- Email: [email protected]
Sustainability of wilderness sea kayaking in the Bay of Fundy, Canada
Ocean & Coastal Management 46 (2003) 189–197
Sustainability of wilderness sea kayaking in the Bay of Fundy, Canada Anne C. Irving Oxley, Robert D. Brown* School of Landscape Architecture, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ont., Canada N1G 2W1
Abstract A study was undertaken to investigate the potential long-term sustainability of sea kayaking in the Bay of Fundy, Canada. The biological and physical state of the environment of four islands frequently visited by sea kayakers was measured in spring, summer, and fall, 1997. Information was also collected on the quality of kayakers’ wilderness experience, and whether encounters with other groups of people or the quality of the environment affected that experience. The kayakers’ impact on the bio-physical states of the islands was found to be minimal. Few impacts were recorded, and most of these were in areas that were frequently and readily modified by waves and tides. All respondents indicated that their wilderness experience was good to excellent, with 97% indicating a very good to excellent experience. More than 80% of respondents indicated that the quality of the natural environment had either a positive or very positive impact on their wilderness experience. Nearly half (43%) of respondents indicated that encounters with other groups of people had a negative or very negative effect on their wilderness experience. Recommendations have been developed for the management of islands in maritime environments with the goal of long-term sustainability. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction There continues to be an increasing demand for wilderness experiences. As adventure seekers move into previously undisturbed environments there is a very real threat of disturbance to remnant natural ecosystems. Sea kayaking has become a popular means of exploring the maritime environment [1]. It is a slow, quiet mode of *Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-519-824-4120; fax: +1-519-767-1686. E-mail address: [email protected] (R.D. Brown). 0964-5691/03/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 9 6 4 - 5 6 9 1 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 2 7 - 8
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travel, and as it requires only about 15 cm depth of water it allows kayakers to move easily among maritime islands. It is important to know whether or not this activity is sustainable. This study set out to answer two questions: (1) what impacts do sea kayakers have on the natural environment of maritime islands? and (2) do human impacts on and near islands affect sea kayakers’ wilderness experiences? The results of the study will be useful in landscape planning, design and management, professions concerned with identifying and protecting ecological resources.
2. Study area The study focused on the West Isles, Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick, Canada (see Fig. 1). These islands experience the highest tides in the world at up to 15 m [2]. Weather conditions typically allow recreational access to the islands only during the late spring, summer, and early fall periods. Even during these times storms and high tides can have a substantial influence on accessibility and on the island environments. The area is rich in marine wildlife including several species of whales and seals. The islands can have very limited access due to steep cliffs right at the edge of the sea, but generally have at least one beach area appropriate for landing watercrafts. These beaches typically have little vegetation (due to the storms and tides) and that which does survive is salt-, wind-, and ice-tolerant. Four islands representing a range of quality of marine recreational use were selected for study: Barnes, St. Helena, Casco Bay, and Hardwood Islands (see Fig. 1). Hardwood Island is located within an inner bay and can be accessed by boat directly from the mainland. The other three islands are typically accessed by sea kayakers only from Deer Island, thus requiring more preparation due to ferry schedules and tidal movements. All four islands possess attributes that make them attractive to sea kayakers: sheltered waters, good landing sites, and adequate camp areas. Barnes Island (Fig. 2a) is approximately 33 acres in size and has two areas where watercraft can land successfully. Casco Bay Island (Fig. 2b) is 37 acres and has a beach that affords good boat landing and camping. St. Helena Island (Fig. 2c) is 25 acres and is located closest to Deer Island. It has one beach that is quite easily accessed by boat. Hardwood Island (Fig. 2d) is 45 acres and is located closer to the mainland in Passamaquoddy Bay. It has a large beach that offers campsites above the high tide. It is the most heavily used of the four islands due to its proximity to the mainland.
