physical acceptance.20 As a result, there seems to be no denying that self-concept can dramatically influence athletic performance.25 We found that the self-esteem of university students before and after mountaineering had a negative correlation with body pain. This can be explained through the link between physical health and self-esteem. Previous studies have reported that self-esteem is correlated negatively with pain26 and positively with physical health.27 It shows that the chance of self-esteem improvement might increase through pain control in those who have physical comorbidity. In our study, the degree of improvement in self-esteem was positively correlated with depressive symptoms and was negatively correlated with general mental health. This suggests that the most significant effect of mountaineering on self-esteem is seen in those with the poorest mental health. We, therefore, suggest that mountaineering is a useful activity for those suffering from poor mental health and depression. Reaching the summit is arguably the ultimate goal of mountaineering. Our results, however, showed that those who were unable to climb as far as the mountain peak had a higher rate of improvement in their self-respect than did the ones who reached the top. It seems that the activity per se plays a role in the enhancement of selfconcept not the act of covering the entire distance. We found no correlation between self-esteem and selfesteem improvement with sex, age, mountaineering experience, previous history of mountain sickness, and personal and family history of mountaineering, but it is worthy of note that a link between self-esteem and sporting experience has been previously reported.4,13 The positive influence of mountaineering on self-esteem can boost well-being and educational performance.7–9 Resources should therefore be allocated to supporting this sport, especially at universities, so that students who are able to participate in mountaineering programs can achieve these benefits, regardless of demographics and previous sporting history. One limitation of our study was the lack of a control group (ie, a group of students who did not participate in the climbing program). Lack of following assessment of students’ self-esteem was another limitation of this study. Although the change in self-esteem score may be perceived as minor (1 point), it was, nonetheless statistically significant. We feel it may be clinically significant given the small number of participants and a minimal scattering of data (standard deviation ⫽ 2–3, means ⫽ 23–24).
Bahaeloo-Horeh and Assari A synthesis of several trials found that exercise may have short-term beneficial effects in children and adolescents. 22 Consequently, follow-up investigations should be designed to determine short- or long-term effects of mountaineering on self-esteem. This could be another step on the road to augmenting university physical education programs via a thorough assessment of the psychological effects of different sports on university students. Conclusion We found that participation in a single mountaineering program had a beneficial effect on students’ self-esteem, especially those with poorer mental health. Therefore, we suggest that mountaineering is a logical recommendation for students’ activity schedules. References 1. Rosenberg M. Conceiving the Self. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1979. 2. Harter S. Historical roots of contemporary issues involving self-concept. In: Bracken BA, ed. The Handbook of Self Concept. New York, NY: Wiley; 1996:1–37. 3. Harter S. Causes and consequences of low self-esteem in children and adolescents. In: Baumeister RF, ed. Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard. New York, NY: Plenum; 1993:87. 4. Blascovich J, Tomaka J. Measures of self-esteem. In: Robinson JP, Shaver PR, Wrightsman LS, eds. Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes. Volume One of Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1991:115–160. 5. Fox KR. The effects of exercise on self-perceptions and self-esteem. In: Biddle SJH, Fox KR, Boucher SH, eds. Physical Activity and Psychological Well-Being. New York, NY: Routledge; 2000:88–117. 6. Marsh HW, Hattie J. Theoretical perspectives on the structure of self-concept. In: Bracken BA, ed. The Handbook of Self Concept. New York, NY: Wiley; 1996:38–90. 7. Paradise AW, Kernis MH. Self-esteem and psychological well-being: Implications of fragile self-esteem. J Soc Clin Psychol. 2002;21:345–361. 8. Brook U, Heim M. A pilot study to investigate whether sport influences psychological parameters in the personality of asthmatic children. Family Practice. 1991;8:213– 215. 9. US Department for Education and Employment. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Washington, DC: US Department for Education and Employment; 1999:11. 10. Coatsworth JD, Conroy DE. Enhancing the self-esteem of youth swimmers through coach training: Gender and age effects. Psycho Sport Exerc. 2006;7:173–192. 11. Donaldson SJ, Ronan KR. The effects of sports partici-
Self-Esteem Improvement during Mountaineering
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15. 16.
