Study of hydrogen production by solar energy as tool of storing and utilization renewable energy for the desert areas

i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 9

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Short Communication

Study of hydrogen production by solar energy as tool of storing and utilization renewable energy for the desert areas Blal Mohamed a,*, Benatillah Ali b, Belasri Ahmed a, Bouraiou Ahmed c, Lachtar Salah c, Dabou Rachid c a

University of Science and Technology Mohamed Boudiaf, Oran, El Mnaouar, BP 1505, Bir El Djir, 31000, Algeria Laboratory of LEESI, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, University of Ahmed Draı¨a Adrar, Algeria c Unit
e de Recherche en Energies Renouvelables en Milieu Saharien (URERMS), Centre de D
eveloppement des Energies Renouvelables (CDER), 01000, Adrar, Algeria b

article info

abstract

Article history:

The main objective of this paper is to study of hydrogen production in the Sahara region.

Received 17 March 2016

The present work discusses the possibility of generating solar hydrogen in southern

Received in revised form

Algeria. This region is among the areas with an average annual considerable Solar Energy

3 July 2016

in the world. The hydrogen has been produced with experimentation by electrolysis of

Accepted 6 July 2016

water; the dissociation water energy is supplied by a photovoltaic module. The average

Available online xxx

production per square meter of solar panel is studied with both Seasonal factors and geographical areas, which is gives a very important hydrogen production especially in the

Keywords:

south. The purpose of this work is to store the hydrogen as energy in the long term. Indeed,

Solar photovoltaic system

the hydrogen can be stored as gas material without significant loss regardless of the

Electrolyzer

duration of storage, and then converted into electricity in a fuel cell (FC). This system,

Fuel cell

known as Solar-Hydrogen or PV -Hydrogen has many advantages such as, no moving parts,

Desert sites

the electrolyzer and the fuel cell will produce without noise. The results from In Guezzam area showed highest ratio of hydrogen production (the annual average) at different locations varies according to solar radiation. © 2016 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction The energy in future should be based on renewable energy and nuclear as clean energy, in spite of the serious consequences on the environment in case of explosion on nuclear stations. To contribute in study of solar photovoltaic systems with electrolyzer (EL), this research been done in a desert sites

to determine the various effects of hydrogen-generating by solar energy. The Objectives of this study are to investigate and develop autonomous low power systems to producing the hydrogen energy as the alternative tool of energy storage. The Solar-Hydrogen systems advantage don't need to batteries compared with other systems. This domain has been studied by many researchers: Yildiz Kalinci [1] presented a Techno-

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Mohamed). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.034 0360-3199/© 2016 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Please cite this article in press as: Mohamed B, et al., Study of hydrogen production by solar energy as tool of storing and utilization renewable energy for the desert areas, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.034

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Nomenclature EL FC PEM PV IPV Is Ip Vt g Vd Pm Imp Vmp Isc Voc a an Vactiv Ca Vactiv I0a I0c hEL hFC FH2 FH2 O hF T V Tcr pcr P F

Electrolyzer fuel cell Proton Exchange Membrane photovoltaic The current of PV module, A the saturation current of the diode, A The current of fuel cell, A Thermal voltage of diode, V Diode quality factor The voltage between the terminal of diode, V the maximum power, w current of maximum power, A voltage of maximum power, V short circuit current, A open circuit voltage, V charge Transfer coefficient anodic activation voltages, V cathodic activation voltages, V anodic exchange current, A cathodic exchange current, A Electrolyzer efficiency Efficiency of a fuel cell Hydrogen flow, mol/s Water flow, mol/s Faraday efficiency Temperature, K storage volume, m3 Critical temperature, K Critical Pressure, Pa Pressure, Pa Faraday constant, C mol
1

economic analysis of a stand-alone hybrid renewable energy system with hydrogen production and storage option. Also, Pouria Ahmadi [2] studied a multi-objective optimization of an ocean thermal energy conversion system for hydrogen production, where tackled the effects of varying the operating conditions and system parameters on the performances of these integrated systems. T.A.H. Ratlamwala [3] published a comparative energy and exergy analysis of two solar-based integrated hydrogen production systems that the evaluation in terms of energy-related parameters of a hydrogen storage system, connected to a renewable energies power plant. Eduardo Lopez Gonzalez [4] developed on energy evaluation of a solar hydrogen storage facility: Comparison with other electrical energy storage technologies. Janusz Nowotny [5] presented a Sustainable practices: Solar hydrogen fuel and education program on sustainable energy systems, this work considers such programs addressing a range of energy related topics, such as hydrogen energy, electrochemical energy, and photoelectrochemical. N. Briguglio [6] presented a design and testing of a compact PEM electrolyzer system, a compact prototype system for H2 production based on a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) stack was developed and investigated. A detailed study and an optimization of the balance of plant (BoP) were carried out. B. Bensmann [7] studied an

K FF S G V U Ere
v Vdiff Vactiv Vmem E0 PH2 PO2 Ilimit I0 aa ac Rmem Eth N n R A L rM RHa RHc lM Pca Pan PH2 O aH2 O