3. Method Two kinds of information were collected for this study. Each island was visited in the spring, mid-summer, and fall of 1997 at which time bio-physical inventories were
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Fig. 1. The West Isles, Bay of Fundy, Canada.
conducted. This provided a view of the islands over time: before, during, and after a season of use by sea kayakers. Data were also collected on kayakers’ attitudes and perceptions related to their wilderness experience and how it was or was not affected by the environment that they visited. 3.1. Biological and physical survey A continuous line transect method was used to create a profile of each island from the shore line to the interior [3]. Upon arrival at a study site, observation notes were made, and a transect line was surveyed. Transects were established by identifying an easily recognizable point such as a tree, weir pole, or rock and using this to establish
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Fig. 2. Topography and vegetation of the study islands: (a) Barnes Island, (b) Casco Bay Island, (c) St. Helena Island, and (d) Hardwood Island.
a bearing. From the established point, the length of the site that appeared to be used for camping was walked and measured using a hip chain. Everything that was encountered along the transect line was documented, including the percent of the ground that was covered with vegetation, the amount of trampled vegetation, campsites, and any other evidence of human impact on the biological and/or physical environment. At campfire sites, transects were taken perpendicular to the main transect line in order to establish the size of the fire pit. The measuring of vegetation using the continuous line transect method has been considered an indicator of the human impact on the habitat of maritime islands [3]. The transect were established in June, and revisited in July or August, and again in September 1997. Data were collected on three separate occasions on each island. 3.2. Questionnaire survey Sea kayakers were surveyed to determine the quality of their wilderness experience and the level to which their wilderness experience was affected by the quality of the
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natural environment and by human impacts. A self-administered questionnaire was developed, pre-tested on a group of local kayakers, then distributed to individuals as they completed extended (one or more days) sea kayaking trips to one or more of the four study sites. The questionnaire consisted of 18 questions, and generated nominal, ordinal and ratio data. Demographic information was collected on respondent age, gender, place of residence (urban, suburban, or rural), and amount of previous experience with kayaking and with camping. Several questions asked respondents to document characteristics of their trip, including duration, weather, islands visited, the size of their group, number and size of other kayaker or non-kayaker groups encountered, and wildlife sighted during their trip. The final section of the questionnaire asked respondents to rate, on a five-point likert-type scale, three things: (a) their wilderness experience; (b) how much encounters with other groups of people affected their wilderness experience; and (c) how much the quality of the natural environment affected their wilderness experience. The questionnaire ended with an open-ended question asking respondents to make any additional comments about the wilderness experience of their trip. The data were collected during the period June to September 1997. A sea kayak tour company (Seascape Kayak Tours) in St. Andrew’s, New Brunswick participated in the study and instructed their guides to distribute surveys to all participants as they returned from a trip. Participants were asked to complete the questionnaire immediately after their trip was completed, and return the completed questionnaire to their guide. The questionnaire was offered to everyone who participated in a tour during the test period (n ¼ 220) but due to difficulties in procedures for making the questionnaire available at the end of every trip it is unclear exactly how many of these individuals had an opportunity to consider completing the questionnaire. Apparently the guides were sometimes distracted with retrieving equipment at the end of a trip, plus some participants left quickly after the tour was complete. We received a total of 38 completed questionnaires. This low return rate will provide only an exploratory view of kayakers, and limits the generalizability of the results.
4. Results and discussion 4.1. Environmental conditions of islands The biophysical inventories indicated no permanent damage to the islands through use by sea kayakers. There was some trampling of herbaceous vegetation and some evidence of campsites, but in every case these impacts were in areas that could be expected to be soon modified by wave action, thus completely nullifying any impact. The presence of garbage on the beaches increased from June to September, but most, if not all, was likely not as a result of kayakers. Pop bottles, milk cartons, and plastic bags were full of sea water, indicating that the garbage floated onto the shore from elsewhere. Interviews with guides indicated that typically no garbage was left behind by sea kayak tours.