17. 18. 19.
pation on young adolescents’ emotional well-being. Adolescence. 2006;41:369–389. Mummery WK. The role of coping style, social support and self-concept in resilience of sport performance: athletic insight. Available at: http://www.athleticinsight. com/Vol3Iss3/ExplanationDevelopment.htm. Accessed March 16, 2008. Spence JC, McGannon KR, Poon P. The effect of exercise on global self-esteem: a quantitative review. Exerc Psychol. 2005;27:311–334. Ziaee V, Yunesian M, Ahmadinejad Z, et al. Acute mountain sickness in Iranian trekkers around Mount Damavand (5671 m) in Iran. Wilderness Environ Med. 2003;14:214– 219. Rosenberg M. Conceiving the Self. Malabar, FL: Krieger; 1986. Blascovich J, Tomaka J. Measures of self-esteem. In: Robinson J, Shaver P, Wrightsman L, eds. Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes. 6th ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1991:115–160. Ware JE Jr, Sherbourne CD. The MOS 36-item short-form health survey (SF-36). Medical Care. 1992;30:473–483. Zigmond AS, Snaith RP. The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1983;67:361–370. Montazeri A, Vahdaninia M, Ebrahimi M, Jarvandi S. The hospital anxiety and depression scale (HADS): translation
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26. 27.
and validation study of the Iranian version. Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2003;1:14. Sonstroem RJ, Morgan WP. Exercise and self-esteem: rationale and model. Med Sci Sports Exercise. 1989;21:329– 337. Levya SS, Ebbeck V. The exercise and self-esteem model in adult women: the inclusion of physical acceptance. Psycho Sport Exercise. 2005;6:571–584. Ekeland E, Heian F, Hagen KB. Can exercise improve self esteem in children and young people? A systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Br J Sports Med. 2005;39: 792–798. Marsh HW. Academic self-concept: theory, measurement, and research. In: Suls J, ed. Psychological Perspectives on the Self. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum 1993;4:59–98. Marsh HW, Kleitman S. School athletic participation: mostly gain with little pain. J Sport Exercise Psych. 2003; 25:205–228. Tracy AJ, Erkut S. Gender and race patterns in the pathways from sports participation to self. Sociological Perspectives. 2002;45:445–466. Armentrout DP. The impact of chronic pain on the selfconcept. J Clin Psychol. 1979;35:517–521. Antonucci TC, Peggs JF, Marquez JT. The relationship between self-esteem and physical health in a family practice population. Fam Pract Res J. 1989;9:65–72.
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Students Experience Self-Esteem Improvement During Mountaineering Saeid Bahaeloo-Horeh, MD; Shervin Assari, MD From the Mountain Medicine Committee of Mountaineering Federation of Iran; Resident of Sports Medicine of Tehran University of Medical Sciences (Dr Bahaeloo-Horeh); and the Medicine and Health Promotion Research Institute (Dr Assari), Tehran, Iran.
Introduction.—Despite ample evidence in the literature of the correlation between sports participation in general and self-esteem, there is a dearth of information regarding the probable impact of specific sporting activities on self-concept. We, therefore, sought to assess the effect of mountaineering on self-esteem and its correlates in university students. Methods.—This longitudinal study recruited 54 students (male 26%, female 74%) from different universities in the capital city of Iran, Tehran. The students participated in a mountaineering program in Mt. Damavand in July 2006. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), SF-36, and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) were completed by all the participants before and after this activity. Their demographic data and mountaineering experience were also collected. Results.—Mean RSES after climbing was significantly higher than before the experience (24.78 ⫾ 2.4 vs. 23.67 ⫾ 3.3; P ⫽ .002). Self-esteem was correlated with bodily pain, and its improvement was correlated with mental health and depression (P ⬍ .05). Self-esteem and its improvement were not significantly correlated with age, sex, marital status, prior personal and family history of mountaineering, past history of mountain sickness, and reaching the summit (P ⬎ .05). Conclusion.—This study showed that participation in a single mountaineering program improved students’ sense of self-esteem. We suggest that taking up this activity might have benefits for students with depression. Key words: self-esteem, mountaineering, sport, Damavand, students
Introduction For all the various definitions of self-esteem, for instance, ‘‘one’s evaluative judgment of the self,’’1 ‘‘one’s feelings of self-worth,’’2 ‘‘level of global regard one has for the self,’’3 and how well a person ‘‘prizes, values, approves, or likes’’ him or herself,4 there is no doubt that a positive self-esteem is the desired outcome of academic, sport, and psychotherapeutic settings.5 High self-esteem is noted for its positive influence on a variety of achievement behaviors6 and is associated with greater well-being than is low self-esteem.7,8 An overarching aim of any educational system is the enhancement of students’ self-respect,9 and to that end, efforts should be made in order to widen the scope of activities that can contribute to a better self-concept. Corresponding author: Saeid Bahaeloo-Horeh, Sports Medicine Research Center; Tehran University/Medical Sciences, No. 7, Jalal-AleAhmad st., Opp Shariati Hospital, Tehran, Iran (e-mail: saeid㛮baha@ yahoo.com).