Boltzmann constant, m2 $kg$s
2 $K
1 The form factor Surface of the PV module, m2 Incident irradiation, w=m2 The operating voltage of electrolyzer, V the voltage of the fuel cell, V reversible voltage, V the concentration voltage, V the activation voltage, V the membrane voltage, V standard reversible cell voltage, V partial pressure of Hydrogen, Pa partial pressures of Oxygen, Pa the limit current of diffusion, A exchange current, A anodic charge Transfer coefficient cathodic charge Transfer coefficient the equivalent resistance of the membrane, U thermoneutral voltage, V Cells number Number of electron exchange constant of Ideal gas, 8:31j=K$mol Active area of membrane, cm2 thickness of the membrane, m the membrane resistivity, U=cm the relative humidity in anode the relative humidity in cathode The water content of the membrane the inlet pressure of cathode, Pa the inlet pressure of anode, Pa The saturation pressure of water vapor, Pa the water activity

energetic evaluation of high pressure PEM electrolyzer systems for intermediate storage of renewable energies. Dimitris Ipsakis [8] completed the power management strategies for a stand-alone power system using renewable energy sources and hydrogen storage. A stand-alone power system based on a photovoltaic array and wind generators that stores the excessive energy from renewable energy sources (RES) in the form of hydrogen via water electrolysis for future use in a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell is currently in operation at Neo Olvio of Xanthi, Greece. Efficient power management strategies (PMS) for the system have been developed. Rekioua.D [9] developed a hybrid system photovoltaic-fuel cell for stand-alone application; this recent study has importance to production electricity without interruption in remote areas. In 1990, Ledjeff [10] published the first simulation of such a system. It used photovoltaic panels as the only source of energy. In 1993, Barra [11] published in turn an economic study in which they estimated at 0.22$/kWh cost of electricity that could be produced by system similar to a Mediterranean island. The bulk of the costs then returned at cost of containers designed for hydrogen pressurized to 30 bar. In the same year, A.G. Garcia-Conde [12] published experimental results regarding hydrogen production station. In The next year, Hollenberg [13] reported the operation of the part

Please cite this article in press as: Mohamed B, et al., Study of hydrogen production by solar energy as tool of storing and utilization renewable energy for the desert areas, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.034

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“production of hydrogen and hydride storage” of a storage system connected to photovoltaic panels with a total power of 150 W. Also in 1994, Dienhart [14] realized a feasibility study of an autonomous system storing hydrogen and power from photovoltaic panels and wind turbines. In 1995, Vanhanen [15], following the model of a storage system in the hydrogen form as a whole, concluded that the characteristics of electrochemical components are the weak points responsible for the poor overall system efficiency. In 1996, Galli [16], presented initial results regarding a hydrogen storage system powered by photovoltaic panels, storing, using hydrides and using a similar fuel cell that used at the Institute of Hydrogen research. In the same year, Ibrahim [17] reported having developed a model of autonomous system with hydrogen using a diesel generator as a secondary source. Also in 1996, Cicconardi [18] studied various alternatives for storing the hydrogen and oxygen produced by electrolysis. In 1997, Barthels [19] reported the operation of an autonomous system to hydrogen with photovoltaic panels as the Primary energy source. Also in 1997, Lehman [20] reported the operation of a system using photovoltaic panels, an alkaline electrolyzer and a polymer membrane fuel cell continuously and automatically over a period totaling more than 3900 h (just under six months). In 1998, Torres [21] published energy balances obtained by simulation for combined storage subsystem form hydrogen and batteries using solar panels as their primary energy source. Also in 1998, Vanhanen [22], obtained for a lowpower storage system (<1 kW) using metal hydrides an overall efficiency of between 24 and 35%, the fuel cell is the least effective link in the system. In 1999, Abdallah [23] as a result of an economic study concluded that Egypt could become an exporter of hydrogen if it operated its photovoltaic sector. In the same year, Vosen [24] realized a complete model of an autonomous system using storage as hydrogen. In 2000, Rambach [25] presented an autonomous demonstration system that could be implanted in Alaska. Also in 2000, Dutton [26] innovated by reporting for the first time the operation of a hydrogen production system by electrolysis using electricity from a wind turbine production. In 2001, Jacobson [27] described it operating a standalone system similar to that of IRH. In 2007, L.Degiorgie [28] published, hydrogen from renewable energy: A pilot plant for thermal production and
re
my lagorse [29] published, energy cost mobility. In 2008, Je analysis of a solar-hydrogen hybrid energy system for standalone applications. In 2011, Ozcan atlam [30] published, a method for optimal sizing of an electrolyzer directly connected to a PV module. In 2014, R. Boudries [31] published photoelectric system design for energy saving industrial unit for hydrogen production in this work, was studied the CEVITAL hydrogen production unit is carried out. This unit is located in southern Algiers suburb. The simulation and experimentation results compared and showed that the temperature and solar irradiance has a direct effect on the performance of photoelectric system, as for efficiency of electrolyzer and fuel cell have impact of exchange current and Transfer coefficient. The both simulation and experimentation results presented are almost identical. The main objective of this paper to present theory and experiments results studies using respectively three models photovoltaic, electrolyzer and fuel cell, to evaluation how

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storing and utilizing hydrogen energy producing by using solar energy.

Interpret the scheme of study In the study (Fig. 1), the photovoltaic field (PV) directly provide the user. Solar excess is stored in chemical form electrolyzer (EL). The water dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen, This is illustrated in Fig. 29. The gases are stored without lossless whatever the storage time. When the In the absence of solar field, the fuel cell is connected and regenerates the electricity stored by recombining hydrogen and oxygen in the fuel cell (FC) produces pure water that is stored to supply the electrolyzer. The system comprises a solar generator and an energy storage system an electrolyzer, a gas storage unit and a fuel cell. It is similar to PV-batteries which power and storage capacity are completely separate system. Our study focuses on the storage system with hydrogen and inclusion in an autonomous system of energy generation. The study in this manuscript is limited on hydrogen produced and stored, and PEMFC has been studied only theoretically.

