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Suicidal ideation and the five-factor model of personality
Personality and Individual Dierences 27 (1999) 943±952
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Suicidal ideation and the ®ve-factor model of personality Drew M. Velting* Department of Psychological Science, Ball State University, Muncie, IN 47306-0520, USA Received 28 August 1998; received in revised form 18 December 1998; accepted 12 January 1999
Abstract Trait predictors of suicidal ideation were examined within the taxonomic framework provided by the ®ve-factor model of personality in a sample of young adults (N=185). Participants completed the revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and the Adult Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire (ASIQ), an inclusive measure of suicide-related thinking. ASIQ scores were positively associated with neuroticism and negatively associated with conscientiousness. Factor-level multiple regression analyses revealed signi®cant gender dierences; namely, suicidal ideation was positively predicted by neuroticism in females and negatively predicted by conscientiousness in males. More detailed analyses revealed distinctive patterns of association between facets and ASIQ scores within factor domains. Suicidal ideation was positively predicted by the neuroticism facets, angry hostility and depression, and negatively predicted by the conscientiousness facet, self-discipline. These ®ndings are discussed in relation to previous research investigating personality and suicide-related constructs. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Suicidal ideation; Depression; Neuroticism; Conscientiousness
1. Introduction Studies investigating the relationship between suicide ideation and putatively normal personality variables have most consistently indicated that neuroticism is strongly (positively) related to suicidal thinking in non-clinical samples (e.g. Mehryar, Hekmat, & Khajavi, 1977; Lester, 1987; Lester, & Francis, 1993). Indeed, neuroticism is likely the most salient of trait * Tel.: +1-765-285-1712; fax: +1-765-285-8980. E-mail address: [email protected] (Drew M. Velting) 0191-8869/99/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 9 1 - 8 8 6 9 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 4 6 - X
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factors implicated in the development of a broad spectrum of suicide-related behaviors (e.g. Isherwood, Adam, & Hornblow, 1982; Ashton, Marshall, Hassanyeh, Marsh, & WrightHonari, 1994; Nordstrom, Schalling, & Asberg, 1995) and major depression (Hirschfeld et al., 1989; Maier, Lichtermann, Minges, & Heun, 1992; Kendler, Neale, Kessler, Heath, & Eaves, 1993; Clayton, Ernst, & Angst, 1994). Empirical support for the notion that suicidal ideation is negatively related to extraversion and positively related to psychoticism (Irfani, 1978; Lester, 1987; Dyck, 1991; Lolas, Gomez, & Suarez, 1991) has been relatively less conclusive. Some of these relationships have been replicated cross-culturally (e.g. Irfani, 1978; Lynn, 1982; Lynn, & Martin, 1995). With few exceptions, these research eorts have presumed a three dimensional trait model (P-E-N), based on principles of Eysenckian theory (Eysenck, 1991, 1992) and in the majority of cases, operationalized by the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ; Eysenck, & Eysenck, 1975; Eysenck, Eysenck, & Barrett, 1985). Concurrently, an increasing number of trait theorists have recognized the potential utility of adopting alternative conceptual models, i.e. trait taxonomies comprised of ®ve rather than three primary dimensions (Costa, & McCrae, 1985, 1992a; Digman, 1990, 1996; Goldberg, 1990; John, 1990; McCrae, & John, 1992; McCrae, & Costa, 1996; Wiggins, & Trapnell, 1996). These ®ve factors (neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness) are operationally de®ned by Costa and McCrae's revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R; Costa, & McCrae, 1992b), a widely used measure of normal personality. The present study was conducted to further investigate the relationship between suicidal ideation and potentially underlying trait constructs in a non-clinical (university) sample, by considering neuroticism, extraversion and the additional personality dimensions elaborated in the ®ve-factor model (openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness). In at least one case, the NEO-PI has been employed to investigate suicidal behavior. Duberstein and associates (Duberstein, Conwell, & Caine, 1994; Duberstein, 1995), reporting the results of a psychological autopsy study, found that NEO-PI ratings obtained from third-person