Sport is widely believed to build self-esteem,10 and research shows a positive association between general exercise and self-concept.11 Our review of the existing literature on the subject showed that there is a paucity of data regarding the influence of specific sporting activities on self-respect. The only research that we could find explored the impact of swimming on self-esteem.10,12 We are inclined to believe that the association between different sports and self-concept should be assessed separately, because the type of sport has been judged a moderator of the effect of exercise on selfesteem.13 Mountaineering is a sport pursued by many in different age groups, and it was our desire to assess its impact on self-esteem and its correlates, such as depression, anxiety, and quality of life in university students. Material and methods This study was approved by the Sports Medicine Research Center of the Tehran University of Medical Sci-
182 ences. Fifty-four students from different universities in Tehran were enrolled in this longitudinal study and participated in a climbing program on Mt. Damavand in July 2006. Their demographic data (age, sex, and marital status) and mountaineering history (history of mountain sickness and prior personal and family history of mountaineering) were recorded. Mountaineering experience was categorized into (1) amateur: no climbing of mountains with height over 4000 meters during the previous 6 months; (2) semi-expert: 1 to 5 such climbs; and (3) expert: more than 5 such climbs.14 MOUNTAINEERING PROGRAM Lying 50 km to the northeast of Tehran, Mt. Damavand is Iran’s highest mountain at a height of 5671 meters and is the highest single-peak mountain in the world after Mt. Kilimanjaro. The mountaineering program was planned for a 3-day period. On the first day, the students left Tehran for the Polour town on a 2-hour bus journey and spent the night at a Mountaineering Federation camp. The team embarked on climbing the southern aspect of Mt. Damavand at 10:00 AM on the second day and returned to the camp at 6:00 PM on the third day. Climbing the southern aspect of Mt. Damavand does not involve technical mountaineering.
Bahaeloo-Horeh and Assari problems, and mental health. It also provides total scores and 2 summary scores of physical health and mental health. All the scores are between 0 and 100 and are calculated on the basis of well-defined guidelines; a higher score signifies a better state of health.17 The HADS is a self-assessment instrument for detecting anxiety and depression. Each has 7 items providing a score between 0 and 21, with a higher score indicative of higher anxiety or depression.18 This questionnaire could assess depression and anxiety concurrently, and its completion takes little time making it suitable for use in wilderness medicine studies. The HADS has been used widely, and it is validated in Iran.19 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS We performed a data analysis using SPSS software (version 13, Chicago, IL). A paired t test was used for comparing self-esteem in the participants before and after mountaineering. A Pearson’s bivariate correlation test was employed for correlation assessment between selfesteem and its change and age, depression, and QoL and its subscales. A Mann Whitney’s nonparametric test was performed in order to compare self-esteem change between the 2 groups of students (ie, those who reached and those who did not reach the top of the mountain). A P value less than .05 was considered significant.