Model PV The PV module type UDTS 50 Which has been used in our system and that its characteristics are presented in Table 1. The modeling of photovoltaic module and retrieval module parameters are obtained using an exact method proposed by Refs. [32e37]. The equivalent circuit of PV cell (Fig. 2) single diode model includes series resistance Rs and shunt resistance Rp where the output current from KIRCHOFF law, written as follows: (Fig. 5) IPV ¼ Iph
ID
Ip

(1)

where: IPV: Current of PV module, Iph: Photonics current, ID: Current of the diode, Ip: Current crossing shunt resistance. The diode is a nonlinear element; the IeV characteristic is given by the following relationship:
   Vd ID ¼ Is exp
1 gVt

(2)

Is: Saturation current of the diode, Vt: Thermal voltage of diode, g: Diode quality factor, Vd: Voltage between the terminals of diode. The thermal voltage writing as follow: Vt ¼

kT q

(3)

Relationship (2) is writing as:

Please cite this article in press as: Mohamed B, et al., Study of hydrogen production by solar energy as tool of storing and utilization renewable energy for the desert areas, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.034

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Table 1 e Characteristics of PV module UDTS 50 [39,59].

 
 Vd
1 ID ¼ Is exp q gkT

(4)

From (1) and (2) the relationship deduce as follow:  
 V þ Ipv Rs
1
Ip Ipv ¼ Iph
Is exp q gkT

(5)

According to the law of Kirchhoff: Ip ¼

V þ Ipv Rs RP

(6)

The relationship (5) becomes:   
  V þ Ipv Rs V þ Ipv Rs
1
Ipv ¼ Iph
Is exp q gkT RP

(7)

Pm ¼ Imp  Vmp

(8)

Electrical parameters Isc(A) Voc (V) Imp (A) Vmp (V) Pm (w) IPV (A) Is (A) g Rp (U) Rs (U) Ns

Value 3.18 21.6 2.9 17.5 49.4 3.18 5:021·10
8 1.3 198.1 0.25 36

Isc: short circuit current, Voc: open circuit voltage, Imp: current of maximum power, Vmp: voltage of maximum power, Pm: the maximum power, IPV: The current of PV module, Is:Saturation current of the diode, Y: Diode quality factor, Rp: shunt resistance of the PV cell, Rs: Series resistance of the PV cell.

where Pm: The maximum power, Imp: Current of maximum power, Vmp: Voltage of maximum Power.

Model electrolyzer (PEM)

The open circuit voltage can be calculated for every cell [38]: Voc

  KT Isc ln ¼ þ1 q Is

(9)

Isc: Short circuit current, Voc: Open circuit voltage. The form factor is defined as: FF ¼

Pm Isc  Voc

(10)

The cell efficiency was calculated: h ¼ Pm =ðG  SÞ

(11)

The reactions were in the PEM electrolysers are: At the anode : H2 O þ energy þ heat/2Hþ þ 0:5O2 þ 2e


(12)

At the cathode : 2Hþ þ 2e
/H2

(13)

Electrolysis of water is dissociation of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. A simple model was developed to explain the characteristics current and potential of electrolysis-based charge and mass balance and the ButlereVolmer kinetics on electrode surfaces [40]. A full dynamic model based on the conservation of the molar balance with the anode and the cathode has been developed. Most electrolysers are connected to current source, which means that the current into electrolyzer is controlled to give a constant state of hydrogen production, while must have the power according to the voltage required to operate. Fig.5. shows the direction movement of protons in PEM electrolyzer and

where S: Surface of the PV module, G: Incident irradiation.

Fig. 1 e Scheme of production and utilization of hydrogen energy. Please cite this article in press as: Mohamed B, et al., Study of hydrogen production by solar energy as tool of storing and utilization renewable energy for the desert areas, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.034

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Table 2 e Characteristics PEM electrolyzer [41]. Parameter


   RT Vdiff ¼
ln 1
I=I limit 2F

Value 10
7 A/cm2 10
1 A/cm2 0.8 0.25 0.8310
6 U 160 cm2 0.0254 cm

I0a I0c aa ac R A l

Table 3 e Characteristics of PEM fuel cell. Parameter I0a

2.18  10
3 A [52]

I0c aa ac Rc l A lM

2.54  10
1 A [52] 0.47 [52] 0.52 [52] 2.05  10
2 U [53] 0.0178 cm [53] 22.5 cm2 [53] 11 [53]

Scheme of this system.Voltage electrical operation can be expressed [41]: V ¼ Er
ev þ Vdiff þ Vactiv þ Vmem

where Ilimit is the limit current of diffusion.

Activation voltage The activation voltage is caused by slowness of the reactions taking place on the surface of the electrodes. The activation voltage is described by Tafel equation [43]. Vactiv ¼

Value

(14)

where V: Operating voltage of an electrolyzer, Er
ev: Reversible voltage or open circuit-voltage, Vdiff: Concentration voltage or diffusion voltage, Vactiv: Activation voltage, Vmem: Membrane voltage or ohmic voltage. The various parameters of models electrolyzer and fuel cell are presented in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.

(17)

  RT I ln anF I0

(18)

where a charge Transfer coefficient, I0 exchange current. an ca þ Vactiv Vactiv ¼ Vactiv

an ¼ Vactiv

ca ¼ Vactiv

(19)

  RT I ln aa nF I0a

(20)

  RT I ln ac nF I0c

(21)

an ca , Vactiv are anodic and cathodic activation voltages, where Vactiv respectively

aa, ac are anodic and cathodic charge Transfer coefficient of electrolyzer. I0a, I0c are anodic and cathodic exchange current of electrolyzer.