informants discriminated completed suicides and case control subjects. However, no previous studies have directly examined suicidal thinking in relation to scores obtained on Costa and McCrae's measure. Insofar as fairly limited evaluations of suicidal ideation, i.e. a single item used to measure the construct, characterize many of the previously mentioned studies examining personality variables, a more inclusive measure, the Adult Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire (Reynolds, 1991a), was selected for use in the present investigation. Results were expected to provide further support for the notion that Neuroticism, conceptualized as a trait vulnerability factor for depression, i.e. a propensity to experience negative aect, is positively related to suicidal ideation. Gender dierences were also examined, based on evidence (e.g. Isherwood et al., 1982) suggesting that the relationship between neuroticism and suicidal behavior may be gender-speci®c, i.e. more strongly associated in women. Moreover, the hierarchical structure of Costa and McCrae's trait model (i.e. factors comprised of facets) permits more detailed analyses of such relationships. The validity of the NEO-PI facet scales has been established (Costa, & McCrae, 1992b, 1995) and facet-level analyses have been shown to add considerable and meaningful speci®city to the evaluation of various state-trait relationships (e.g. Velting, & Liebert, 1997; Wolfenstein, & Trull, 1997;
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Velting, 1999). Thus, distinctive patterns of association between suicidal ideation and facet scores were anticipated. Of the six facets of neuroticism, depression was expected a priori to be most predictive of suicidal ideation scores. 2. Method 2.1. Sample Subjects (N=185) were undergraduates at a large Midwestern university, enrolled in one of eight sections of an introductory psychology course. By participating in the study, students earned credit toward ful®llment of a course research requirement. The sample consisted of 59 males (31.9%) and 126 females (68.1%). Ages ranged from 18 to 23 years (M=18.58, S.D.=0.88). 2.2. Measures The revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R; Costa, & McCrae, 1992b) is a 240-item self-report measure of putatively normal personality traits, which enjoys substantial validation across samples and method of assessment (e.g. McCrae, & Costa, 1987; Costa, McCrae, & Dye, 1991; Costa, & McCrae, 1992b). The inventory yields ®ve factor scores: neuroticism (N), extraversion (E), openness to experience (O), agreeableness (A) and conscientiousness (C). Each of these domain scales is, in turn, comprised of six subscales or `facets' which measure more speci®c traits. The Adult Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire (ASIQ; Reynolds, 1991a) is a 25-item selfadministered measure of thoughts and preoccupations concerning death, dying and suicide. Ratings of the number and frequency of recent and more distal suicidal thoughts are obtained using a 7-point scale. A total score is produced by summing the ratings, with higher scores re¯ecting greater levels of suicidal ideation. Studies investigating the psychometric characteristics of the ASIQ indicate high rates of internal consistency and test±retest reliability and satisfactory validity (e.g. Reynolds, 1991a, 1991b). Table 1 Means and standard deviations for NEO-PI-R factors and Adult Suicidal Ideation Scale scores (N=185) Males
Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness ASIQ
Females
M
S.D.
M
S.D.
92.75 114.59 110.47 104.25 107.12 9.32
16.90 18.36 17.50 18.06 16.60 10.30
101.09 126.62 121.02 118.54 110.99 11.73
23.64 20.86 16.41 16.38 21.60 14.72
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Table 2 Pearson correlations for NEO-PI-R and ASIQ scores.
p < 0.01 Malesa
Femalesb
Neuroticism Anxiety Angry hostility Depression Self-consciousness Impulsiveness Vulnerability
0.22 0.13 ÿ0.12 0.39 0.25 ÿ0.02 0.26
0.52 0.37 0.46 0.52 0.30 0.27 0.42
Extraversion Warmth Gregariousness Assertiveness Activity Excitement-seeking Positive emotions
ÿ0.19 0.00 ÿ0.06 ÿ0.23 ÿ0.26 0.02 ÿ0.24
ÿ0.18 ÿ0.19 ÿ0.14 ÿ0.23 ÿ0.02 0.05 ÿ0.23
Openness Fantasy Aesthetics Feelings Actions Ideas Values
ÿ0.08 0.10 ÿ0.21 ÿ0.08 ÿ0.25 0.10 0.00
0.07 0.12 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.03
Agreeableness Trust Straightforwardness Altruism Compliance Modesty Tender-mindedness
ÿ0.09 ÿ0.21 ÿ0.16 ÿ0.02 ÿ0.08 0.19 ÿ0.04
ÿ0.19 ÿ0.35 ÿ0.21 ÿ0.16 ÿ0.16 0.15 0.11
Conscientiousness Competence Order Dutifulness Achievement striving Self-discipline Deliberation
ÿ0.34 ÿ0.35 ÿ0.30 0.00 ÿ0.34 ÿ0.35 ÿ0.11
ÿ0.32 ÿ0.27 ÿ0.18 ÿ0.25 ÿ0.26 ÿ0.36 ÿ0.17
a b
n=59. n=126.