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A similar study in nearby Maine, USA [3] found that the majority of plants on islands of this type recovered from minor trampling if left undisturbed for two seasons. It also found that 100 passes had only a temporary effect on the vegetation. However, on-going trampling was found to be likely to establish permanent trails, and on-going camping in one site was likely to lead to less diversified vegetation composed of more resilient species. Our study indicated that trampling of vegetation had only a minor and ephemeral effect, with vegetation recovering quickly, suggesting that the carrying capacity of the islands has not been exceeded. The conditions were similar on all four islands, and all impacts of kayakers were found to be minor and ephemeral. These results indicate that sea kayaker use of the islands is a sustainable land use that is compatible with maintaining the ecological integrity of wilderness areas. 4.2. Attitudes of visitors The questionnaire explored the effect of physical, environmental, and psychological conflicts on users’ perception of wilderness experience. The questionnaire asked about the quality of the wilderness experience, and how much individual’s wilderness experience was affected by: (a) encounters with other groups of people, and (b) the quality of the environment. Every respondent reported a positive wilderness experience, and almost everyone (97%) rated their wilderness experience as very good or excellent. A large majority (84%) of respondents felt that the quality of the environment had a positive or very positive effect on their wilderness experience. This suggests that the natural environment of the islands should be maintained in order to optimize wilderness experience. Nearly half (43%) of respondents found encounters with other groups to have a negative or very negative effect on their wilderness experience. However, the type of encounter affected the response. Of the 8 people who reported encounters only with other kayakers, all 8 said that it had no effect on their wilderness experience. Of the 27 people who reported encounters only with non-kayakers, 15 (56%) reported a negative or very negative effect on their wilderness experience. Characteristics of the respondents appeared to affect the answers they provided to the questionnaire. Men were more enthusiastic about their wilderness experience than women with 76% of the men but only 40% of the women rating their experience as ‘‘excellent’’. Rural respondents were more likely (75%) than urban residents (59%) to rate their wilderness experience as ‘‘excellent’’. Rural residents were also more likely (75%) than urban residents (39%) to rate encounters with other groups as having a negative or very negative effect on their wilderness experience, although the small number of rural residents (11%; n ¼ 4) makes this a speculative conclusion. Individuals with little or no previous kayaking experience were much less likely (56%) than more experienced kayakers (78%) to rate their wilderness experience as excellent. These differences are based on a small sample size and should be explored in future studies.
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195
Fig. 3. Conceptual zoning designations for island environments (after [8]).
4.3. Application to maritime environmental management The importance of coastal areas has received much recognition during the past decade and many countries have designated marine conservation areas along their coasts [4,5]. Canada has studied the possibility of designating marine parks [6] and in 1997 passed the ‘‘Oceans Act’’ [7] providing a legal outline for the marine environment that recognizes it as an ecosystem of importance. One option for management of the islands would be to apply the concept of a multiple-use module [8] in conjunction with a zone approach to designating marine areas (see Fig. 3). This would allow the natural environment to be protected while allowing visitors to have wilderness experiences. The World Wildlife Fund [9] has described an example of a zoned system as containing: (a) a highly protected area (b) a research-only zone (c) a recreation zone, and (d) a limited fishing zone. The areas on the beaches and near the islands would be limited in use to quiet, nonconsumptive activities such as kayaking and scuba-diving. The islands themselves would be highly protected areas, and the channels between islands could have designated speed limits for motorized vessels, similar to minimum heights for airplanes flying over terrestrial parks [10]. 4.4. Limitations and further investigations The small population and low return rate of questionnaires limits the generalizability of the results. There was some difficulty in making questionnaires available to every person who completed a kayak trip to the study islands during the study period. Future studies should attempt to obtain a larger sample of the population. This might be achieved by having someone other than the guide handing out and receiving completed surveys. There were some results from the study that should be investigated in more detail. For example, the female participants tended to be more critical of the state of the environment, and their response to the wilderness experience was lower than that of the male participants. Also, one additional question should be added to the
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questionnaire. We asked about the quality of the wilderness experience (Q15), how that experience was affected by encounters with other people (Q16) and by the quality of the environment (Q17), and in a repeat study we would ask the respondents to provide a personal rating of the quality of the environment. It would be valuable to conduct a longitudinal study of the biophysical characteristics of the islands over a period of several years to determine if there are long-term impacts of kayaker use. In order to most effectively determine zoning of the maritime area it would be important to survey other users of the area including whale watching tours, professional and recreational fishers, pleasure craft (motor boats, sailboats) users, and aquaculture operators.