Membrane voltage Reversible voltage The reversible voltage can be writing from the Nernst Equation as:

Erev

3 2  1 2 RT 4ln PH2 PO2 5 ¼ E0 þ 2F aH2 O

(15)

where aH2 O is the water activity between electrode and membrane (equal to 01 for liquid water) and E0 is the reversible voltage depends on the temperature, it can be expressing [56]. E0 ¼ 1:229
9  10
4 ðT
298Þ

(16)

PH2 and PO2 are partial pressures of Hydrogen and Oxygen, respectively.

The Membrane is Conductive medium of protons (Hþ). The membrane voltage is defined [44]: Vmem ¼ Rmem  I

where Rmem is the equivalent resistance of the membrane.

Electrolyzer efficiency The energy efficiency of an electrolyzer is the ratio of the total energy involved on the energy consumed. It is calculated simply by dividing the thermoneutral potential by the voltage of the cell electrolyzer. hEL ¼

Concentration voltage Concentration voltage caused by a change in the concentration of the reactants on the electrode surface. Concentration voltage is giving [42].

(22)

Eth V

(23)

where hEL: Efficiency of the electrolyzer Eth: Thermoneutral voltage corresponds to isothermal operation of the electrolyzer (Eth ¼ 1.48 V)

Please cite this article in press as: Mohamed B, et al., Study of hydrogen production by solar energy as tool of storing and utilization renewable energy for the desert areas, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.034

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Hydrogen production

Fuel cell operating

The water consumption of the electrolyzer is proportional to the hydrogen production as indicated by the following equation [41]:

Hydrogen is fed to the anode of the fuel cell. The molecules dissociate into (Hþ) ions which migrate to the electrolyte and electrons are forced to flow in a circuit which generates a current and hence on electricity. At the cathode, the electrons recombine with the ions (Hþ) and (O2) molecules (from the atmosphere) to discharge water, this reaction also generates heat. In the design of a battery, the electrolyte is also called the membrane. It transports ions while being excellent insulator electronics, and also serves to separate the hydrogen and oxygen gas. The electrochemical reactions within the electrodes cannot be achieved in the presence of a catalyst, namely platinum. The membrane and the electrodes are designed together: we speak of membrane electrode assemblies. The bipolar plates (shaded in the diagram) are used to distribute gas (hydrogen, oxygen or air), to collect the electrical current and to provide thermal management of the battery. The bipolar plates will add to one another to define the characteristics of the battery (performance, size). The phenomena carries of the fuel cell is shown in Fig .10 [45].

FH2 O ¼ FH2 ¼

NI h nF F

(24)

where FH2 : Hydrogen flow production by electrolyzer (mol/s), FH2 O : Water flow consumption of the electrolyzer (mol/s), N: Cells number of electrolyzer, hF is Faraday efficiency. The Faraday efficiency of the electrolyzer is considered constant over the electrolyzer operating range (hF ¼ 99%). n: Number of electron exchange (n ¼ 2 for H2).

Gas storage The storage of hydrogen is in compressed form. The maximum pressure in the storage is 10 bar (the electrolyzer operating pressure), and the minimum pressure is 1.3 bar (supply pressure of the fuel cell). Gas storage is considered a reservoir; the volume will be determined by equation of Van der Waals: P¼

 n 2 nRT
a V
nb V

(25)

27  R2  T2cr R  Tcr and b ¼ 64  pcr 8  pcr

The cell voltage of fuel cell is generated by reaction as defined in previously reaction (26) and (27). The cell voltage is given by Ref. [46]. U ¼ Ere
v
Udiff
Uactiv
Uohm

With a¼

Fuel cell voltage

(26)

where P: Pressure (Pa), n: Mole number (mol), R: Ideal gas constant ð8:31j=K$molÞ. V: Storage volume (m3), Tcr: Critical temperature (K), pcr: Critical pressure (Pa). For Hydrogen (Tcr ¼ 33 K, pcr ¼ 13 bar).

(29)

where U: Voltage of fuel cell, Er
ev : Reversible voltage, Udiff: Diffusion voltage, Uactiv: Activation voltage, Uohm: Ohmic voltage. The reversible voltage is adopted on temperature (T), and partials pressures of hydrogen ðPH2 Þ and oxygen ðPO2 Þ. The reversible voltage is given from the Nernst equation [47]:   Er
ev ¼ 1:229
0:85  10
3 ðT
298:15Þ þ 4:3085  10
5 ln PH2  þ 0:5 ln PO2 (30) The formula expressions of partials pressures are given [48].

Model fuel cell

  # 
1 1:635 I=   A PH2 O  RHa
1 · exp Tð1:334Þ Pan

"

Hydrogen can react with oxygen to release electric energy and heat according to the inverse process of the electrolysis of water. The fuel cells consists of electrochemical cells consist of two electrodes where the electrochemical reactions take place, an electrolyte ensuring the transfer of ions and a membrane separating the cathode portion of the anodic part of the cell. The various phenomena that occur within the fuel cell are represented in Fig.10.The reaction occurring at anode and cathode respectively are: Anode : 2H2 /4e þ 4Hþ

(27)

Cathode : O2 þ 4e þ 4Hþ /2H2 O þ heat

(28)

PH2 ¼ 0:5RHa

(31)

Fig. 2 e Equivalent circuit of PV cell. Please cite this article in press as: Mohamed B, et al., Study of hydrogen production by solar energy as tool of storing and utilization renewable energy for the desert areas, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.034

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PV module 36 cells UDTS50 4

Current [A]

3 1000W/m2 / 25°C

2

1000W/m2 / 40°C 1000W/m2 / 50°C

1 0

1000W/m2 / 75°C 0

5

10

1000W/m / 25°C 1000W/m2 / 40°C

50

20

25

20

25

PV module 36 cells UDTS50

1000W/m2 / 50°C

40 power [W]

15 Voltage [V]

2

1000W/m2 / 75°C

30 20 10 0

0

5

10

15 Voltage [V]

Fig. 3 e PeV and IeV curves of PV module at different temperatures.

