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Subterranean ice deposits in America
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[J. F. I.,
tion by foliage, the influence of the original dressing of the masonry, especially on well tooled or bush-hammered surfaces, etc. It is apparent, therefore, that the elements of strength, on which the coherence of the grains of stone depends, in resistance to weathering, are so varied, that with m a n y kinds no single known method, artificial or natural, can be relied upon without question and without confirmation. W e yet need to seek for light t h r o u g h comparison of results from all promising methods of possible application, and often to gratefully accept even an approximation to the truth. [To be concluded.]
Slated Meeting, Wednesday, February 8, 1899.
S U B T E R R A N E A N ICE D E P O S I T S IN AMERICA.* BY EDWIN SWIFT BALCH.
T h e whole st~bject of subterranean ice is so bound up with questions of t e m p e r a t u r e that it seems well to say a few preliminary words about u n d e r g r o u n d t e m p e r a t u r e s in general. U n d e r g r o u n d temperatures m a y best be studied u n d e r three heads: the normal, the super-normal and the sub.normal. T h e normal or ordinary temperatures scarcely change the whole year round. T h e r e is a superficial layer of soil or rock, of but very slight depth, which is affected by the outside temperatures ; b e n e a t h this there is usually a layer, the t e m p e r a t u r e of which is about that of the mean annual t e m p e r a t u r e of the locality; below this the temperatures increase slowly with increasing depth below, the surface. This increase m a y be roughly stated as about I o C. for every 32 meters in depth. Super-normal temperatures at or near the surface are very rare, and are due to special causes. Thus, there are a few caves which have temperatures much above the mean annual t e m p e r a t u r e of their locality. In such cases, the heat is generally due to the presence of hot *~Copyright by E. S. Baleh, 1899.
April, I 8 9 9 . ]
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springs or to volcanic action in t h e i m m e d i a t e neighborhood. * Sub-normal t e m p e r a t u r e s in the superficial layer are rare, b u t less so t h a n super-uormM t e m p e r a t u r e s , These t e m p e r a t u r e s m a y b e a b n o r m a l l y low w i t h o u t d e s c e n d i n g to t h e freezing-point. S o m e t i m e s , however, t h e y are so low as to be a c c o m p a n i e d b y the f o r m a t i o n of ice. For s o m e y e a r s I h a v e b e e n collecting all t h e d a t a I could find a b o u t s u b t e r r a n e a n ice deposits in America. Scientific journals, one or two books of travels, and c u t t i n g s from local n e w s p a p e r s , h a v e f u r n i s h e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a n u m b e r of places, and c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h persons residing in their n e i g h b o r h o o d h a s g i v e n more. My notes include over fifty localities r a n g i n g from G r e e n l a n d to T i e r r a del Fuego. M u c h of this i n f o r m a t i o n comes from t h e reports of trained observers, such, for instance, as t h e p a p e r of L i e u t e n a n t Cantwell, d e s c r i b i n g the ice cliffs on t h e K o w a k River. A b o u t t h e a c c u r a c y of m o s t of the i n f o r m a t i o n I feel b u t little doubt, e x c e p t in r e g a r d to t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s given, c o n c e r n i n g w h i c h t h e r e is a t e n d e n c y to report things u n d e r g r o u n d as m u c h larger than t h e y really are. On t h e w e s t coast of G r e e n l a n d a n u m b e r of b u r i e d glaciers are r e p o r t e d . t T h e s e s e e m to o c c u r w h e n a glacier finds its o u t l e t in the sea and for s o m e reason stops flowing. Then s o m e of the A r c t i c m o s s e s and lichens, w h i c h flourish in spite of the cold, g r a d u a l l y m a k e their w a y over the ice, first in thin l~yers, later in thick masses, t h e y o u n g plants t r a m p l i n g d o w n the older ones until t h e latter turn to a rich mould. T h e seeds of grasses and flowers find their w a y to this until the w h o l e p l a t e a u b e c o m e s a g a r d e n of green, gold and white. Much frozen soil is f o u n d in Alaska. Prof. Israel C. Russell saw m a n y strata of ice in t h e b a n k s of the Y u k o n and he says that strata over 30 m e t e r s thick h a v e b e e n found. M u c h of the K l o n d i k e c o u n t r y is frozen d o w n to bed rock, 8 or IO m e t e r s deep. In this case t h e miners are said to c u t off the moss w i t h a shovel, and then to build F. Kraus, Hf'hlenkunde, p. 86. t W. E. Meelaan, Philadelpkia Ledger, 1896.
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a fire w h i c h t h a w s o u t t h e g r o u n d for 5 or io centimeters. T h e y dig this o u t and t h e n start a n o t h e r fire and continue t h e process. A t the o t h e r end of the continent, in Tierra del F u e g o , ice and lava are said to b e f o u n d inter-stratified for a g r e a t depth, each winter's s n o w b e i n g c o v e r e d b y a n e w lava sheet. On C h i m b o r a z o also, H u m b o l d t s a y s that e n o r m o u s h e a p s of ice are f o u n d covered w i t h s a n d and far b e l o w t h e inferior limit of t h e p e r p e t u a l snows. In our W e s t e r n S t a t e s t h e r e are several caves which retain ice, a n d w h i c h are of c o n s i d e r a b l y larger proportions t h a n a n y in the East,* and t h e r e is no d o u b t t h a t m o r e will be discovered in t h e future. Places w h e r e ice remains, w h e t h e r caves or not, are r e p o r t e d from W a s h i n g t o n , Oregon, California, M o n t a n a / f W y o m i n g , Colorado and Arizona. A p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g place in t h e S t a t e last n a m e d w a s b r o u g h t to m y notice b y t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d archaeologist, Mr. F r a n k H a m i l t o n Cushing. It is a cleft in a lava bed, which, b e i n g roofed at t h e f u r t h e r end, m i g h t be d e s c r i b e d as a cave. In this the ice remains until J u n e or July, m u c h later t h a n a n y w h e r e else in the n e i g h b o r h o o d . T h e Zuni I n d i a n s h a v e a m y s t i c a l feeling a b o u t this, calling t h e ice t h e b r e a t h of t h e g o d s ; the s n o w t h e y consider a sort of down. T h e region is very arid, and w a t e r v e r y precious, to w h i c h fact t h e association of the s u p e r n a t u r a l w i t h the occurrence of s n o w and ice a m o n g the Indians m a y be explained. In t h e S t a t e s east of t h e R o c k i e s s o m e thirty-five subt e r r a n e a n ice d e p o s i t s are k n o w n - - i n Maine, N e w Hamp* One of these is in W a s h i n g t o n . ' I t is a lava cave, a n d is 56 kilometers from t h e m o u t h of t h e W h i t e S a l m o n River. Described b y R. W. Raymond, Overland Monthly, N o v e m b e r 3, I869, P- 42I. A n o t h e r is o~n Cow Mountain, near Cripple Creek, Col. Y Mr. R o b e r t Buffer, of San Jose, Cal., wrote to m e t h a t h e h a d examined a glaci~re cave a n d a freezing well i n Montana, where such wells are not un. common. T h e people i n t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d t h i n k the ice forms in summer. Mr. Buffer investigated t h e question of cold-air d r a u g h t s c o m i n g from these glaci~res. H e found t h a t , on rapidly w a l k i n g into t h e m on a h o t day, the same sensation was produced a s t h o u g h one were s t a n d i n g still a n d t h e air were in motion. H e also satisfied himself that, a s f a r a s h e h a d observed, the ice was formed b y no o t h e r cause t h a n t h e n a t u r a l cold of winter.
Jour. Frank. Inst., Vol., CLXVIZ
April, 1899.
(Ba&h.) ]
T HE BLUFF AT DECORAH, ~OWA. LOCATION OF CAVE ABOVE WHITE CROSS. (Photo. by Mr. A. F. Kovarik.)
April, I899 ]
Subterranea~t fee DejPosits.