ADMINISTRATION OF QUESTIONNAIRES The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), SF-36, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), and the checklist including demographic data were completed by all the students in the Mountaineering Federation camp on the first night of the trip. On the third night in the camp, the participants were asked to complete the RSES questionnaire again. The participants were divided into 2 groups based on whether or not they had reached the mountain peak. INSTRUMENTS The RSES is perhaps the most widely used self-esteem measure in social science research. The questionnaire has 10 items and the scale ranges from 0 to 30 with higher scores representing more positive self-esteem.15 The RSES has good internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and convergent and discriminate validity.16 The SF-36 is a quality of life (QoL) scale with 36 items. It is a self-administered questionnaire consisting of 8 subscales: physical functioning, role limitation due to physical problems, bodily pain, general health, vitality, social functioning, role limitation due to emotional
Results Our 54 participants were comprised of 40 (74%) females and 14 (26%) males. The mean age ⫾ standard deviation (SD) was 23.3 ⫾ 2.6 years (range, 19–32 years). The participants were studying in various fields such as sports sciences, engineering, business, and human sciences. The mean ⫾ SD and range of the duration of the participants’ mountaineering history were 3.65 ⫾ 3.06 and 1–14 years, respectively. Table 1 shows the demographic and mountaineering data of the participants. The mean ⫾ SD scales of the students’ self-esteem before and after climbing were 23.67 ⫾ 3.3 and 24.78 ⫾ 2.4, respectively (Figure 1), which shows a significant increase (P ⫽ .002). Self-esteem change had no significant correlation with age, sex, marital status, previous self and family history of mountaineering, past history of mountain sickness, and mountaineering experience (P ⬎ .05). Self-esteem before mountaineering was significantly correlated with bodily pain score (higher score indicating lower pain)17 as a subscale of QoL (r ⫽ .42, P ⫽ .044). There was also a significant negative correlation between
Self-Esteem Improvement during Mountaineering
183
Table 1. Demographic and mountaineering data of studied students Variable
Number (%)
Female sex Unmarried Positive history of mountain sickness Positive history of mountaineering in family
40 44 20 20
(74.1) (81.5) (37) (37)
Mountaineering experience Amateur Semi-expert Expert
17 (31.5) 27 (50) 10 (18.5)
self-esteem after mountaineering and bodily pain (r ⫽ .40, P ⫽ .05). Furthermore, self-esteem improvement was significantly correlated with depression (r ⫽ .54, P ⫽ .010) and general mental health as a subscale of QoL (r ⫽ ⫺.51, P ⫽ .015). Self-esteem was not correlated with a total score of QoL and anxiety (P ⬎ .05) (Table 2). In this study, 43 (79.6%) students reached the peak of Damavand. Mountaineering experience was not significantly correlated with reaching the summit. Self-esteem in the participants that did not reach the peak improved more than that of the others (mean ⫾ SD of self-esteem scale improvement ⫽ 2.56 ⫾ 2.29 vs. 0.39 ⫾ 2.38; P ⫽ .041).
Figure 1. Self-esteem of students, before and after mountaineering.
Discussion The present study shows that a mountaineering program can bolster university students’ self-esteem. It seems that this self-based activity of challenging nature affects the psychological aspects of a climber. This effect has been seen in swimming as well.10,12 The bulk of related research has thus far been inclined to focus on the association between self-concept and sport in general.13,20–22 The evidence for this correlation comes mainly from meta-analytic studies and studies using large, nationally representative samples from the
Table 2. Correlation coefficient between self-esteem, before and after climbing, and its changes with anxiety, depression, and quality of life Variables
Subscales
Self-esteem before climbing
Self-esteem after climbing
HADS
Anxiety Depression
⫺0.28 0.034
⫺0.39 ⫺0.25
Quality of life
Total score Physical function Role-physical Role-emotional Social functioning Bodily pain General mental health Fatigue General health perception Physical health Mental health
0.07 ⫺0.06 0.35 ⫺0.06 ⫺0.18 0.42* 0.10 0.32 0.35 0.17 0.03
0.13 ⫺0.01 0.31 0.09 ⫺0.05 0.40* 0.40 0.40 0.26 0.17 0.19
*P ⬍ .05. HADS ⫽ Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale.