5. Conclusions Sea kayakers had little measurable impact on the natural environment of the four islands tested in this study. The impact that was measured was determined to be short term and could be expected to be quickly erased by wave and tidal action. Kayakers reported almost unanimous agreement that their wilderness experience was very good to excellent. The quality of the natural environment had a positive to very positive effect on the quality of the wilderness experience of a large majority of the respondents. Encounters with other people had a generally negative impact on the kayakers’ wilderness experience. The concept of a multiple-use module [8] provided a framework through which the island environments might be managed, and maritime zoning has the potential to provide sustainable use of maritime islands.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Bruce Smith of Seascape Kayak Tours in collection of primary data.
References [1] Hundloe TJ. Parks in the marine environment. In: Messer J, Mosley JG, editors. The value of national parks to the community: values and ways of improving the contribution of Australian national parks to the community. Melbourne: Australian Conservation Foundation, 1980. p. 168–84. [2] Conkling PW, editor. From Cape Cod to the Bay of Fundy: an environmental atlas of the Gulf of Maine. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1995. [3] Conkling PW, Drury WH, Leonard RE. People and islands: resource management issues for islands in the Gulf of Maine. Rockland, Maine: The Island Institute, 1984. [4] Zhengling K. China’s marine nature reserves. Beijing Review. September 5–11, 1994. p. 29–31. [5] Dixon JA, Scura LF, van’t Hof R. Meeting ecological and economic goals: Marine parks in the Caribbean. Ambio 1993;22(2–3):117–25. [6] Wilbur R. A marine park in the Bay of Fundy? Canadian Geographic 1985;105(1):70–5.
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[7] Government of Canada. Oceans Act of January 31, 1997. http://www.ec.gc.ca/agenda21/2000/ land.htm. [8] Noss RF, Harris LD. Nodes, networks and MUMs: preserving diversity at all scales. Environmental Management 1986;10(3):299–309. [9] Thurston H. A wilderness of sea: protecting Canada’s oceans and great lakes with protected areas. Canada: World Wildlife Fund, 1997. [10] Lucas RC. Wilderness perception and use: the example of the boundary waters canoe area. Natural Resources Journal 1964;3(3):394–411.
Sustainability of wilderness sea kayaking in the Bay of Fundy, Canada Anne C. Irving Oxley, Robert D. Brown* School of Landscape Architecture, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ont., Canada N1G 2W1
Abstract A study was undertaken to investigate the potential long-term sustainability of sea kayaking in the Bay of Fundy, Canada. The biological and physical state of the environment of four islands frequently visited by sea kayakers was measured in spring, summer, and fall, 1997. Information was also collected on the quality of kayakers’ wilderness experience, and whether encounters with other groups of people or the quality of the environment affected that experience. The kayakers’ impact on the bio-physical states of the islands was found to be minimal. Few impacts were recorded, and most of these were in areas that were frequently and readily modified by waves and tides. All respondents indicated that their wilderness experience was good to excellent, with 97% indicating a very good to excellent experience. More than 80% of respondents indicated that the quality of the natural environment had either a positive or very positive impact on their wilderness experience. Nearly half (43%) of respondents indicated that encounters with other groups of people had a negative or very negative effect on their wilderness experience. Recommendations have been developed for the management of islands in maritime environments with the goal of long-term sustainability. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction There continues to be an increasing demand for wilderness experiences. As adventure seekers move into previously undisturbed environments there is a very real threat of disturbance to remnant natural ecosystems. Sea kayaking has become a popular means of exploring the maritime environment [1]. It is a slow, quiet mode of *Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-519-824-4120; fax: +1-519-767-1686. E-mail address: [email protected] (R.D. Brown). 0964-5691/03/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 9 6 4 - 5 6 9 1 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 2 7 - 8
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travel, and as it requires only about 15 cm depth of water it allows kayakers to move easily among maritime islands. It is important to know whether or not this activity is sustainable. This study set out to answer two questions: (1) what impacts do sea kayakers have on the natural environment of maritime islands? and (2) do human impacts on and near islands affect sea kayakers’ wilderness experiences? The results of the study will be useful in landscape planning, design and management, professions concerned with identifying and protecting ecological resources.