PO2

humidity in cathode, PH2 O : Saturation pressure of water vapor which is defined as follows:

  # " 
1 4:192 I=   A PH2 O  RHc ¼ RHc exp
1 · Pca Tð1:334Þ

(32)

 log PH2 O ¼ 2:95  10
2 ðT
273:15Þ
9:18  10
5 ðT
273:15Þ2 þ 1:44  10
7 ðT
273:15Þ3
2:18

Pan: the inlet pressure of anode, Pca: the inlet pressure of cathode, RHa: Relative humidity in anode and RHc: Relative

(33)

PV module 36 cells UDTS50

1000/m2 / 25°C

4

800W/m2 / 25°C

Current [A ]

3

600W/m2 / 25°C 400W/m2 / 25°C

2 1 0

0

5

10

15

20

Voltage [V]

1000/m2 / 25°C

PV module 36 cells UDTS50

power [W ]

25

50

800W/m2 / 25°C

40

600W/m2 / 25°C 400W/m2 / 25°C

30 20 10 0

0

5

10

15

20

25

Voltage [V]

Fig. 4 e PeV and IeV curves of PV module at different irradiation. Please cite this article in press as: Mohamed B, et al., Study of hydrogen production by solar energy as tool of storing and utilization renewable energy for the desert areas, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.034

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Fig. 5 e Scheme of PEM electrolyser [41].

ac =0.8 2.5

Electrolyser Voltage(V) and efficiency

Electrolyser Voltage

2

0.25 0.15 0.1 0.25 0.15 0.1

1.5

Electrolyser efficiency 1

0.5

0

0

0.5

1

1.5 current (A)

2

2.5

3

Fig. 6 e Cell voltage and current efficiency at anode charge Transfer coefficient in range of (0.1, 0.15, 0.25) and at cathode Transfer coefficient ac¼0.8. The activation voltage can be written by Tafel equation [43].   Ip RT ln Uac ¼ anF I0

an þ Uac

  Ip RT ln aa nF I0a

(36)

Uacca ¼

  Ip RT ln ac nF I0c

(37)

(34)

where a charge Transfer coefficient, I0 exchange current.With Uac ¼ Uac

Uacan ¼

ca

(35)

where

Please cite this article in press as: Mohamed B, et al., Study of hydrogen production by solar energy as tool of storing and utilization renewable energy for the desert areas, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.034

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aa =0.25

I0a =10-7(A/cm2)

2.5

2.5

Electrolyser Voltage

0.8 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.5

1.5

1

Electrolyser Voltage(V) and efficiency

Electrolyser Voltage(V) and efficiency

2

Electrolyser efficiency

0.5

0

0

0.5

1

1.5 current (A)

2

2.5

2 10- 1(A/cm2) 10- 3(A/cm2) 10- 1(A/cm2) 10- 2(A/cm2)

1

10- 3(A/cm2)

0.5 efficiency

0

3

Fig. 7 e Cell voltage and current efficiency at cathode charge Transfer coefficient in range of (0.5, 0.6, 0.8) and at anode Transfer coefficient aa¼0.25.

Voltage

10- 2(A/cm2)

1.5

0

0.5

1

1.5 current (A)

2

2.5

3

Fig. 9 e Cell voltage and versus current efficiency  at three 
1
2
3 value cathode exchange current 10cm2A; 10cm2A; 10cm2A and
7 anode exchange current I0a ¼ 10cm2A.

I0c =10- 1(A/cm2) 2

Electrolyser Voltage(V) and efficiency

1.8 Electrolyser Voltage

10-7(A/cm2)

1.6

10-6(A/cm2) 1.4

10-5(A/cm2) 10-7(A/cm2)

1.2

10-6(A/cm2) 10-5(A/cm2)

1 0.8 0.6

Electrolyser efficiency

0.4 0.2 0

0

0.5

1

1.5 current (A)

2

2.5



Fig. 8 e Cell voltage and versus current efficiency at three value anode exchange current
1 exchange current I0C ¼ 10cm2A.

aa, ac are anodic and cathodic charge Transfer coefficient of fuel cell. I0a, I0c are anodic and cathodic exchange current of fuel cell. The diffusion voltage is given [42]. Udiff


  Ip RT ln 1
¼
2F Ilimit

where Ilimit is the limit current of diffusion. The ohmic voltage was obtained [49].

3



10
7 A 10
6 A 10
5 A ; cm2 ; cm2 cm2

and cathode

Uohm ¼ ðRmem þ Rc Þ  Ip

(39)

where Rmem: Equivalent resistance of the membrane. Rc: The equivalent resistance of electron-transfer.

(38)

The equivalent membrane resistance is described as follows Rmem ¼

ðrM  lÞ A

(40)

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Models validation

Fig. 10 e PEM fuel cell supplied with hydrogen and oxygen. 1)Fluidic phenomena: gas flow; 2) Gas diffusion; 3) Electrochemical phenomena þ diffusion; 4) Ohmic phenomena proton transport; 5) Water transport; 6) Thermal phenomena: heat flux.