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shire, V e r m o n t , 'Massachusetts, Connecticut, N e w York, Pennsylvania, V i r g i n i a , I n d i a n a , Missouri a n d Iowa. T h e most s o u t h e r l y of these is in a b o u t 37 ° n o r t h latitude. The deposits in Arizona, w h i c h are y e t f u r t h e r south, are at a m u c h g r e a t e r altitude. F o u r of these only m a y properly be called caves. T h e s e are at Manchester, Vt., Ellenville, N. Y., Farrandsville, Pa., and Decorah, Ia. T h e little cave n e a r M a n c h e s t e r is in a marble f o r m a t i o n , and, so far as I know, it is the only marble cave in the world where a b n o r m a l l y low temperatures h a v e been found. On the 5th of July, I898, there was plenty of snow in it, b u t n o t h i n g t h a t would strictly be defined as ice. A t Decorah, Ia., is a little cave or limestone fissure on the b a n k s of the Iowa River. It is quite f a m o u s b e c a u s e the capillary t h e o r y - - t h a t ice m i g h t be f o r m e d by pressure on the w a t e r d r i p p i n g t h r o u g h rock c r a c k s - - w a s formulated to explain i t . . On the 3oth of September, I898, t h e r e was no ice in it, and the t e m p e r a t u r e s were normal. N e i t h e r were there a n y t i n y t u b u l a r fissures visible, b u t i n s t e a d of these, t h e r e were q u a n t i t i e s of fossils.* N e a r Ellenville, N. Y., is a c a v e - - o r perhaps more correctly a gorge, as it is m i n u s a r o o f - - w h i c h is the l a r g e s t natural r e f r i g e r a t o r in the E a s t e r n U n i t e d States. Several friends of m i n e h a v e f o u n d snow and ice in it in past years in J u l y and A u g u s t . L a s t year, on the 9th of October, neither snow nor ice was present, and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s were only s l i g h t l y below t h a t of the o u t s i d e air in the shade. In Clinton County, Pa., on the banks of the S u s q u e h a n n a River, opposite to the village of Farrandsville, is a m i t e of a cave.t It can only be e n t e r e d for a b o u t 2 meters, a l t h o u g h there are several cracks l e a d i n g f u r t h e r into the rocks. T h e postmaster a n d the railroad a g e n t at F a r r a n d s v i l l e assured *Mr. Alois F. Kovarik, of the Decorah Institute, published a valuable series of observations about the Deeorah Cave, in the Scientific American Supplement, No. II95, November u6, I898. He thinks that the cold of winter is thesouree of eold. t This oould also be described as a windhole. VOL~CXLVII. No. 88o. 19
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me t h a t ice was never visible there in winter, b u t t h a t it was f o u n d t h e r e from April, u s u a l l y all t h r o ~ g h t h e s u m m e r m o n t h s . On October I Ith, there was no ice in sight, b u t after fifteen m i n u t e s ' exposure, the t h e r m o m e t e r dropped to 6 ° C., an a b n o r m a l result, showing, in m y opinion, the presence of ice f u r t h e r in. T h e rocks also were a b n o r m a l l y cold. Of rock gorges w h i c h act as r e f r i g e r a t o r s I h a v e seen t h r e e in the E a s t e r n U n i t e d States. One is the, so-called, Ice Glen at Stoekbridge, Mass. I was told t h a t ice r e m a i n e d t h e r e l a t e r t h a n elsewhere in the n e i g h b o r h o o d , sometimes as late as May. On the 3d of J u l y t h e r e were no trace of ice or snow, a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s were normal. T h e r e is a g r e a t g o r g e near R a n d o l p h , N. H., n o r t h of the P r e s i d e n t i a l R a n g e , b e t w e e n Crescent a n d Black Mountains. T h i s is called the Ice Gulch. T h e sides are q u i t e sheer in m a n y places, and the b o t t o m is choked w i t h an a c c u m u l a t i o n of boulders. A m o n g these t h e r e was a small q u a n t i t y of ice in one or two places on the i l t h of A u g u s t last. This ice was u n u s u a l in formation, n e i t h e r solid nor prismatic, but full of air bubbles. It c r u m b l e d a w a y in small pieces under t h e teeth. In the P r e s i d e n t i a l R a n g e itself is t h e g r e a t K i n g ' s Ravine, on M o u n t A d a m s . T h e b o t t o m is covered w i t h huge boulders, a n d a m o n g these, some y e a r s ago at t h e end of September, t h e r e was p l e n t y of p r i s m a t i c ice. T h e r e are a n u m b e r of rock taluses in the Appalachians, where ice is found. One of these is on L o w e r Ausable Pond, in the A d i r o n d a c k s , at t h e n o r t h base of M o u n t Sdbille or Colvin. It is a h u g e t a l u s of g r e a t L a u r e n t i a n ~?) boulders, a m o n g w h i c h are n u m e r o u s hollows, w h i c h m i g h t by c o u r t e s y be called caves. On the i 2 t h of July, Mr. E. I. H. H o w e l l w e n t w i t h me to t h i s spot, a n d in t h r e e hollows we f o u n d ice, in two of these places in considerable. q u a n t i t i e s . Mr. H o w e l l has been r e p e a t e d l y at this spot d u r i n g p a s t s u m m e r s and always f o u n d ice, so it m u s t be considered a p e r e n n i a l glaci~re. T w o d a y s later, on t h e i n d i c a t i o n s of Mr. Otis, t h e chief g u i d e of the A d i r o n d a c k Reserve, I explored the s o u t h talus • of the G i a n t of the Valley. In two places a b o u t i kilometer
April, 1899.]
Subterranean Ice Deposits.
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apart, and in each case in hollows a m o n g the boulders there was p l e n t y of ice. I did n o t follow the t a l u s t h r o u g h o u t its whole extent, as the w a l k i n g was fearfully bad, b u t apparently ice m i g h t be expected anywhere, as I f o u n d it at once at b o t h ' p l a c e s I inspected. One m a s s was certainly 5 or 6 meters long by 2 in w i d t h and I in depth. T h e ice was very pure, h a r d a n d non-prismatic. In one of the hollows, where there was only a little ice, the t h e r m o m e t e r r e g i s t e r e d 6 ° C. after fifteerl m i n u t e s ' exposure, a b o u t I m e t e r from the outside, a n d a b o u t t m e t e r from the same spot in t h e shade of a tree, it r e g i s t e r e d 26 ° C., a difference of zo ° C. w i t h i n less t h a n 2 meters. N e a r R u m n e y , N. H., is a b o u l d e r talus w h e r e Mr. J o h n Ritchie, Jr., S e c r e t a r y of the A p p a l a c h i a n M o u n t a i n Club, of Boston, some y e a r s ago f o u n d ice in A u g u s t . T h e Sheriff of R u m n e y a c c o m p a n i e d me to this place, a n d said t h a t ice was g e n e r a l l y a b u n d a n t there in s u m m e r . On the xSth of A u g u s t we f o u n d none a n d the t e m p e r a t u r e s normal. A t W a t e r t o w n , N. ¥., u n d e r the tracks of the New York Central Railroad, are some rock cracks, in f r o n t of which cellars h a v e been built, a n d these are used to store beer barrels. On t h e I z t h of S e p t e m b e r t h e r e was no ice in the cracks, a n d the lessor of the cellars told me it h a d all m e l t e d away early this s u m m e r , on a c c o u n t of the g r e a t heat. Near W a t e r t o w n is t h e picnic g r o u n d of Glen Park, where there is a hollow or rock basi~a, w h e r e ice a n d snow sometimes lie over u n t i l July. T h e r e are cracks in the rock sides of this hollow, in w h i c h ~ce r e m a i n s over n e a r the m o u t h , but it is n o t f o u n d a n y d i s t a n c e within. An h o u r on foot to the n o r t h of t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a Railroad S t a t i o n of Spruce Creek, H u n t i n g d o n County, Pa., at the base of the T u s s e y Mountain, is a g r e a t talus of broken (sandstone ?) rock. It is some 150 m e t e r s long and 3o m e t e r s high. A t t h e base of this talus are some small pits w h i c h are said to have been d u g by f a r m e r s and w h i c h act as n a t u r a l ice-houses. In t h e s e pits, on the 5th of October last, I could see m y b r e a t h distinctly, and on the talus the air was m u c h colder t h a n a n y w h e r e a r o u n d it. I t h o u g h t I saw ice far in among the rocks, b u t I could not be sure. T h e r e m u s t surely
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h a v e b e e n some, h o w e v e r , for the t e m p e r a t u r e was abnorm a l l y cold. F r e e z i n g wells are a form of n a t u r a l r e f r i g e r a t o r n o t unc o m m o n in t h e E a s t e r n U n i t e d States. One of t h e s e was said to be at Owego, N . V . I visited t h e place on t h e 23d of last J u n e , and f o u n d t h a t t h e well h a d existed, b u t that it had b e e n blocked up m a n y y e a r s ago. Mr. Preston, who h a d lived b e s i d e t h e well all his life, i n f o r m e d m e t h a t he had m o r e t h a n once b e e n d o w n in it, t h a t it p a s s e d first t h r o u g h a layer of sand, t h e n t h r o u g h a layer of gravel, and t h a t he h a d seen t h e sides covered w i t h ice, and t h a t ice h a d somet i m e s filled it solid a b o u t half-way up. A t Brandon, Vt., is a n o t h e r freezing well. T h i s has b e e n d e s c r i b e d in the Geology o f Vermont as c o n t a i n i n g ice as late as j u l y . T h e o w n e r of t h e well a s s u r e d m e that it froze solid e v e r y winter. I w a s t h e r e on the 7th of July, and twice l o w e r e d a t h e r m o m e t e r , and each time, after ten minutes, it registered only I3 ° C., a strictly normal temperature. A t Decorah, Ia., also, t h e r e is a well w h i c h is r e p o r t e d as freezing up e v e r y winter. A t the e n d of S e p t e m b e r there was no ice in it. I wish n o w to m a k e a brief r6sum6 of t h e chief points w h i c h t h e s e ice deposits, and a certain n u m b e r w h i c h I saw in E u r o p e in 1897, h a v e s u g g e s t e d to me, since I delivered a lecture on " I c e C a v e s " before the F r a n k l i n I n s t i t u t e two y e a r s ago. ~ N a t u r a l r e f r i g e r a t o r s fall u n d e r s o m e t h i n g like five main h e a d s : (I) Gullies and t r o u g h s w h e r e ice remains. (2) B o u l d e r t a l u s e s c o n t a i n i n g ice. (3) Ice s h e e t s overlaid b y soil or rocks. (4) Wells, m i n e s and t u n n e l s which freeze at times. (5) Caves w i t h a b n o r m a l l y low t e m p e r a t u r e s and mostly c o n t a i n i n g ice. F o r four of t h e s e five different rock formations, as far as t h e y are c o n n e c t e d with ice, w e h a v e only t w o t e r m s in ~Journal of the Franklin Institute (I897), 14.a, 161-178.