2. Study area The study focused on the West Isles, Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick, Canada (see Fig. 1). These islands experience the highest tides in the world at up to 15 m [2]. Weather conditions typically allow recreational access to the islands only during the late spring, summer, and early fall periods. Even during these times storms and high tides can have a substantial influence on accessibility and on the island environments. The area is rich in marine wildlife including several species of whales and seals. The islands can have very limited access due to steep cliffs right at the edge of the sea, but generally have at least one beach area appropriate for landing watercrafts. These beaches typically have little vegetation (due to the storms and tides) and that which does survive is salt-, wind-, and ice-tolerant. Four islands representing a range of quality of marine recreational use were selected for study: Barnes, St. Helena, Casco Bay, and Hardwood Islands (see Fig. 1). Hardwood Island is located within an inner bay and can be accessed by boat directly from the mainland. The other three islands are typically accessed by sea kayakers only from Deer Island, thus requiring more preparation due to ferry schedules and tidal movements. All four islands possess attributes that make them attractive to sea kayakers: sheltered waters, good landing sites, and adequate camp areas. Barnes Island (Fig. 2a) is approximately 33 acres in size and has two areas where watercraft can land successfully. Casco Bay Island (Fig. 2b) is 37 acres and has a beach that affords good boat landing and camping. St. Helena Island (Fig. 2c) is 25 acres and is located closest to Deer Island. It has one beach that is quite easily accessed by boat. Hardwood Island (Fig. 2d) is 45 acres and is located closer to the mainland in Passamaquoddy Bay. It has a large beach that offers campsites above the high tide. It is the most heavily used of the four islands due to its proximity to the mainland.
3. Method Two kinds of information were collected for this study. Each island was visited in the spring, mid-summer, and fall of 1997 at which time bio-physical inventories were
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191
Fig. 1. The West Isles, Bay of Fundy, Canada.
conducted. This provided a view of the islands over time: before, during, and after a season of use by sea kayakers. Data were also collected on kayakers’ attitudes and perceptions related to their wilderness experience and how it was or was not affected by the environment that they visited. 3.1. Biological and physical survey A continuous line transect method was used to create a profile of each island from the shore line to the interior [3]. Upon arrival at a study site, observation notes were made, and a transect line was surveyed. Transects were established by identifying an easily recognizable point such as a tree, weir pole, or rock and using this to establish
192
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Fig. 2. Topography and vegetation of the study islands: (a) Barnes Island, (b) Casco Bay Island, (c) St. Helena Island, and (d) Hardwood Island.
a bearing. From the established point, the length of the site that appeared to be used for camping was walked and measured using a hip chain. Everything that was encountered along the transect line was documented, including the percent of the ground that was covered with vegetation, the amount of trampled vegetation, campsites, and any other evidence of human impact on the biological and/or physical environment. At campfire sites, transects were taken perpendicular to the main transect line in order to establish the size of the fire pit. The measuring of vegetation using the continuous line transect method has been considered an indicator of the human impact on the habitat of maritime islands [3]. The transect were established in June, and revisited in July or August, and again in September 1997. Data were collected on three separate occasions on each island. 3.2. Questionnaire survey Sea kayakers were surveyed to determine the quality of their wilderness experience and the level to which their wilderness experience was affected by the quality of the
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193
natural environment and by human impacts. A self-administered questionnaire was developed, pre-tested on a group of local kayakers, then distributed to individuals as they completed extended (one or more days) sea kayaking trips to one or more of the four study sites. The questionnaire consisted of 18 questions, and generated nominal, ordinal and ratio data. Demographic information was collected on respondent age, gender, place of residence (urban, suburban, or rural), and amount of previous experience with kayaking and with camping. Several questions asked respondents to document characteristics of their trip, including duration, weather, islands visited, the size of their group, number and size of other kayaker or non-kayaker groups encountered, and wildlife sighted during their trip. The final section of the questionnaire asked respondents to rate, on a five-point likert-type scale, three things: (a) their wilderness experience; (b) how much encounters with other groups of people affected their wilderness experience; and (c) how much the quality of the natural environment affected their wilderness experience. The questionnaire ended with an open-ended question asking respondents to make any additional comments about the wilderness experience of their trip. The data were collected during the period June to September 1997. A sea kayak tour company (Seascape Kayak Tours) in St. Andrew’s, New Brunswick participated in the study and instructed their guides to distribute surveys to all participants as they returned from a trip. Participants were asked to complete the questionnaire immediately after their trip was completed, and return the completed questionnaire to their guide. The questionnaire was offered to everyone who participated in a tour during the test period (n ¼ 220) but due to difficulties in procedures for making the questionnaire available at the end of every trip it is unclear exactly how many of these individuals had an opportunity to consider completing the questionnaire. Apparently the guides were sometimes distracted with retrieving equipment at the end of a trip, plus some participants left quickly after the tour was complete. We received a total of 38 completed questionnaires. This low return rate will provide only an exploratory view of kayakers, and limits the generalizability of the results.