Models Validation: PV, fuel cell and electrolyzer, Fig. 15 shows the Validation of PV model with experimental data. Through the experimental verification demonstrates that theoretical results close to the experimental at T ¼ 35.3  C and G ¼ 799 w/ m2 . Fig. 16 Verification the polarization curves by Zhe Sun et al. [54]. Temperature and pressure in the ranges 70
80 C and 1
5 bar. We observed the convergence between model and empirical results. We can see the positive effect of Temperature and pressure on the polarization curves in Figs. 16 and 17. Fig. 19 Compare polarization curves between experimental of Marangio et al. [55] and predictive model at temperature and pressure in range (40e55  C) and pressure (10e70 bar) respectively, This Show the negative impact of high temperature on the performance of electrolyzer.

Results and discussion


   2  2:5  I Ip T 181:6 1 þ 0:03 Ap þ 0:062 303 A  
 
rM ¼ Ip lM
0:634
3 A exp 4:18 T
303 T

(41)

where lM is the water content of the membrane [51].

Fuel cell efficiency The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is obtained simply by dividing the voltage of the fuel cell with the potential thermoneutral hFC ¼

U Eth

(42)

where hFC is efficiency of a fuel cell, U is the voltage of the fuel cell, Eth is thermoneutral voltage, corresponds to the overall energy involved during the reaction enthalpy, equal to 286 Kj=mol in standard condition, this thermoneutral voltage equal to1.48 V.

The hydrogen flow consumed by a fuel cell The hydrogen flow and oxygen consumed by a fuel cell is directly proportional to the current delivered. Energy efficiency varies between 65% when the current density is zero and 34% when the limit voltage at 0.5 V. FO2 ¼ FH2 ¼

N  Ip n  F  hF

Figs. 3 and 4 show the effect of irradiation and temperature on the effectiveness of PV module, the effect of varying can be seen in Figs. 3 and 4. If the temperature of the cell increases, the photogenerated current also increases because the width of the forbidden bond material is decreased. The direct current of the junction also increases, but much faster, and then a decrease in the voltage circuit overt. This behavior could be explained with the fact that, at the increased temperatures, imperfections of basic material are more pronounced. Namely, defects in the crystal lattice such as vacancies or interstices tend to accumulate when thermally stimulated, disturbing the periodicity of the potential field in the crystal. Such deviations could induce scattering of the charge carriers. Consequently a non-ideal behavior of the device, reflected in the values of n > 1. Besides, dislocations and impurities in the material with energy levels deep in the energy gap also tend to precipitate. Such localized energy states aa =0.47 2

fuel cell Voltage(V) and efficiency

where rM is the membrane resistivity, A is the active area of membrane, l is thickness of the membrane. The membrane resistivity is described as [50].

0.52 0.52 0.42 0.42 0.32 0.32

1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2

Voltage

1 0.8

efficiency

0.6

(43)

FH2 is hydrogen flow consumed by the fuel cell (mol/s),FO2 is oxygen flow consumed by the fuel cell (mol/s), N is cells number of fuel cell, hF is Faraday efficiency, This efficiency is generally very close to 1, n is number of electron exchange (n ¼ 2 for H2, n ¼ 4 for O2).

0.4

0

2

4

6 8 current (A)

10

12

14

Fig. 11 e Fuel cell voltage and current efficiency at cathode charge Transfer coefficient in range of (0.32, 0.42, 0.52) and at anode Transfer coefficient aa¼0.47.

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-

I0c =2.54*10 1 (A)

ac =0.52 2

2

1.6 1.4

fuel cell Voltage(V) and efficiency

1.8 fuel cell Voltage(V) and efficiency

-

0.47 0.47 0.37 0.37 0.27 0.27

1.2 1 0.8 0.6

2.18*10 3 (A)

1.8

-

2.18*10 3 (A) -

2.18*10 4 (A)

1.6

-

2.18*10 4 (A) -

1.4

2.18*10 5 (A) -

2.18*10 5 (A)

1.2

voltage

1 efficiency

0.8 0.6

0.4 0.2 0

2

4

6 8 current (A)

10

12

0.4

14

Fig. 12 e Fuel cell voltage and current efficiency at anode charge Transfer coefficient in range of (0.27, 0.37, 0.47) and at cathode Transfer coefficient aa¼0.52.

0

2

4

6 8 current (A)

10

12

14

Fig. 14 e Fuel cell voltage and versus current efficiency at three value anode exchange current ð2:18  10
3 A; 2:1810
4 A; 2:1810
5 AÞ and cathode exchange current I0C ¼ 2:5410
1 A.

-

I0a =2.18*10 3 (A) PV module 36 cells type UDTS50 -

3

-

2.5

2.54*10 1 A

1.8

2.54*10 1 (A) -

2.54*10 2 (A)

1.6

Current(A)

fuel cell Voltage(V) and efficiency

2

-

2.54*10 2 (A) 1.4

-

2.54*10 3 (A) -

2.54*10 3 (A)

1.2

2 1.5 Model at 799W/m2 / 35.3°C

1

Our experimental at 799W/m2 / 35.3°C

0.5

voltage

0

1

0

2

4

6

8

efficiency

0.8

14

16

18

20

16

18

20

PV module 36 cells UDTS50 50

0.6

Model at 799W/m2 / 35.3°C Our experimental at 799W/m2 / 35.3°C

40

0

2

4

6 8 current (A)

10

12

14

Fig. 13 e Fuel cell voltage and versus current efficiency at three value cathode exchange current in the range ð2:54  10
1 A; 2:5410
2 A; 2:5410
3 AÞ and anode exchange current I0a ¼ 2:1810
3 A.