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3. Results Means and standard deviations for ASIQ scores and each of the ®ve NEO-PI domain scores are presented for males and females in Table 1. Scores for all NEO factors were found to be within the normal range of mean scores obtained for college-age individuals (Costa, & McCrae, 1992b). Suicidal ideation scores for the sample fell between normal ranges reported for non-clinical college students and adults (Reynolds, 1991a). Rates of suicidal ideation obtained for males (M=9.32; S.D.=10.30) and females (M=11.73; S.D.=14.72), respectively, did not dier to a signi®cant degree, F(1, 183)=1.28, p < 0.2588. Zero-order Pearson correlations between suicidal ideation scores and the ®ve NEO factors and facets are presented separately for males and females in Table 2. To minimize the extent of type I error, an adjusted alpha level of p < 0.01 was established. At the factor level, suicidal ideation was correlated positively with neuroticism and negatively related to conscientiousness among females. Of the ®ve NEO factors, only conscientiousness was signi®cantly related (negatively) to suicidal ideation among males.
3.1. Factor-level multiple regression analysis The relation between suicidal ideation and the ®ve NEO factors was investigated further by conducting a stepwise multiple regression analysis with scores on the ASIQ serving as the dependent variable and NEO factor scores as predictors. Separate analyses were conducted for males and females. The overall model for females was signi®cant, accounting for 27% of the variance in suicidal ideation scores, F(1, 124)=45.81, p < 0.001. Of the ®ve NEO factors, only neuroticism contributed signi®cantly to the prediction of suicidal ideation (t=6.77, p < 0.001). The overall model for males was signi®cant, accounting for 12% of the variance in suicidal ideation scores, F(1, 57)=7.51, p < 0.01. Of the ®ve NEO factors, only conscientiousness contributed signi®cantly to the prediction of suicidal ideation (t=ÿ2.74, p < 0.01).
3.2. Facet-level multiple regression analyses Additional stepwise multiple regressions were conducted to determine which facets of Neuroticism made signi®cant unique contributions to the prediction of suicidal ideation in females. The overall regression model was signi®cant, accounting for 33% of the variance in suicidal ideation scores, F(2, 123)=30.60, p < 0.001. Suicidal ideation in females was positively predicted by the facets, angry hostility (t=3.37, p < 0.001) and depression (t=4.79, p < 0.001). The same procedure was used in the analysis for males, employing each of the six facets of conscientiousness as predictors. The overall regression was signi®cant and explained 12% of the variance in suicidal ideation scores, F(1, 57)=7.99, p < 0.01. Among the six facets of conscientiousness, only self-discipline (negatively) predicted suicidal ideation to a signi®cant degree (t=ÿ2.83, p < 0.01).
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4. Discussion Consistent with previous ®ndings (e.g. Lester, 1987; Lester, & Francis, 1993) and predictions outlined in the present study, high scores on the neuroticism factor scale of the NEO-PI were related to a greater incidence of suicidal ideation in young adults. This result further underscores the well-established association between neuroticism and negative aectivity (e.g. Costa, & McCrae, 1980; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988; Larsen, & Ketelaar, 1991). Similarly, extraversion has been conceptualized as a tendency to experience positive aect (e.g. Costa, & McCrae, 1980; Furnham, & Brewin, 1990; Pavot, Diener, & Fujita, 1990). In the present study, extraversion scores were not associated with ASIQ scores. Conscientiousness, a trait not previously identi®ed as a vulnerability factor for nonfatal suicidal behavior, was negatively related to suicidal ideation. While somewhat surprising, this latter ®nding is consistent with recent evidence suggesting that lower levels of conscientiousness may be associated with decreased self-ecacy (Martocchio, & Judge, 1997) and self-reported happiness (Furnham, & Cheng, 1997) and higher levels of hopelessness (Velting, 1999). Furthermore, the association between conscientiousness and suicidal ideation may re¯ect overlapping aspects of psychoticism (Digman, 1990; Eysenck, 1992). The suicide research literature is replete with studies highlighting the so-called `gender paradox' (Canetto, & Sakinofsky, 1998; Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Sanders, Crane, & Monson, 1998; Stepako, 1998), which refers to observed sex dierences in rates of suicide-related behavior. From these studies, it is clear that risk for completed suicide is much greater in males, whereas females are more likely to make nonfatal attempts. Men are also more likely to use more lethal methods of suicide, e.g. ®rearms, hanging (Rich, Ricketts, Fowler, & Young, 