April, I899.]
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English and those the e n t i r e l y incorrect ones of " i c e c a v e " and " i c e gorge," and the more I h a v e followed up the subject, the more do those n a m e s seem m i s n o m e r s t o m e . W e say " l i m e s t o n e c a v e " or " l a v a c a v e " and in the s a m e w a y we should say " i c e c a v e " w h e n the sides and roof of a cave are f o r m e d of ice; t h a t is, we s h o u l d reserve the t e r m for the hollows at t h e ends of glaciers w h e n c e the glacier w a t e r s make their exit. C u r i o u s l y e n o u g h , the G e r m a n s use t h e same i n a c c u r a t e p h r a s e o l o g y as ourselves, and there is only one term w h i c h is really generic, namely, the F r e n c h glacikre naturelle. T h i s is c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d accurate, e m b r a c i n g the geological s t r u c t u r e a n d s u g g e s t i n g the mode of formation of t h e ice. In m y opinion we should e i t h e r adopt the French glacikre or use its E n g l i s h equivalent, " n a t u r a l refrigerator." T h e n e x t point I wish to t o u c h on, relates to the m o d e of formation of the ice of these glaci~res. In e v e r y case glaci~res seem to m e to be p u r e l y refrigerators, w h i c h preserve the supplies of ice a n d snow stored in t h e m d u r i n g the winter. T h e y all follow the same g e n e r a l laws as to t h e i r origin, modified only in s l i g h t degree, according to the varying n a t u r a l conditions of the place, such as the water-supply, or the protection from sun or wind, or the t h i c k n e s s of t h e overhead rocks, or the a l t i t u d e o.r l a t i t u d e . I c a n n o t see that there is a n y t h i n g v e r y r e m a r k a b l e a b o u t the fact t h a t the cold of w i n t e r is able to p e n e t r a t e a n d m a k e itself felt sometimes for a v e r y s l i g h t depth' in the earth's crust, a depth so far as y e t k n o w n never exceeding i5o meters. And it seems to me. t h a t glaci~res only emphasize a law of n a t u r e w h i c h has doubtless been f o r m u l a t e d m a n y times in connection w i t h springs a n d p h r e a t i c waters, and that is, t h a t where we find v e r y cold waters u n d e r g r o u n d , we m a y be sure t h a t t h e y h a v e p e n e t r a t e d from the outside. T h e excessively h o t s u m m e r of i898 has f u r n i s h e d some valuable proofs of the fact t h a t t h e cold of w i n t e r is t h e originator of t h e ice, and the h e a t of s u m m e r its destroyer.. At R u m n e y , for instance, where t h e r e is g e n e r a l l y ice in August, t h e r e was none last year. A t Ellenville, I was told there was always ice in the cave. Yet I f o u n d none, and
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Balch :
[J. F. I.,
the t e m p e r a t u r e was normal, and as far as I could learn this was s o m e t h i n g never k n o w n before. T h e fact t h a t t h e r e was no ice last s u m m e r at the freezing wells of B r a n d o n or Decorah, is a proof t h a t natural refrigerators h a v e n o t h i n g to do w i t h a glacialperiod. This p o i n t w a s s e t t l e d a b o u t caves long ago, b u t it m i g h t have b e e n claimed to hold a b o u t freezing wells, as we cannot be sure h o w l o n g a t i m e the g r a v e l b e d s t h e y are d u g in had been frozen. But freezing wells e v i d e n t l y do not depart m a t e r i a l l y in their actions from o t h e r glaei~res, since there was no ice at the freezing w e l l s of B r a n d o n or Decorah last s u m m e r , and the t e s t i m o n y s h o w s conclusively that t h e r e was p l e n t y of it last w i n t e r and t h a t t h e r e will be p l e n t y this winter. A n y l i n g e r i n g d o u b t s I m a y h a v e had a b o u t t h e cat3illary t h e o r y - - t h a t is, of t h e ice f o r m i n g b y p r e s s u r e n h a v e b e e n dispelled b y v i s i t i n g t h e cave at Decorah, w h e r e there were none of the s u p p o s e d hair fissures, and w h i c h is n o t especially different from similar caves in Europe• If, as is s o m e t i m e s claimed, t h e ice is f o r m e d by e v a p o r a t i o n or b y e x p a n s i o n of t h e air, and t h a t these factors are m o s t actiye w h e n t h e w e a t h e r is hottest, then the p a s t s u m m e r afforded the b e s t possible conditions for their d e m o n s t r a t i o n , and t h e r e should h a v e b e e n ice at Ellenville and D e c o r a h . T h e s u b j e c t of e v a p o r a t i o n is closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p o i n t a b o u t glaciates, and t h a t is subterranean d r a u g h t s and t h e m o v e m e n t s of air. Believing, as I do, t h a t it is the cold air o f w i n t e r w h i c h causes t h e ice, it is n e c e s s a r y to consider its action• First, t h e r e is a form of s u b t e r r a n e a n hollow, w h e r e t h e r e are at least t w o openings, of which one is h i g h e r than the other. In t h e s e t h e r e are a l m o s t a l w a y s d r a u g h t s w h o s e direction varies acc o r d i n g to the o u t s i d e t e m p e r a t u r e . W h e n t h e air within is colder than t h a t of the air outside, t h e n b y its o w n w e i g h t the air w i t h i n the cave flows o u t at the lower opening. W h e n , on the contrary, the air w i t h i n is w a r m e r t h a n the a i r outside, t h e n this w a r m e r inside air rises and leaves the cave at the u p p e r opening, and is, of course, replaced b y an equal v o l u m e of cold o u t s i d e air flowing in at the
April, I899.]'
S u b t e r r a n e a n Ice Deposits.