Power (W)

0.4

10 12 Voltage (V)

30 20 10 0

0

2

4

6

8

10 12 Voltage (V)

14

Fig. 15 e PeV and IeV compared curves between experimental and model. could act as traps or recombination centers for charge carriers, modulating output current and inducing current noise in photodetector devices (at low and medium voltages). Burst and 1=F noises are an example of the low frequency noises characterized by discrete current fluctuations, usually referred to as excess current. This excess current was observed in all samples at medium voltages, indicating the existence of the low frequency noises in the devices. But the irradiance has a Motive to increase the performance of PV cells, Where P-N junction solar cell only absorbs light photons with energy equal or greater than its band-gap, different band-gap materials will respond differently to the same spectral distribution [57].

Figs. 6e9 and 11e14 Simulation results about Parameters (I0a, I0c, aa, ac) affecting the performance of electrolyzer and fuel cell, respectively. These factors affected by the temperature and pressure. Previous figs show the extent of their impact in the both cases increases and decreases. Figs. 16e18 Identified the performance of fuel cell model is influenced by many parameters such as operating temperature, pressure and humidity with experimental conditions [54,58]. In these figs we found the effect of these factors to improve performance of PEMFC and we can see the effect of humidity on the polarization curves in the Fig. 18.

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T=70°C 40

35

Pa=2.5 bar/Pc =3 bar Pa=1.5 bar/Pc =1.5 bar Experimental of [Zhe Sun et al] at P a=2.5 bar/Pc =3 bar Experimental of [Zhe Sun et al] at P a=1.5 bar/Pc =1.5 bar

Fuel cell Voltage(V)

30

25

20

15

10

0

5

10

15

20

25

current (A)

Fig. 16 e The validation result of fuel cell model with experimental data [54] at T¼25  C and variable pressure (2.5/3 bar; 1.5/ 1.5 bar).

T=80°C ;T=70°C 45

Fuel cell Voltage(V)

Pa=3 bar/Pc =5 bar ;T=80°C 40

Pa=1 bar/Pc =1 bar ; T=70°C

35

Experimental of [Zhe Sun et al] at Pa=3 bar/Pc =5 bar ; T=80°C Experimental of [Zhe Sun et al] at Pa=1 bar/Pc =1 bar ; T=70°C

30 25 20 15 10 5

0

5

10

15

20

25

current (A)

Fig. 17 e The validation result of fuel cell model with experimental data [54] at variable temperature and pressure.

Fig. 20 Explore the effect of Temperature on the PV Performance and electrolyzer as function of time. Efficiency values for the two systems are relatively small. They do not exceed 26% of the PV system and 22% for the electrolyzer, reason for high temperature. The performances will be greater at times of low temperature.

Fig. 21 shows the results of Hydrogen production and annual Average insolation. We reported the production rate based on the different sites and the annual averages of daily global irradiation. These results show that the rate of production is very important in In Guezzam and Tamanraset. The results were obtained in this case, taking the monthly

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i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 9

13

1.1 Dry condition at P=1.5 bar; T=80°C Experimental of [59] / Dry condition at P=1.5 bar; T=80° Wet condition at P=1.013 bar; T=60°C Experimental of [59] / Wet condition at P=1.013 bar; T=60°C

1

Fuel cell Voltage (V)

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

Current density (A/cm2)

Fig. 21 e Annual averages of both hydrogen production and insolation in five sites.

Fig. 18 e Test the performance of fuel cell model in dry and wet condition with experimental [58]. T=40°C ;T=55°C 2.5

Electrolyser Voltage(V)

2

1.5

P=70 bar ;T=40°C P=10 bar ; T=55°C Experimental of F. Marangio et al at P=70 bar ;T=40°C Experimental of F. Marangio et al at P=10 bar ;T=55°

1

0.5

0

0

0.2

0.4

0.6 0.8 current (A)

1

1.2

1.4

Fig. 19 e The validation result of electrolyser model with experimental data [55] at variable temperature and pressure.

Fig. 20 e PV efficiency and electrolyser with air temperature as a function of time.

Fig. 22 e Amount of hydrogen production relative of insolation in five sites.

Fig. 23 e Daily irradiation measured, amount of hydrogen production and temperature as a function of time.

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i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 9

1.2

2.5

1.08

2.25

0.72

1.75 1.5

0.6

1.25

0.48

1

0.36

0.75

0.24

0.5

0.12

0.25

0

Fig. 24 e Seasonal rate of hydrogen production in five sites.

2 Voltage (V) efficiency Power (W)

0.84

0

2

4

6 8 current (A)

10

12

Power (W)

fuel cells Voltage (V)

0.96

0 14

Fig. 27 e PEM fuel cell polarization, efficiency and power curve.

0.16

Quantityof hydrogen production(m3)

0.14

0.12

0.1 Tamanrasset Bashar In Guezzam Adrar Ouargla

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun Jul Months

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Fig. 25 e Amount of hydrogen generated during year in five desert sites.

x 10 1.8 2

0.95

Electrolyser Voltage(V) Electrolyser efficiency Electrolyser flw(mol/s)

1.08 0.9

1.2

0.72 0.54

1

0.36 0.8

0.18 0

0.5

1

1.5 2 current (A)

2.5

3

flw (mol/s)

1.4

1.26

Fuel Cell Voltage(V)

1.44

1.6

0.6

T=25°C T=50°C T=75°C

1.62

1.8

Voltage (V)

-5

0.9 0.85 0.8 0.75 0.7 0 2

80

4 6

0

Fig. 26 e Voltage, hydrogen flow and efficiency of cell electrolyser as function of electrolyser current.