1988; Canetto, & Lester, 1995). However, gender-speci®c aspects of motivational factors linked to suicide have been less frequently discussed. Results of factor-level analyses in the present study revealed noteworthy gender interactions: suicidal ideation was predicted by neuroticism in females and conscientiousness in males, respectively. It is quite plausible that these dierences re¯ect gender-speci®c psychopathological pro®les often characteristic of suicidal individuals. Dierential rates of major depression, found to be substantially higher in women than in men (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990; Blazer, Kessler, McGonagle, & Swartz, 1994), may in part help to explain why Neuroticism appeared to re¯ect a vulnerability to suicidal thinking in females exclusively. Notably, depressed women are also more likely than depressed men to exhibit a ruminative coping style, i.e. contemplating their own emotional distress, which may in turn, lead to more serious depressive episodes (NolenHoeksema, 1995). Some researchers (e.g. Moscicki, 1994) have suggested that elevated rates of depression in suicidal women are oset by higher relative rates of alcohol abuse among men. Based on this assumption, it might be reasonable to expect to ®nd a negative association between Conscientiousness and alcohol-related constructs. In fact, low levels of Conscientiousness have been associated with impulsive and hedonistic tendencies (McCrae, Costa, & Busch, 1986) and appear to characterize individuals with substance use disorders (Martin, & Sher, 1994). It should be noted, however, that the Martin and Sher (1994) study also indicated substance-related diagnoses to be associated with high levels of neuroticism and low levels of agreeableness. Results of facet-level analyses provided more detailed pro®les of gender-relevant distinctions
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in suicide ideation. Two of the six neuroticism facets, angry hostility and depression, predicted scores on the ASIQ. More speci®cally, suicidal thinking in females was predicted by a tendency to experience negative emotional states, primarily characterized by hostility (e.g. resentment, bitterness, anger, frustration) and feelings associated with depression (e.g. sadness, dejection, discouragement, guilt, worthlessness, hopelessness and loneliness). Conceivably, these features describe the ruminative coping style Nolen-Hoeksema (1990) has identi®ed as an important risk factor for severe depression in women. More generally, studies evaluating adaptive response styles reveal an association between neuroticism and passive coping strategies (e.g. emotion-focused coping), which tend to be ineective (McCrae, & Costa, 1986). At the same time, conscientiousness has been associated with the use of active coping strategies, e.g. problem-focused coping (Watson, & Hubbard, 1996). Thus, relatively low levels of conscientiousness should indicate resource de®cits in active coping, as results of the facetlevel regression analyses suggest. Among the six facets of conscientiousness, only self-discipline signi®cantly predicted suicidal ideation in males. In other words, suicidal thinking was most characteristic of men who tend to procrastinate, give up easily and those generally lacking motivation and the ability to initiate and complete tasks. Furthermore, these behavioral features are consonant with results of studies indicating that a subjective experience of personal failure, i.e. one's inability to attain self determined academic goals, is related to suicidal thinking in adolescents (Dukes, & Lorch, 1989; Olsson, & von Knorring, 1997) and to completed suicide in young adults (Peck, 1983). Conceivably, eorts to discern the precise nature of the relationship between Conscientiousness and suicidal thinking may also have implications for research targeting young adult, male prison populations, shown to be at elevated risk for completed suicide (e.g. DuRand, Burtka, Federman, Haycox, & Smith, 1995). While results of the present study rearm the primacy of neuroticism's position among trait correlates of suicidal ideation, it is clear that conscientiousness scores accounted for an appreciable portion of the variance in ASIQ scores. This ®nding demonstrates the utility of considering suicidal ideation within the theoretical framework provided by Costa and McCrae's ®ve-factor model of personality and furthermore, highlights the emergent status of conscientiousness among suicide-relevant trait variables. Replication using additional samples, including those drawn from appropriate clinical populations, (e.g. depressed inpatients, suicide attempters), is needed. Finally, observed sex dierences in the extent to which ASIQ scores were predicted by Neuroticism and Conscientiousness, suggest that further research investigating the con¯uence of gender and personality variables in relation to suicide is warranted.