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lower o p e n i n g . T h i s is t h e p h e n o m e n o n of b l o w i n g caves or win d h o les , a n d w h e n ice is f o u n d in t hem , it is always at t h e l o w e r end, as it is at t h a t end t h a t t h e cold air enters, a n d it is also to t h a t end tlaat w a t e r g r a v i t a t e s . Instead of t h e ice in t h e s e w i n d h o l e s b e i n g f o r m e d b y evaporation, it s eems to m e t h a t w h e n t h e air flows o u t at t he l o w er end, it m u s t t h e n h a v e a t e n d e n c y to v a p o r i z e t h e ice an d c a r r y it a w a y as m o i s t u r e . T h e n t h e r e is a class of caves w h e r e t h e r e is onl y one e n t r a n c e an d w h e r e t h e b o d y of t h e cave is l o w e r t h a n t h e e n t r a n c e . In t h e s e t h e air in s u m m e r is a p p a r e n t l y stagnant, an d h e n c e t h e y h a v e b e e n c a l l e d ' s t a t i c caves. T h e n a m e is n o t d e s c r i p t i v e , h o w e v e r , for in cold w e a t h e r t h e h e a v y w i n t e r air sinks i n t o t h e s e caves and d i s p l a c e s t h e air within, of cour s e s e t t i n g up s om e m o t i o n . E v e n in s u m m e r I q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t he air is al w a ys as s t a g n a n t a s it seems. A t t h e G l a c i & e de S a i n t - G e o r g e s , in t h e Swiss Jura, t h e r e is t h e e n t r a n c e to t h e cave, and at one e n d of the cave t h e r e is an o p e n i n g in t h e roof. In A u g u s t , 1897; the air s e e m e d p e r f e c t l y still w i t h i n t h e cave on t h e ice floor, y e t s t a n d i n g n~arly u n d e r t he hole in t h e roof, I f o u n d t h a t th e s m o k e of m y c i g a r rose v e r y r a p i d l y s t r a i g h t u p ; it s e e m e d a l m o s t to be d r a w n or s u c k e d up f r o m above, and c e r t a i n l y t h e air was n o t s t a g n a n t at t h a t spot. T h e r e can be no que s t i on, it s e e m s to me, t h a t it is t h e m o v e m e n t of t h e h e a v y cold air of w i n t e r d o w n w a r d i nt o these caves w h i c h supplies t h e cold w h i c h f o r m s t h e ice in them. A l t h o u g h I di s be l i e ve t h a t t h e e v a p o r a t i o n in w i n d h o l e s is e v e r s t r o n g e n o u g h to cause ice to form, y e t I h a v e no d o u b t w h a t e v e r , t h a t in caves w i t h a t e m p e r a t u r e s o m e d e g r ees a b o v e freezing-point, w h e n t h e r e is e i t h e r r u n n i n g w a t e r or s t r o n g drips, e v a p o r a t i o n m a y be, a n d sometimes u n d o u b t e d l y is, a f a c t o r in l o w e r i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s o m e w h a t ; ~ a n d as in s o m e w i n d h o l e s t h e r e is s o m e t i m e s m o i s t u r e on t h e rock s u r f a c e s w h e r e t h e air c u r r e n t passes, This is also the opinion of M. E. A. Martel. Les .dbimes, Paris, 1894, p. 564, and M#moires de la Soci~t# de Sp~l#ologie, 1897.
296
Balch.
IJ. ~. I.,
the e v a p o r a t i o n from these surfaces doubtless sometimes lowers the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e air c u r r e n t s appreciably.* T h e r e is, however, no reason to t h i n k t h a t evaporation ever lowers the t e m p e r a t u r e of air c u r r e n t s below freezingpoint. T a k i n g all t h e facts w h i c h I h a v e m y s e l f observed, and all t h a t I have read in t h e reports of others, m y conclusion is t h a t we h a v e a b s o l u t e l y no proof t h a t underg r o u n d e v a p o r a t i o n is ever effective in p r o d u c i n g ice. A good deal of confusion has been occasioned by the n o m e n c l a t u r e of these caves. One kind has been termed windrMtren, or w i n d h o l e s or b l o w i n g caves; the other, eishMzlen, or ice caves or static caves. T h e i m p o r t a n t point, however, in this connection is t h a t s o m e t i m e s ice occurs in b o t h these classes of caves and s o m e t i m e s it does not. I wish to r e p e a t t h a t t h e only r a t i o n a l t e r m i n o l o g y is the F r e n c h one, to speak of a n y place w h e r e t h e r e is ice underg r o u n d as a glaci~re or refrigerator. If t h e r e are two openings at different altitudes, a n d h e n c e d i s t i n c t d r a u g h t s , then we h a v e a. w i n d h o l e or b l o w i n g cave, q u i t e i n d e p e n d e n t of w h e t h e r t h e r e is or is n o t a n y ice. A n o t h e r scarcely noticed p o i n t a b o u t n a t u r a l refrigerators is t h e i r relation to life. Apropos of this is the foll o w i n g s t a t e m e n t a b o u t the talus a t A u s a b l e Pond. This is d i r e c t l y on the shores of t h e lake, and it is k n o w n among t h e A d i r o n d a c k g u i d e s t h a t in f r o n t of the talus is the best spot in the whole lake to catch trout. Of course this is b e c a u s e t h e w a t e r of t h e lake is coldest at t h a t spot, and t r o u t always seek the coldest water. Iia the l i t e r a t u r e about glaci~res, however, I h a v e f o u n d reference to an insect, stenopltylax hieroglyplticus,t T h i s has been f o u n d in three eaves s i t u a t e d a l o n g d i s t a n c e a p a r t in the F r e n c h Alps. A1t h o u g h this single ease can scarcely be considored as establ i s h i n g a special glaciate fauna, y e t t h e s u b j e c t is worth further investigation. *Further observation on this point will be necessary. The cave at Farrandsville and the talus at Spruce Creek seem to me to offer unusually good opportunities for study. t G. F. Browne, lce Caves in France and Swilzerland, London, Longmans, I865 ; aud the same in Good Words, Edinburgh, November, I866.
your. Frank. Inst., Vol. C L X V [ L
April, z899.
GORGE AT ELLENVILLE, N . Y .
(t~alch.)
(Photo. by Mr. Davis.)
April, x899.]
Problem of the MississippL
297
T h e r e is m o r e to be said in r e g a r d to p l a n t life than to animal life. My g u i d e to the R a n d o l p h Ice Gulch told me that he h a d been a s s u r e d t h a t Alpine plants similar to those found on M o u n t s W a s h i n g t o n and A d a m s were f o u n d in t k e Gulch, b u t t h a t t h e y were n o t f o u n d on t h e n e i g h b o r i n g Crescent and Bald Mountains. On the talus at Spruce Creek, it s e e m e d to m e t h a t the flora was s o m e w h a t different from t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y s u r r o u n d i n g it. W h i l e at the talus at A u s a b l e Pond, Mr. H o w e l l called m y a t t e n t i o n to the flowers of the b u n c h b e r r y ~nd also to oxalis, a p r e t t y white flower. T h e s e were in full bloom, a l t h o u g h t h e y were at least t w o w e e k s later than t h e y Were on the surrounding m o u n t a i n s . H e r e , therefore, is a case w h e r e the cold air c o m i n g from the rock crevices affects the flora in the vicinity sufficiently to retard its d e v e l o p m e n t .
THE PROBLEM
OF THE
MISSISSIPPI.
BY HEgMAN HAUPT, C. E., Washington, D. C.
In May, I897 , the writer p u b l i s h e d several articles in the New York Sun on t h e Mississippi R i v e r problem, the aim of which was to s h o w that of t h e s y s t e m s proposed, n e i t h e r the levee, t h e outlet, the reservoir, nor any other, singly, w o u l d secure p r o t e c t i o n from overflow, b u t t h a t a c o m b i n a t i o n of several and an intelligent application of certain recognized principles, w i t h a careful s t u d y of local conditions was essential to a practical solution of the p r o b l e m presented. Since t h a t t i m e an e x c e e d i n g l y v a l u a b l e p a p e r has b e e n given to the p u b l i c b y Mr. W i l l i a m Starling, Chief E n g i n e e r of the L o w e r Yazoo District in Mississippi, g i v i n g details not in possession of the w r i t e r at the time of the publication of the article referred to. T h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h c o n t r o v e r s y as to the effect of levees in c a u s i n g elevation of t h e b e d s of s t r e a m s and very positive assertions have b e e n m a d e on b o t h sides. T h e s t a t e m e n t w a s m a d e b y P r o n y t h a t " the Po and the
Balch :
[J. F. I.,
tion by foliage, the influence of the original dressing of the masonry, especially on well tooled or bush-hammered surfaces, etc. It is apparent, therefore, that the elements of strength, on which the coherence of the grains of stone depends, in resistance to weathering, are so varied, that with m a n y kinds no single known method, artificial or natural, can be relied upon without question and without confirmation. W e yet need to seek for light t h r o u g h comparison of results from all promising methods of possible application, and often to gratefully accept even an approximation to the truth. [To be concluded.]