60 40

8 current(A)

20 10

0

Pressure(bar)

Fig. 28 e Inputs and outputs of fuel cells in range of cell temperature (25  C; 50  C; 75  C).

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i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 9

15

Fig. 29 e The electrical scheme control strategy; (A) photovoltaic module; (B) barometer; (C) pyranometer; (D) Picture of IeV tracer. Please cite this article in press as: Mohamed B, et al., Study of hydrogen production by solar energy as tool of storing and utilization renewable energy for the desert areas, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.034

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Fig. 30 e Diagramme of inputs PEMFC system [9]. T=40°C 2

2 40°C 1.03/1.03 bar 80°C 1.5/1.5 bar 40°C 1.03/1.03 bar 80°C 1.5/1.5 bar

1.6 1.4 1.2

Voltage

1 efficiency 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

1.3/1.3 bar 1.3/5 bar 10/5 bar 1.3/1.3 bar 1.3/5 bar 10/5 bar

1.8 Fuel cell Voltage(V) and efficiency

Fuel cell Voltage(V) and efficiency

1.8

1.6 1.4 1.2

Voltage

1

efficiency

0.8 0.6 0.4

0

2

4

6 8 current (A)

10

12

14

(a)

0.2

0

2

4

6 8 current (A)

10

12

14

(b)

Fig. 31 e The performance of the fuel cell under various temperatures and pressures. averages of daily global irradiation. We observe that the Hydrogen production Increases proportional with Increase Average insolation. The relation described between Hydrogen production and insolation during the day. The Hydrogen production Increase related with Increase insolation. The greatest values of both insolation and hydrogen production were observed in In Guezzam (see Fig. 22), and the low values observed in Bechar. So, the Hydrogen production is linked to the value of insolation.

Fig. 23 represents the evolution of solar irradiation, Production Hydrogen and temperature as a function of time. In moments of maximum irradiation in the ranges (11 he13 h) an increases hydrogen production observed, As the temperature effect the performance of PV cell, we find that the temperature impact positively on the Production of Hydrogen. From this description, a correlation can deduce between existence of irradiation and flow of Hydrogen, which is illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4 the irradiance affects the performance of PV cells. The correlation between temperature and hydrogen production

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i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 9

can see in the previous Equation (12), that the dismantling of the water absorbs the heat energy. Fig. 24 shows Hydrogen production in every season. An important production in In Guezzam compared with the five sites, except in the summer. During this season In Guezzam suffers from high temperatures that affect the performance of PV cells; this interpretation has been explained in the (Fig. 3) which is show the effect of temperature on the performance of PV cells. Fig. 25 shows that in the five sites (south Algerian) the production is not uniform for all the months: July production is twice as large as that in December or January. To better compare productions between sites in the month of July noting that In Guezzam site take less value compared to the other regions, this variance already shown in Fig. 24. Fig. 26 Voltage, hydrogen flow and efficiency of cell electrolyzer with PV current during simulation, notice that the positive effect of the current on both the flow, voltage and the negative effect on the efficiency. Fig. 27 shows, the variation of power, voltage and efficiency of fuel cell with current during simulation, notice that the negative effect of the current on both the voltage, efficiency and the positive effect on the Power. The intersection point between the curves and the axis of current is the value of limiting current which is equal 14 A, also, notice that the power does not exceed a specific value called the maximum power of the PEMFC. Considering that the pressures of Hydrogen and Oxygen are equal, the results of Simulations showed (Fig. 28), that the temperature of the fuel cell has an incentive on the performance of PEMFC, and thus it can be used in areas of high temperature, For example in desert areas. (Fig. 29) Fig. 30 shows the inputs and outputs of fuel cell system, then showing the components in the fuel cell system [9] that composed of air compressor and an electrical machine, where supply each stack using air compressor and control the speed of rotation. The compressors used are volumetric type for they can easily control the outflow. The compressors are classified into two types are reciprocating and rotary. The inputs compressor are the rotation speed and discharge pressure, Then the outputs are the mass flow and torque compression.

Conclusion In this work a studying of hydrogen gas production by electrolysis of water using solar energy, which is very important in the present days. The monthly and annual average for hydrogen production varies by location and season; the results show that the maximum values of annual production of hydrogen were detected (Tamanrasset and In Guezzam), But in the month of July the area of In Guezzam has lower value of hydrogen production, the Studies shown that this area is one of the highest temperature areas in the world, which is affects the performance of PV cells. In this study, showing to the reader that can use the hydrogen in the fuel cell to convert the chemical energy into electrical energy. The simulation results show that the fuel cell is suitable in the desert areas, the output gas pressure and temperature are used to improve the performance of fuel cells (Fig. 31).

17

The site of Algeria is a very suitable location of solar energy, which has a considerable solar radiation which is make Algeria a suitable site for solar hydrogen production. The objective of this work is to develop a system for hydrogen production in the middle of the desert, the advantages to compare with other fuels, natural gas and oil. The basic aim of this study is to explain to the readers the possibility of generating hydrogen and used as fuel of energy with identify the factors affecting the production and utilization.

references

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Please cite this article in press as: Mohamed B, et al., Study of hydrogen production by solar energy as tool of storing and utilization renewable energy for the desert areas, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.034

i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 9

[58] Robin Christophe, Gerard Mathias, Arbigny Julien. Development and experimental validation of a PEM fuel cell 2D-model to study heterogeneities effects along large-area cell surface. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2015;40:10211e30.

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Please cite this article in press as: Mohamed B, et al., Study of hydrogen production by solar energy as tool of storing and utilization renewable energy for the desert areas, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.034