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Suicidal ideation and the ®ve-factor model of personality Drew M. Velting* Department of Psychological Science, Ball State University, Muncie, IN 47306-0520, USA Received 28 August 1998; received in revised form 18 December 1998; accepted 12 January 1999
Abstract Trait predictors of suicidal ideation were examined within the taxonomic framework provided by the ®ve-factor model of personality in a sample of young adults (N=185). Participants completed the revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and the Adult Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire (ASIQ), an inclusive measure of suicide-related thinking. ASIQ scores were positively associated with neuroticism and negatively associated with conscientiousness. Factor-level multiple regression analyses revealed signi®cant gender dierences; namely, suicidal ideation was positively predicted by neuroticism in females and negatively predicted by conscientiousness in males. More detailed analyses revealed distinctive patterns of association between facets and ASIQ scores within factor domains. Suicidal ideation was positively predicted by the neuroticism facets, angry hostility and depression, and negatively predicted by the conscientiousness facet, self-discipline. These ®ndings are discussed in relation to previous research investigating personality and suicide-related constructs. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Suicidal ideation; Depression; Neuroticism; Conscientiousness
1. Introduction Studies investigating the relationship between suicide ideation and putatively normal personality variables have most consistently indicated that neuroticism is strongly (positively) related to suicidal thinking in non-clinical samples (e.g. Mehryar, Hekmat, & Khajavi, 1977; Lester, 1987; Lester, & Francis, 1993). Indeed, neuroticism is likely the most salient of trait * Tel.: +1-765-285-1712; fax: +1-765-285-8980. E-mail address: [email protected] (Drew M. Velting) 0191-8869/99/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 9 1 - 8 8 6 9 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 4 6 - X
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factors implicated in the development of a broad spectrum of suicide-related behaviors (e.g. Isherwood, Adam, & Hornblow, 1982; Ashton, Marshall, Hassanyeh, Marsh, & WrightHonari, 1994; Nordstrom, Schalling, & Asberg, 1995) and major depression (Hirschfeld et al., 1989; Maier, Lichtermann, Minges, & Heun, 1992; Kendler, Neale, Kessler, Heath, & Eaves, 1993; Clayton, Ernst, & Angst, 1994). Empirical support for the notion that suicidal ideation is negatively related to extraversion and positively related to psychoticism (Irfani, 1978; Lester, 1987; Dyck, 1991; Lolas, Gomez, & Suarez, 1991) has been relatively less conclusive. Some of these relationships have been replicated cross-culturally (e.g. Irfani, 1978; Lynn, 1982; Lynn, & Martin, 1995). With few exceptions, these research eorts have presumed a three dimensional trait model (P-E-N), based on principles of Eysenckian theory (Eysenck, 1991, 1992) and in the majority of cases, operationalized by the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ; Eysenck, & Eysenck, 1975; Eysenck, Eysenck, & Barrett, 1985). Concurrently, an increasing number of trait theorists have recognized the potential utility of adopting alternative conceptual models, i.e. trait taxonomies comprised of ®ve rather than three primary dimensions (Costa, & McCrae, 1985, 1992a; Digman, 1990, 1996; Goldberg, 1990; John, 1990; McCrae, & John, 1992; McCrae, & Costa, 1996; Wiggins, & Trapnell, 1996). These ®ve factors (neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness) are operationally de®ned by Costa and McCrae's revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R; Costa, & McCrae, 1992b), a widely used measure of normal personality. The present study was conducted to further investigate the relationship between suicidal ideation and potentially underlying trait constructs in a non-clinical (university) sample, by considering neuroticism, extraversion and the additional personality dimensions elaborated in the ®ve-factor model (openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness). In at least one case, the NEO-PI has been employed to investigate suicidal behavior. Duberstein and associates (Duberstein, Conwell, & Caine, 1994; Duberstein, 1995), reporting the results of a psychological autopsy study, found that NEO-PI ratings obtained from third-person informants discriminated completed suicides and case control subjects. However, no