Slated Meeting, Wednesday, February 8, 1899.
S U B T E R R A N E A N ICE D E P O S I T S IN AMERICA.* BY EDWIN SWIFT BALCH.
T h e whole st~bject of subterranean ice is so bound up with questions of t e m p e r a t u r e that it seems well to say a few preliminary words about u n d e r g r o u n d t e m p e r a t u r e s in general. U n d e r g r o u n d temperatures m a y best be studied u n d e r three heads: the normal, the super-normal and the sub.normal. T h e normal or ordinary temperatures scarcely change the whole year round. T h e r e is a superficial layer of soil or rock, of but very slight depth, which is affected by the outside temperatures ; b e n e a t h this there is usually a layer, the t e m p e r a t u r e of which is about that of the mean annual t e m p e r a t u r e of the locality; below this the temperatures increase slowly with increasing depth below, the surface. This increase m a y be roughly stated as about I o C. for every 32 meters in depth. Super-normal temperatures at or near the surface are very rare, and are due to special causes. Thus, there are a few caves which have temperatures much above the mean annual t e m p e r a t u r e of their locality. In such cases, the heat is generally due to the presence of hot *~Copyright by E. S. Baleh, 1899.
April, I 8 9 9 . ]
Subterranean Ice Deposits.
287
springs or to volcanic action in t h e i m m e d i a t e neighborhood. * Sub-normal t e m p e r a t u r e s in the superficial layer are rare, b u t less so t h a n super-uormM t e m p e r a t u r e s , These t e m p e r a t u r e s m a y b e a b n o r m a l l y low w i t h o u t d e s c e n d i n g to t h e freezing-point. S o m e t i m e s , however, t h e y are so low as to be a c c o m p a n i e d b y the f o r m a t i o n of ice. For s o m e y e a r s I h a v e b e e n collecting all t h e d a t a I could find a b o u t s u b t e r r a n e a n ice deposits in America. Scientific journals, one or two books of travels, and c u t t i n g s from local n e w s p a p e r s , h a v e f u r n i s h e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a n u m b e r of places, and c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h persons residing in their n e i g h b o r h o o d h a s g i v e n more. My notes include over fifty localities r a n g i n g from G r e e n l a n d to T i e r r a del Fuego. M u c h of this i n f o r m a t i o n comes from t h e reports of trained observers, such, for instance, as t h e p a p e r of L i e u t e n a n t Cantwell, d e s c r i b i n g the ice cliffs on t h e K o w a k River. A b o u t t h e a c c u r a c y of m o s t of the i n f o r m a t i o n I feel b u t little doubt, e x c e p t in r e g a r d to t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s given, c o n c e r n i n g w h i c h t h e r e is a t e n d e n c y to report things u n d e r g r o u n d as m u c h larger than t h e y really are. On t h e w e s t coast of G r e e n l a n d a n u m b e r of b u r i e d glaciers are r e p o r t e d . t T h e s e s e e m to o c c u r w h e n a glacier finds its o u t l e t in the sea and for s o m e reason stops flowing. Then s o m e of the A r c t i c m o s s e s and lichens, w h i c h flourish in spite of the cold, g r a d u a l l y m a k e their w a y over the ice, first in thin l~yers, later in thick masses, t h e y o u n g plants t r a m p l i n g d o w n the older ones until t h e latter turn to a rich mould. T h e seeds of grasses and flowers find their w a y to this until the w h o l e p l a t e a u b e c o m e s a g a r d e n of green, gold and white. Much frozen soil is f o u n d in Alaska. Prof. Israel C. Russell saw m a n y strata of ice in t h e b a n k s of the Y u k o n and he says that strata over 30 m e t e r s thick h a v e b e e n found. M u c h of the K l o n d i k e c o u n t r y is frozen d o w n to bed rock, 8 or IO m e t e r s deep. In this case t h e miners are said to c u t off the moss w i t h a shovel, and then to build F. Kraus, Hf'hlenkunde, p. 86. t W. E. Meelaan, Philadelpkia Ledger, 1896.
288
Balch :
[ J . F. I.,
a fire w h i c h t h a w s o u t t h e g r o u n d for 5 or io centimeters. T h e y dig this o u t and t h e n start a n o t h e r fire and continue t h e process. A t the o t h e r end of the continent, in Tierra del F u e g o , ice and lava are said to b e f o u n d inter-stratified for a g r e a t depth, each winter's s n o w b e i n g c o v e r e d b y a n e w lava sheet. On C h i m b o r a z o also, H u m b o l d t s a y s that e n o r m o u s h e a p s of ice are f o u n d covered w i t h s a n d and far b e l o w t h e inferior limit of t h e p e r p e t u a l snows. In our W e s t e r n S t a t e s t h e r e are several caves which retain ice, a n d w h i c h are of c o n s i d e r a b l y larger proportions t h a n a n y in the East,* and t h e r e is no d o u b t t h a t m o r e will be discovered in t h e future. Places w h e r e ice remains, w h e t h e r caves or not, are r e p o r t e d from W a s h i n g t o n , Oregon, California, M o n t a n a / f W y o m i n g , Colorado and Arizona. A p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g place in t h e S t a t e last n a m e d w a s b r o u g h t to m y notice b y t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d archaeologist, Mr. F r a n k H a m i l t o n Cushing. It is a cleft in a lava bed, which, b e i n g roofed at t h e f u r t h e r end, m i g h t be d e s c r i b e d as a cave. In this the ice remains until J u n e or July, m u c h later t h a n a n y w h e r e else in the n e i g h b o r h o o d . T h e Zuni I n d i a n s h a v e a m y s t i c a l feeling a b o u t this, calling t h e ice t h e b r e a t h of t h e g o d s ; the s n o w t h e y consider a sort of down. T h e region is very arid, and w a t e r v e r y precious, to w h i c h fact t h e association of the s u p e r n a t u r a l w i t h the occurrence of s n o w and ice a m o n g the Indians m a y be explained. In t h e S t a t e s east of t h e R o c k i e s s o m e thirty-five subt e r r a n e a n ice d e p o s i t s are k n o w n - - i n Maine, N e w Hamp* One of these is in W a s h i n g t o n . ' I t is a lava cave, a n d is 56 kilometers from t h e m o u t h of t h e W h i t e S a l m o n River. Described b y R. W. Raymond, Overland Monthly, N o v e m b e r 3, I869, P- 42I. A n o t h e r is o~n Cow Mountain, near Cripple Creek, Col. Y Mr. R o b e r t Buffer, of San Jose, Cal., wrote to m e t h a t h e h a d examined a glaci~re cave a n d a freezing well i n Montana, where such wells are not un. common. T h e people i n t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d t h i n k the ice forms in summer. Mr. Buffer investigated t h e question of cold-air d r a u g h t s c o m i n g from these glaci~res. H e found t h a t , on rapidly w a l k i n g into t h e m on a h o t day, the same sensation was produced a s t h o u g h one were s t a n d i n g still a n d t h e air were in motion. H e also satisfied himself that, a s f a r a s h e h a d observed, the ice was formed b y no o t h e r cause t h a n t h e n a t u r a l cold of winter.
Jour. Frank. Inst., Vol., CLXVIZ
April, 1899.
(Ba&h.) ]
T HE BLUFF AT DECORAH, ~OWA. LOCATION OF CAVE ABOVE WHITE CROSS. (Photo. by Mr. A. F. Kovarik.)
April, I899 ]
Subterranea~t fee DejPosits.