Self-esteem changes 0.16 0.54* ⫺0.23 ⫺0.13 ⫺0.07 ⫺0.25 ⫺0.16 ⫺0.14 ⫺0.51* ⫺0.31 0.08 ⫺0.17 ⫺0.29
184 United States.23,24 Sonstroem and Morgan have suggested that exercising is associated with global self-esteem via perceptions of self-efficacy, physical competence, and physical acceptance.20 As a result, there seems to be no denying that self-concept can dramatically influence athletic performance.25 We found that the self-esteem of university students before and after mountaineering had a negative correlation with body pain. This can be explained through the link between physical health and self-esteem. Previous studies have reported that self-esteem is correlated negatively with pain26 and positively with physical health.27 It shows that the chance of self-esteem improvement might increase through pain control in those who have physical comorbidity. In our study, the degree of improvement in self-esteem was positively correlated with depressive symptoms and was negatively correlated with general mental health. This suggests that the most significant effect of mountaineering on self-esteem is seen in those with the poorest mental health. We, therefore, suggest that mountaineering is a useful activity for those suffering from poor mental health and depression. Reaching the summit is arguably the ultimate goal of mountaineering. Our results, however, showed that those who were unable to climb as far as the mountain peak had a higher rate of improvement in their self-respect than did the ones who reached the top. It seems that the activity per se plays a role in the enhancement of selfconcept not the act of covering the entire distance. We found no correlation between self-esteem and selfesteem improvement with sex, age, mountaineering experience, previous history of mountain sickness, and personal and family history of mountaineering, but it is worthy of note that a link between self-esteem and sporting experience has been previously reported.4,13 The positive influence of mountaineering on self-esteem can boost well-being and educational performance.7–9 Resources should therefore be allocated to supporting this sport, especially at universities, so that students who are able to participate in mountaineering programs can achieve these benefits, regardless of demographics and previous sporting history. One limitation of our study was the lack of a control group (ie, a group of students who did not participate in the climbing program). Lack of following assessment of students’ self-esteem was another limitation of this study. Although the change in self-esteem score may be perceived as minor (1 point), it was, nonetheless statistically significant. We feel it may be clinically significant given the small number of participants and a minimal scattering of data (standard deviation ⫽ 2–3, means ⫽ 23–24).
Bahaeloo-Horeh and Assari A synthesis of several trials found that exercise may have short-term beneficial effects in children and adolescents. 22 Consequently, follow-up investigations should be designed to determine short- or long-term effects of mountaineering on self-esteem. This could be another step on the road to augmenting university physical education programs via a thorough assessment of the psychological effects of different sports on university students. Conclusion We found that participation in a single mountaineering program had a beneficial effect on students’ self-esteem, especially those with poorer mental health. Therefore, we suggest that mountaineering is a logical recommendation for students’ activity schedules. References 1. Rosenberg M. Conceiving the Self. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1979. 2. Harter S. Historical roots of contemporary issues involving self-concept. In: Bracken BA, ed. The Handbook of Self Concept. New York, NY: Wiley; 1996:1–37. 3. Harter S. Causes and consequences of low self-esteem in children and adolescents. In: Baumeister RF, ed. Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard. New York, NY: Plenum; 1993:87. 4. Blascovich J, Tomaka J. Measures of self-esteem. In: Robinson JP, Shaver PR, Wrightsman LS, eds. Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes. Volume One of Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1991:115–160. 5. Fox KR. The effects of exercise on self-perceptions and self-esteem. In: Biddle SJH, Fox KR, Boucher SH, eds. Physical Activity and Psychological Well-Being. New York, NY: Routledge; 2000:88–117. 6. Marsh HW, Hattie J. Theoretical perspectives on the structure of self-concept. In: Bracken BA, ed. The Handbook of Self Concept. New York, NY: Wiley; 1996:38–90. 7. Paradise AW, Kernis MH. Self-esteem and psychological well-being: Implications of fragile self-esteem. J Soc Clin Psychol. 2002;21:345–361. 8. Brook U, Heim M. A pilot study to investigate whether sport influences psychological parameters in the personality of asthmatic children. Family Practice. 1991;8:213– 215. 9. US Department for Education and Employment. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Washington, DC: US Department for Education and Employment; 1999:11. 10. Coatsworth JD, Conroy DE. Enhancing the self-esteem of youth swimmers through coach training: Gender and age effects. Psycho Sport Exerc. 2006;7:173–192. 11. Donaldson SJ, Ronan KR. The effects of sports partici-
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