previous studies have directly examined suicidal thinking in relation to scores obtained on Costa and McCrae's measure. Insofar as fairly limited evaluations of suicidal ideation, i.e. a single item used to measure the construct, characterize many of the previously mentioned studies examining personality variables, a more inclusive measure, the Adult Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire (Reynolds, 1991a), was selected for use in the present investigation. Results were expected to provide further support for the notion that Neuroticism, conceptualized as a trait vulnerability factor for depression, i.e. a propensity to experience negative aect, is positively related to suicidal ideation. Gender dierences were also examined, based on evidence (e.g. Isherwood et al., 1982) suggesting that the relationship between neuroticism and suicidal behavior may be gender-speci®c, i.e. more strongly associated in women. Moreover, the hierarchical structure of Costa and McCrae's trait model (i.e. factors comprised of facets) permits more detailed analyses of such relationships. The validity of the NEO-PI facet scales has been established (Costa, & McCrae, 1992b, 1995) and facet-level analyses have been shown to add considerable and meaningful speci®city to the evaluation of various state-trait relationships (e.g. Velting, & Liebert, 1997; Wolfenstein, & Trull, 1997;
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Velting, 1999). Thus, distinctive patterns of association between suicidal ideation and facet scores were anticipated. Of the six facets of neuroticism, depression was expected a priori to be most predictive of suicidal ideation scores. 2. Method 2.1. Sample Subjects (N=185) were undergraduates at a large Midwestern university, enrolled in one of eight sections of an introductory psychology course. By participating in the study, students earned credit toward ful®llment of a course research requirement. The sample consisted of 59 males (31.9%) and 126 females (68.1%). Ages ranged from 18 to 23 years (M=18.58, S.D.=0.88). 2.2. Measures The revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R; Costa, & McCrae, 1992b) is a 240-item self-report measure of putatively normal personality traits, which enjoys substantial validation across samples and method of assessment (e.g. McCrae, & Costa, 1987; Costa, McCrae, & Dye, 1991; Costa, & McCrae, 1992b). The inventory yields ®ve factor scores: neuroticism (N), extraversion (E), openness to experience (O), agreeableness (A) and conscientiousness (C). Each of these domain scales is, in turn, comprised of six subscales or `facets' which measure more speci®c traits. The Adult Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire (ASIQ; Reynolds, 1991a) is a 25-item selfadministered measure of thoughts and preoccupations concerning death, dying and suicide. Ratings of the number and frequency of recent and more distal suicidal thoughts are obtained using a 7-point scale. A total score is produced by summing the ratings, with higher scores re¯ecting greater levels of suicidal ideation. Studies investigating the psychometric characteristics of the ASIQ indicate high rates of internal consistency and test±retest reliability and satisfactory validity (e.g. Reynolds, 1991a, 1991b). Table 1 Means and standard deviations for NEO-PI-R factors and Adult Suicidal Ideation Scale scores (N=185) Males
Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness ASIQ
Females
M
S.D.
M
S.D.
92.75 114.59 110.47 104.25 107.12 9.32
16.90 18.36 17.50 18.06 16.60 10.30
101.09 126.62 121.02 118.54 110.99 11.73
23.64 20.86 16.41 16.38 21.60 14.72
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Table 2 Pearson correlations for NEO-PI-R and ASIQ scores.
p < 0.01 Malesa
Femalesb
Neuroticism Anxiety Angry hostility Depression Self-consciousness Impulsiveness Vulnerability
0.22 0.13 ÿ0.12 0.39 0.25 ÿ0.02 0.26
0.52 0.37 0.46 0.52 0.30 0.27 0.42
Extraversion Warmth Gregariousness Assertiveness Activity Excitement-seeking Positive emotions
ÿ0.19 0.00 ÿ0.06 ÿ0.23 ÿ0.26 0.02 ÿ0.24
ÿ0.18 ÿ0.19 ÿ0.14 ÿ0.23 ÿ0.02 0.05 ÿ0.23
Openness Fantasy Aesthetics Feelings Actions Ideas Values
ÿ0.08 0.10 ÿ0.21 ÿ0.08 ÿ0.25 0.10 0.00
0.07 0.12 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.03
Agreeableness Trust Straightforwardness Altruism Compliance Modesty Tender-mindedness
ÿ0.09 ÿ0.21 ÿ0.16 ÿ0.02 ÿ0.08 0.19 ÿ0.04
ÿ0.19 ÿ0.35 ÿ0.21 ÿ0.16 ÿ0.16 0.15 0.11
Conscientiousness Competence Order Dutifulness Achievement striving Self-discipline Deliberation
ÿ0.34 ÿ0.35 ÿ0.30 0.00 ÿ0.34 ÿ0.35 ÿ0.11
ÿ0.32 ÿ0.27 ÿ0.18 ÿ0.25 ÿ0.26 ÿ0.36 ÿ0.17
a b
n=59. n=126.