289
shire, V e r m o n t , 'Massachusetts, Connecticut, N e w York, Pennsylvania, V i r g i n i a , I n d i a n a , Missouri a n d Iowa. T h e most s o u t h e r l y of these is in a b o u t 37 ° n o r t h latitude. The deposits in Arizona, w h i c h are y e t f u r t h e r south, are at a m u c h g r e a t e r altitude. F o u r of these only m a y properly be called caves. T h e s e are at Manchester, Vt., Ellenville, N. Y., Farrandsville, Pa., and Decorah, Ia. T h e little cave n e a r M a n c h e s t e r is in a marble f o r m a t i o n , and, so far as I know, it is the only marble cave in the world where a b n o r m a l l y low temperatures h a v e been found. On the 5th of July, I898, there was plenty of snow in it, b u t n o t h i n g t h a t would strictly be defined as ice. A t Decorah, Ia., is a little cave or limestone fissure on the b a n k s of the Iowa River. It is quite f a m o u s b e c a u s e the capillary t h e o r y - - t h a t ice m i g h t be f o r m e d by pressure on the w a t e r d r i p p i n g t h r o u g h rock c r a c k s - - w a s formulated to explain i t . . On the 3oth of September, I898, t h e r e was no ice in it, and the t e m p e r a t u r e s were normal. N e i t h e r were there a n y t i n y t u b u l a r fissures visible, b u t i n s t e a d of these, t h e r e were q u a n t i t i e s of fossils.* N e a r Ellenville, N. Y., is a c a v e - - o r perhaps more correctly a gorge, as it is m i n u s a r o o f - - w h i c h is the l a r g e s t natural r e f r i g e r a t o r in the E a s t e r n U n i t e d States. Several friends of m i n e h a v e f o u n d snow and ice in it in past years in J u l y and A u g u s t . L a s t year, on the 9th of October, neither snow nor ice was present, and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s were only s l i g h t l y below t h a t of the o u t s i d e air in the shade. In Clinton County, Pa., on the banks of the S u s q u e h a n n a River, opposite to the village of Farrandsville, is a m i t e of a cave.t It can only be e n t e r e d for a b o u t 2 meters, a l t h o u g h there are several cracks l e a d i n g f u r t h e r into the rocks. T h e postmaster a n d the railroad a g e n t at F a r r a n d s v i l l e assured *Mr. Alois F. Kovarik, of the Decorah Institute, published a valuable series of observations about the Deeorah Cave, in the Scientific American Supplement, No. II95, November u6, I898. He thinks that the cold of winter is thesouree of eold. t This oould also be described as a windhole. VOL~CXLVII. No. 88o. 19
290
Balch :
[J. F. L.
me t h a t ice was never visible there in winter, b u t t h a t it was f o u n d t h e r e from April, u s u a l l y all t h r o ~ g h t h e s u m m e r m o n t h s . On October I Ith, there was no ice in sight, b u t after fifteen m i n u t e s ' exposure, the t h e r m o m e t e r dropped to 6 ° C., an a b n o r m a l result, showing, in m y opinion, the presence of ice f u r t h e r in. T h e rocks also were a b n o r m a l l y cold. Of rock gorges w h i c h act as r e f r i g e r a t o r s I h a v e seen t h r e e in the E a s t e r n U n i t e d States. One is the, so-called, Ice Glen at Stoekbridge, Mass. I was told t h a t ice r e m a i n e d t h e r e l a t e r t h a n elsewhere in the n e i g h b o r h o o d , sometimes as late as May. On the 3d of J u l y t h e r e were no trace of ice or snow, a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s were normal. T h e r e is a g r e a t g o r g e near R a n d o l p h , N. H., n o r t h of the P r e s i d e n t i a l R a n g e , b e t w e e n Crescent a n d Black Mountains. T h i s is called the Ice Gulch. T h e sides are q u i t e sheer in m a n y places, and the b o t t o m is choked w i t h an a c c u m u l a t i o n of boulders. A m o n g these t h e r e was a small q u a n t i t y of ice in one or two places on the i l t h of A u g u s t last. This ice was u n u s u a l in formation, n e i t h e r solid nor prismatic, but full of air bubbles. It c r u m b l e d a w a y in small pieces under t h e teeth. In the P r e s i d e n t i a l R a n g e itself is t h e g r e a t K i n g ' s Ravine, on M o u n t A d a m s . T h e b o t t o m is covered w i t h huge boulders, a n d a m o n g these, some y e a r s ago at t h e end of September, t h e r e was p l e n t y of p r i s m a t i c ice. T h e r e are a n u m b e r of rock taluses in the Appalachians, where ice is found. One of these is on L o w e r Ausable Pond, in the A d i r o n d a c k s , at t h e n o r t h base of M o u n t Sdbille or Colvin. It is a h u g e t a l u s of g r e a t L a u r e n t i a n ~?) boulders, a m o n g w h i c h are n u m e r o u s hollows, w h i c h m i g h t by c o u r t e s y be called caves. On the i 2 t h of July, Mr. E. I. H. H o w e l l w e n t w i t h me to t h i s spot, a n d in t h r e e hollows we f o u n d ice, in two of these places in considerable. q u a n t i t i e s . Mr. H o w e l l has been r e p e a t e d l y at this spot d u r i n g p a s t s u m m e r s and always f o u n d ice, so it m u s t be considered a p e r e n n i a l glaci~re. T w o d a y s later, on t h e i n d i c a t i o n s of Mr. Otis, t h e chief g u i d e of the A d i r o n d a c k Reserve, I explored the s o u t h talus • of the G i a n t of the Valley. In two places a b o u t i kilometer
April, 1899.]
Subterranean Ice Deposits.
29I
apart, and in each case in hollows a m o n g the boulders there was p l e n t y of ice. I did n o t follow the t a l u s t h r o u g h o u t its whole extent, as the w a l k i n g was fearfully bad, b u t apparently ice m i g h t be expected anywhere, as I f o u n d it at once at b o t h ' p l a c e s I inspected. One m a s s was certainly 5 or 6 meters long by 2 in w i d t h and I in depth. T h e ice was very pure, h a r d a n d non-prismatic. In one of the hollows, where there was only a little ice, the t h e r m o m e t e r r e g i s t e r e d 6 ° C. after fifteerl m i n u t e s ' exposure, a b o u t I m e t e r from the outside, a n d a b o u t t m e t e r from the same spot in t h e shade of a tree, it r e g i s t e r e d 26 ° C., a difference of zo ° C. w i t h i n less t h a n 2 meters. N e a r R u m n e y , N. H., is a b o u l d e r talus w h e r e Mr. J o h n Ritchie, Jr., S e c r e t a r y of the A p p a l a c h i a n M o u n t a i n Club, of Boston, some y e a r s ago f o u n d ice in A u g u s t . T h e Sheriff of R u m n e y a c c o m p a n i e d me to this place, a n d said t h a t ice was g e n e r a l l y a b u n d a n t there in s u m m e r . On the xSth of A u g u s t we f o u n d none a n d the t e m p e r a t u r e s normal. A t W a t e r t o w n , N. ¥., u n d e r the tracks of the New York Central Railroad, are some rock cracks, in f r o n t of which cellars h a v e been built, a n d these are used to store beer barrels. On t h e I z t h of S e p t e m b e r t h e r e was no ice in the cracks, a n d the lessor of the cellars told me it h a d all m e l t e d away early this s u m m e r , on a c c o u n t of the g r e a t heat. Near W a t e r t o w n is t h e picnic g r o u n d of Glen Park, where there is a hollow or rock basi~a, w h e r e ice a n d snow sometimes lie over u n t i l July. T h e r e are cracks in the rock sides of this hollow, in w h i c h ~ce r e m a i n s over n e a r the m o u t h , but it is n o t f o u n d a n y d i s t a n c e within. An h o u r on foot to the n o r t h of t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a Railroad S t a t i o n of Spruce Creek, H u n t i n g d o n County, Pa., at the base of the T u s s e y Mountain, is a g r e a t talus of broken (sandstone ?) rock. It is some 150 m e t e r s long and 3o m e t e r s high. A t t h e base of this talus are some small pits w h i c h are said to have been d u g by f a r m e r s and w h i c h act as n a t u r a l ice-houses. In t h e s e pits, on the 5th of October last, I could see m y b r e a t h distinctly, and on the talus the air was m u c h colder t h a n a n y w h e r e a r o u n d it. I t h o u g h t I saw ice far in among the rocks, b u t I could not be sure. T h e r e m u s t surely
292
Balc/t :
[J. F. I.,
h a v e b e e n some, h o w e v e r , for the t e m p e r a t u r e was abnorm a l l y cold. F r e e z i n g wells are a form of n a t u r a l r e f r i g e r a t o r n o t unc o m m o n in t h e E a s t e r n U n i t e d States. One of t h e s e was said to be at Owego, N . V . I visited t h e place on t h e 23d of last J u n e , and f o u n d t h a t t h e well h a d existed, b u t that it had b e e n blocked up m a n y y e a r s ago. Mr. Preston, who h a d lived b e s i d e t h e well all his life, i n f o r m e d m e t h a t he had m o r e t h a n once b e e n d o w n in it, t h a t it p a s s e d first t h r o u g h a layer of sand, t h e n t h r o u g h a layer of gravel, and t h a t he h a d seen t h e sides covered w i t h ice, and t h a t ice h a d somet i m e s filled it solid a b o u t half-way up. A t Brandon, Vt., is a n o t h e r freezing well. T h i s has b e e n d e s c r i b e d in the Geology o f Vermont as c o n t a i n i n g ice as late as j u l y . T h e o w n e r of t h e well a s s u r e d m e that it froze solid e v e r y winter. I w a s t h e r e on the 7th of July, and twice l o w e r e d a t h e r m o m e t e r , and each time, after ten minutes, it registered only I3 ° C., a strictly normal temperature. A t Decorah, Ia., also, t h e r e is a well w h i c h is r e p o r t e d as freezing up e v e r y winter. A t the e n d of S e p t e m b e r there was no ice in it. I wish n o w to m a k e a brief r6sum6 of t h e chief points w h i c h t h e s e ice deposits, and a certain n u m b e r w h i c h I saw in E u r o p e in 1897, h a v e s u g g e s t e d to me, since I delivered a lecture on " I c e C a v e s " before the F r a n k l i n I n s t i t u t e two y e a r s ago. ~ N a t u r a l r e f r i g e r a t o r s fall u n d e r s o m e t h i n g like five main h e a d s : (I) Gullies and t r o u g h s w h e r e ice remains. (2) B o u l d e r t a l u s e s c o n t a i n i n g ice. (3) Ice s h e e t s overlaid b y soil or rocks. (4) Wells, m i n e s and t u n n e l s which freeze at times. (5) Caves w i t h a b n o r m a l l y low t e m p e r a t u r e s and mostly c o n t a i n i n g ice. F o r four of t h e s e five different rock formations, as far as t h e y are c o n n e c t e d with ice, w e h a v e only t w o t e r m s in ~Journal of the Franklin Institute (I897), 14.a, 161-178.