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3. Results Means and standard deviations for ASIQ scores and each of the ®ve NEO-PI domain scores are presented for males and females in Table 1. Scores for all NEO factors were found to be within the normal range of mean scores obtained for college-age individuals (Costa, & McCrae, 1992b). Suicidal ideation scores for the sample fell between normal ranges reported for non-clinical college students and adults (Reynolds, 1991a). Rates of suicidal ideation obtained for males (M=9.32; S.D.=10.30) and females (M=11.73; S.D.=14.72), respectively, did not dier to a signi®cant degree, F(1, 183)=1.28, p < 0.2588. Zero-order Pearson correlations between suicidal ideation scores and the ®ve NEO factors and facets are presented separately for males and females in Table 2. To minimize the extent of type I error, an adjusted alpha level of p < 0.01 was established. At the factor level, suicidal ideation was correlated positively with neuroticism and negatively related to conscientiousness among females. Of the ®ve NEO factors, only conscientiousness was signi®cantly related (negatively) to suicidal ideation among males.
3.1. Factor-level multiple regression analysis The relation between suicidal ideation and the ®ve NEO factors was investigated further by conducting a stepwise multiple regression analysis with scores on the ASIQ serving as the dependent variable and NEO factor scores as predictors. Separate analyses were conducted for males and females. The overall model for females was signi®cant, accounting for 27% of the variance in suicidal ideation scores, F(1, 124)=45.81, p < 0.001. Of the ®ve NEO factors, only neuroticism contributed signi®cantly to the prediction of suicidal ideation (t=6.77, p < 0.001). The overall model for males was signi®cant, accounting for 12% of the variance in suicidal ideation scores, F(1, 57)=7.51, p < 0.01. Of the ®ve NEO factors, only conscientiousness contributed signi®cantly to the prediction of suicidal ideation (t=ÿ2.74, p < 0.01).
3.2. Facet-level multiple regression analyses Additional stepwise multiple regressions were conducted to determine which facets of Neuroticism made signi®cant unique contributions to the prediction of suicidal ideation in females. The overall regression model was signi®cant, accounting for 33% of the variance in suicidal ideation scores, F(2, 123)=30.60, p < 0.001. Suicidal ideation in females was positively predicted by the facets, angry hostility (t=3.37, p < 0.001) and depression (t=4.79, p < 0.001). The same procedure was used in the analysis for males, employing each of the six facets of conscientiousness as predictors. The overall regression was signi®cant and explained 12% of the variance in suicidal ideation scores, F(1, 57)=7.99, p < 0.01. Among the six facets of conscientiousness, only self-discipline (negatively) predicted suicidal ideation to a signi®cant degree (t=ÿ2.83, p < 0.01).
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4. Discussion Consistent with previous ®ndings (e.g. Lester, 1987; Lester, & Francis, 1993) and predictions outlined in the present study, high scores on the neuroticism factor scale of the NEO-PI were related to a greater incidence of suicidal ideation in young adults. This result further underscores the well-established association between neuroticism and negative aectivity (e.g. Costa, & McCrae, 1980; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988; Larsen, & Ketelaar, 1991). Similarly, extraversion has been conceptualized as a tendency to experience positive aect (e.g. Costa, & McCrae, 1980; Furnham, & Brewin, 1990; Pavot, Diener, & Fujita, 1990). In the present study, extraversion scores were not associated with ASIQ scores. Conscientiousness, a trait not previously identi®ed as a vulnerability factor for nonfatal suicidal behavior, was negatively related to suicidal ideation. While somewhat surprising, this latter ®nding is consistent with recent evidence suggesting that lower levels of conscientiousness may be associated with decreased self-ecacy (Martocchio, & Judge, 1997) and self-reported happiness (Furnham, & Cheng, 1997) and higher levels of hopelessness (Velting, 1999). Furthermore, the association between conscientiousness and suicidal ideation may re¯ect overlapping aspects of psychoticism (Digman, 1990; Eysenck, 1992). The suicide research literature is replete with studies highlighting the so-called `gender paradox' (Canetto, & Sakinofsky, 1998; Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Sanders, Crane, & Monson, 1998; Stepako, 1998), which refers to observed sex dierences in rates of suicide-related behavior. From these studies, it is clear that risk for completed suicide is much greater in males, whereas females are more likely to make nonfatal attempts. Men are also more likely to use more lethal methods of suicide, e.g. ®rearms, hanging (Rich, Ricketts, Fowler, & Young, 1988; Canetto, & Lester, 1995). However, gender-speci®c aspects of motivational factors linked to suicide have been less frequently discussed. Results of factor-level analyses in the present study revealed noteworthy gender interactions: suicidal ideation was predicted by neuroticism in females and conscientiousness in males, respectively. It is quite plausible that these dierences re¯ect gender-speci®c psychopathological pro®les often characteristic of suicidal individuals. Dierential rates of major depression, found to be substantially higher in women than in men (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990; Blazer, Kessler, McGonagle, & Swartz, 1994), may in part help to explain why Neuroticism appeared to re¯ect a vulnerability to suicidal thinking in females exclusively. Notably, depressed women are also more likely than depressed men to exhibit a ruminative coping style, i.e. contemplating their own emotional distress, which may in turn, lead to more serious depressive episodes (NolenHoeksema, 1995). Some researchers (e.g. Moscicki, 1994) have suggested that elevated rates of depression in suicidal women are oset by higher relative rates of alcohol abuse among men. Based on this assumption, it might be reasonable to expect to ®nd a negative association between Conscientiousness and alcohol-related constructs. In fact, low levels of Conscientiousness have been associated with impulsive and hedonistic tendencies (McCrae, Costa, & Busch, 1986) and appear to characterize individuals with substance use disorders (Martin, & Sher, 1994). It should be noted, however, that the Martin and Sher (1994) study also indicated substance-related diagnoses to be associated with high levels of neuroticism and low levels of agreeableness. Results of facet-level analyses provided more detailed pro®les of gender-relevant distinctions
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in suicide ideation. Two of the six neuroticism facets, angry hostility and depression, predicted scores on the ASIQ. More speci®cally, suicidal thinking in females was predicted by a tendency to experience negative emotional states, primarily characterized by hostility (e.g. resentment, bitterness, anger, frustration) and feelings associated with depression (e.g. sadness, dejection, discouragement, guilt, worthlessness, hopelessness and loneliness). Conceivably, these features describe the ruminative coping style Nolen-Hoeksema (1990) has identi®ed as an important risk factor for severe depression in women. More generally, studies evaluating adaptive response styles reveal an association between neuroticism and passive coping strategies (e.g. emotion-focused coping), which tend to be ineective (McCrae, & Costa, 1986). At the same time, conscientiousness has been associated with the use of active coping strategies, e.g. problem-focused coping (Watson, & Hubbard, 1996). Thus, relatively low levels of conscientiousness should indicate resource de®cits in active coping, as results of the facetlevel regression analyses suggest. Among the six facets of conscientiousness, only self-discipline signi®cantly predicted suicidal ideation in males. In other words, suicidal thinking was most characteristic of men who tend to procrastinate, give up easily and those generally lacking motivation and the ability to initiate and complete tasks. Furthermore, these behavioral features are consonant with results of studies indicating that a subjective experience of personal failure, i.e. one's inability to attain self determined academic goals, is related to suicidal thinking in adolescents (Dukes, & Lorch, 1989; Olsson, & von Knorring, 1997) and to completed suicide in young adults (Peck, 1983). Conceivably, eorts to discern the precise nature of the relationship between Conscientiousness and suicidal thinking may also have implications for research targeting young adult, male prison populations, shown to be at elevated risk for completed suicide (e.g. DuRand, Burtka, Federman, Haycox, & Smith, 1995). While results of the present study rearm the primacy of neuroticism's position among trait correlates of suicidal ideation, it is clear that conscientiousness scores accounted for an appreciable portion of the variance in ASIQ scores. This ®nding demonstrates the utility of considering suicidal ideation within the theoretical framework provided by Costa and McCrae's ®ve-factor model of personality and furthermore, highlights the emergent status of conscientiousness among suicide-relevant trait variables. Replication using additional samples, including those drawn from appropriate clinical populations, (e.g. depressed inpatients, suicide attempters), is needed. Finally, observed sex dierences in the extent to which ASIQ scores were predicted by Neuroticism and Conscientiousness, suggest that further research investigating the con¯uence of gender and personality variables in relation to suicide is warranted.
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