April, I899.]
Subterranean Ice Deposits.
293
English and those the e n t i r e l y incorrect ones of " i c e c a v e " and " i c e gorge," and the more I h a v e followed up the subject, the more do those n a m e s seem m i s n o m e r s t o m e . W e say " l i m e s t o n e c a v e " or " l a v a c a v e " and in the s a m e w a y we should say " i c e c a v e " w h e n the sides and roof of a cave are f o r m e d of ice; t h a t is, we s h o u l d reserve the t e r m for the hollows at t h e ends of glaciers w h e n c e the glacier w a t e r s make their exit. C u r i o u s l y e n o u g h , the G e r m a n s use t h e same i n a c c u r a t e p h r a s e o l o g y as ourselves, and there is only one term w h i c h is really generic, namely, the F r e n c h glacikre naturelle. T h i s is c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d accurate, e m b r a c i n g the geological s t r u c t u r e a n d s u g g e s t i n g the mode of formation of t h e ice. In m y opinion we should e i t h e r adopt the French glacikre or use its E n g l i s h equivalent, " n a t u r a l refrigerator." T h e n e x t point I wish to t o u c h on, relates to the m o d e of formation of the ice of these glaci~res. In e v e r y case glaci~res seem to m e to be p u r e l y refrigerators, w h i c h preserve the supplies of ice a n d snow stored in t h e m d u r i n g the winter. T h e y all follow the same g e n e r a l laws as to t h e i r origin, modified only in s l i g h t degree, according to the varying n a t u r a l conditions of the place, such as the water-supply, or the protection from sun or wind, or the t h i c k n e s s of t h e overhead rocks, or the a l t i t u d e o.r l a t i t u d e . I c a n n o t see that there is a n y t h i n g v e r y r e m a r k a b l e a b o u t the fact t h a t the cold of w i n t e r is able to p e n e t r a t e a n d m a k e itself felt sometimes for a v e r y s l i g h t depth' in the earth's crust, a depth so far as y e t k n o w n never exceeding i5o meters. And it seems to me. t h a t glaci~res only emphasize a law of n a t u r e w h i c h has doubtless been f o r m u l a t e d m a n y times in connection w i t h springs a n d p h r e a t i c waters, and that is, t h a t where we find v e r y cold waters u n d e r g r o u n d , we m a y be sure t h a t t h e y h a v e p e n e t r a t e d from the outside. T h e excessively h o t s u m m e r of i898 has f u r n i s h e d some valuable proofs of the fact t h a t t h e cold of w i n t e r is t h e originator of t h e ice, and the h e a t of s u m m e r its destroyer.. At R u m n e y , for instance, where t h e r e is g e n e r a l l y ice in August, t h e r e was none last year. A t Ellenville, I was told there was always ice in the cave. Yet I f o u n d none, and
294
Balch :
[J. F. I.,
the t e m p e r a t u r e was normal, and as far as I could learn this was s o m e t h i n g never k n o w n before. T h e fact t h a t t h e r e was no ice last s u m m e r at the freezing wells of B r a n d o n or Decorah, is a proof t h a t natural refrigerators h a v e n o t h i n g to do w i t h a glacialperiod. This p o i n t w a s s e t t l e d a b o u t caves long ago, b u t it m i g h t have b e e n claimed to hold a b o u t freezing wells, as we cannot be sure h o w l o n g a t i m e the g r a v e l b e d s t h e y are d u g in had been frozen. But freezing wells e v i d e n t l y do not depart m a t e r i a l l y in their actions from o t h e r glaei~res, since there was no ice at the freezing w e l l s of B r a n d o n or Decorah last s u m m e r , and the t e s t i m o n y s h o w s conclusively that t h e r e was p l e n t y of it last w i n t e r and t h a t t h e r e will be p l e n t y this winter. A n y l i n g e r i n g d o u b t s I m a y h a v e had a b o u t t h e cat3illary t h e o r y - - t h a t is, of t h e ice f o r m i n g b y p r e s s u r e n h a v e b e e n dispelled b y v i s i t i n g t h e cave at Decorah, w h e r e there were none of the s u p p o s e d hair fissures, and w h i c h is n o t especially different from similar caves in Europe• If, as is s o m e t i m e s claimed, t h e ice is f o r m e d by e v a p o r a t i o n or b y e x p a n s i o n of t h e air, and t h a t these factors are m o s t actiye w h e n t h e w e a t h e r is hottest, then the p a s t s u m m e r afforded the b e s t possible conditions for their d e m o n s t r a t i o n , and t h e r e should h a v e b e e n ice at Ellenville and D e c o r a h . T h e s u b j e c t of e v a p o r a t i o n is closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p o i n t a b o u t glaciates, and t h a t is subterranean d r a u g h t s and t h e m o v e m e n t s of air. Believing, as I do, t h a t it is the cold air o f w i n t e r w h i c h causes t h e ice, it is n e c e s s a r y to consider its action• First, t h e r e is a form of s u b t e r r a n e a n hollow, w h e r e t h e r e are at least t w o openings, of which one is h i g h e r than the other. In t h e s e t h e r e are a l m o s t a l w a y s d r a u g h t s w h o s e direction varies acc o r d i n g to the o u t s i d e t e m p e r a t u r e . W h e n t h e air within is colder than t h a t of the air outside, t h e n b y its o w n w e i g h t the air w i t h i n the cave flows o u t at the lower opening. W h e n , on the contrary, the air w i t h i n is w a r m e r t h a n the a i r outside, t h e n this w a r m e r inside air rises and leaves the cave at the u p p e r opening, and is, of course, replaced b y an equal v o l u m e of cold o u t s i d e air flowing in at the
April, I899.]'
S u b t e r r a n e a n Ice Deposits.
295
lower o p e n i n g . T h i s is t h e p h e n o m e n o n of b l o w i n g caves or win d h o les , a n d w h e n ice is f o u n d in t hem , it is always at t h e l o w e r end, as it is at t h a t end t h a t t h e cold air enters, a n d it is also to t h a t end tlaat w a t e r g r a v i t a t e s . Instead of t h e ice in t h e s e w i n d h o l e s b e i n g f o r m e d b y evaporation, it s eems to m e t h a t w h e n t h e air flows o u t at t he l o w er end, it m u s t t h e n h a v e a t e n d e n c y to v a p o r i z e t h e ice an d c a r r y it a w a y as m o i s t u r e . T h e n t h e r e is a class of caves w h e r e t h e r e is onl y one e n t r a n c e an d w h e r e t h e b o d y of t h e cave is l o w e r t h a n t h e e n t r a n c e . In t h e s e t h e air in s u m m e r is a p p a r e n t l y stagnant, an d h e n c e t h e y h a v e b e e n c a l l e d ' s t a t i c caves. T h e n a m e is n o t d e s c r i p t i v e , h o w e v e r , for in cold w e a t h e r t h e h e a v y w i n t e r air sinks i n t o t h e s e caves and d i s p l a c e s t h e air within, of cour s e s e t t i n g up s om e m o t i o n . E v e n in s u m m e r I q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t he air is al w a ys as s t a g n a n t a s it seems. A t t h e G l a c i & e de S a i n t - G e o r g e s , in t h e Swiss Jura, t h e r e is t h e e n t r a n c e to t h e cave, and at one e n d of the cave t h e r e is an o p e n i n g in t h e roof. In A u g u s t , 1897; the air s e e m e d p e r f e c t l y still w i t h i n t h e cave on t h e ice floor, y e t s t a n d i n g n~arly u n d e r t he hole in t h e roof, I f o u n d t h a t th e s m o k e of m y c i g a r rose v e r y r a p i d l y s t r a i g h t u p ; it s e e m e d a l m o s t to be d r a w n or s u c k e d up f r o m above, and c e r t a i n l y t h e air was n o t s t a g n a n t at t h a t spot. T h e r e can be no que s t i on, it s e e m s to me, t h a t it is t h e m o v e m e n t of t h e h e a v y cold air of w i n t e r d o w n w a r d i nt o these caves w h i c h supplies t h e cold w h i c h f o r m s t h e ice in them. A l t h o u g h I di s be l i e ve t h a t t h e e v a p o r a t i o n in w i n d h o l e s is e v e r s t r o n g e n o u g h to cause ice to form, y e t I h a v e no d o u b t w h a t e v e r , t h a t in caves w i t h a t e m p e r a t u r e s o m e d e g r ees a b o v e freezing-point, w h e n t h e r e is e i t h e r r u n n i n g w a t e r or s t r o n g drips, e v a p o r a t i o n m a y be, a n d sometimes u n d o u b t e d l y is, a f a c t o r in l o w e r i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s o m e w h a t ; ~ a n d as in s o m e w i n d h o l e s t h e r e is s o m e t i m e s m o i s t u r e on t h e rock s u r f a c e s w h e r e t h e air c u r r e n t passes, This is also the opinion of M. E. A. Martel. Les .dbimes, Paris, 1894, p. 564, and M#moires de la Soci~t# de Sp~l#ologie, 1897.
296
Balch.
IJ. ~. I.,
the e v a p o r a t i o n from these surfaces doubtless sometimes lowers the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e air c u r r e n t s appreciably.* T h e r e is, however, no reason to t h i n k t h a t evaporation ever lowers the t e m p e r a t u r e of air c u r r e n t s below freezingpoint. T a k i n g all t h e facts w h i c h I h a v e m y s e l f observed, and all t h a t I have read in t h e reports of others, m y conclusion is t h a t we h a v e a b s o l u t e l y no proof t h a t underg r o u n d e v a p o r a t i o n is ever effective in p r o d u c i n g ice. A good deal of confusion has been occasioned by the n o m e n c l a t u r e of these caves. One kind has been termed windrMtren, or w i n d h o l e s or b l o w i n g caves; the other, eishMzlen, or ice caves or static caves. T h e i m p o r t a n t point, however, in this connection is t h a t s o m e t i m e s ice occurs in b o t h these classes of caves and s o m e t i m e s it does not. I wish to r e p e a t t h a t t h e only r a t i o n a l t e r m i n o l o g y is the F r e n c h one, to speak of a n y place w h e r e t h e r e is ice underg r o u n d as a glaci~re or refrigerator. If t h e r e are two openings at different altitudes, a n d h e n c e d i s t i n c t d r a u g h t s , then we h a v e a. w i n d h o l e or b l o w i n g cave, q u i t e i n d e p e n d e n t of w h e t h e r t h e r e is or is n o t a n y ice. A n o t h e r scarcely noticed p o i n t a b o u t n a t u r a l refrigerators is t h e i r relation to life. Apropos of this is the foll o w i n g s t a t e m e n t a b o u t the talus a t A u s a b l e Pond. This is d i r e c t l y on the shores of t h e lake, and it is k n o w n among t h e A d i r o n d a c k g u i d e s t h a t in f r o n t of the talus is the best spot in the whole lake to catch trout. Of course this is b e c a u s e t h e w a t e r of t h e lake is coldest at t h a t spot, and t r o u t always seek the coldest water. Iia the l i t e r a t u r e about glaci~res, however, I h a v e f o u n d reference to an insect, stenopltylax hieroglyplticus,t T h i s has been f o u n d in three eaves s i t u a t e d a l o n g d i s t a n c e a p a r t in the F r e n c h Alps. A1t h o u g h this single ease can scarcely be considored as establ i s h i n g a special glaciate fauna, y e t t h e s u b j e c t is worth further investigation. *Further observation on this point will be necessary. The cave at Farrandsville and the talus at Spruce Creek seem to me to offer unusually good opportunities for study. t G. F. Browne, lce Caves in France and Swilzerland, London, Longmans, I865 ; aud the same in Good Words, Edinburgh, November, I866.
your. Frank. Inst., Vol. C L X V [ L
April, z899.
GORGE AT ELLENVILLE, N . Y .
(t~alch.)
(Photo. by Mr. Davis.)
April, x899.]
Problem of the MississippL
297
T h e r e is m o r e to be said in r e g a r d to p l a n t life than to animal life. My g u i d e to the R a n d o l p h Ice Gulch told me that he h a d been a s s u r e d t h a t Alpine plants similar to those found on M o u n t s W a s h i n g t o n and A d a m s were f o u n d in t k e Gulch, b u t t h a t t h e y were n o t f o u n d on t h e n e i g h b o r i n g Crescent and Bald Mountains. On the talus at Spruce Creek, it s e e m e d to m e t h a t the flora was s o m e w h a t different from t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y s u r r o u n d i n g it. W h i l e at the talus at A u s a b l e Pond, Mr. H o w e l l called m y a t t e n t i o n to the flowers of the b u n c h b e r r y ~nd also to oxalis, a p r e t t y white flower. T h e s e were in full bloom, a l t h o u g h t h e y were at least t w o w e e k s later than t h e y Were on the surrounding m o u n t a i n s . H e r e , therefore, is a case w h e r e the cold air c o m i n g from the rock crevices affects the flora in the vicinity sufficiently to retard its d e v e l o p m e n t .
THE PROBLEM
OF THE
MISSISSIPPI.
BY HEgMAN HAUPT, C. E., Washington, D. C.
In May, I897 , the writer p u b l i s h e d several articles in the New York Sun on t h e Mississippi R i v e r problem, the aim of which was to s h o w that of t h e s y s t e m s proposed, n e i t h e r the levee, t h e outlet, the reservoir, nor any other, singly, w o u l d secure p r o t e c t i o n from overflow, b u t t h a t a c o m b i n a t i o n of several and an intelligent application of certain recognized principles, w i t h a careful s t u d y of local conditions was essential to a practical solution of the p r o b l e m presented. Since t h a t t i m e an e x c e e d i n g l y v a l u a b l e p a p e r has b e e n given to the p u b l i c b y Mr. W i l l i a m Starling, Chief E n g i n e e r of the L o w e r Yazoo District in Mississippi, g i v i n g details not in possession of the w r i t e r at the time of the publication of the article referred to. T h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h c o n t r o v e r s y as to the effect of levees in c a u s i n g elevation of t h e b e d s of s t r e a m s and very positive assertions have b e e n m a d e on b o t h sides. T h e s t a t e m e n t w a s m a d e b y P r o n y t h a t " the Po and the