4. Results and discussion 4.1. Environmental conditions of islands The biophysical inventories indicated no permanent damage to the islands through use by sea kayakers. There was some trampling of herbaceous vegetation and some evidence of campsites, but in every case these impacts were in areas that could be expected to be soon modified by wave action, thus completely nullifying any impact. The presence of garbage on the beaches increased from June to September, but most, if not all, was likely not as a result of kayakers. Pop bottles, milk cartons, and plastic bags were full of sea water, indicating that the garbage floated onto the shore from elsewhere. Interviews with guides indicated that typically no garbage was left behind by sea kayak tours.
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A similar study in nearby Maine, USA [3] found that the majority of plants on islands of this type recovered from minor trampling if left undisturbed for two seasons. It also found that 100 passes had only a temporary effect on the vegetation. However, on-going trampling was found to be likely to establish permanent trails, and on-going camping in one site was likely to lead to less diversified vegetation composed of more resilient species. Our study indicated that trampling of vegetation had only a minor and ephemeral effect, with vegetation recovering quickly, suggesting that the carrying capacity of the islands has not been exceeded. The conditions were similar on all four islands, and all impacts of kayakers were found to be minor and ephemeral. These results indicate that sea kayaker use of the islands is a sustainable land use that is compatible with maintaining the ecological integrity of wilderness areas. 4.2. Attitudes of visitors The questionnaire explored the effect of physical, environmental, and psychological conflicts on users’ perception of wilderness experience. The questionnaire asked about the quality of the wilderness experience, and how much individual’s wilderness experience was affected by: (a) encounters with other groups of people, and (b) the quality of the environment. Every respondent reported a positive wilderness experience, and almost everyone (97%) rated their wilderness experience as very good or excellent. A large majority (84%) of respondents felt that the quality of the environment had a positive or very positive effect on their wilderness experience. This suggests that the natural environment of the islands should be maintained in order to optimize wilderness experience. Nearly half (43%) of respondents found encounters with other groups to have a negative or very negative effect on their wilderness experience. However, the type of encounter affected the response. Of the 8 people who reported encounters only with other kayakers, all 8 said that it had no effect on their wilderness experience. Of the 27 people who reported encounters only with non-kayakers, 15 (56%) reported a negative or very negative effect on their wilderness experience. Characteristics of the respondents appeared to affect the answers they provided to the questionnaire. Men were more enthusiastic about their wilderness experience than women with 76% of the men but only 40% of the women rating their experience as ‘‘excellent’’. Rural respondents were more likely (75%) than urban residents (59%) to rate their wilderness experience as ‘‘excellent’’. Rural residents were also more likely (75%) than urban residents (39%) to rate encounters with other groups as having a negative or very negative effect on their wilderness experience, although the small number of rural residents (11%; n ¼ 4) makes this a speculative conclusion. Individuals with little or no previous kayaking experience were much less likely (56%) than more experienced kayakers (78%) to rate their wilderness experience as excellent. These differences are based on a small sample size and should be explored in future studies.
A.C. Irving Oxley, R.D. Brown / Ocean & Coastal Management 46 (2003) 189–197
195
Fig. 3. Conceptual zoning designations for island environments (after [8]).
4.3. Application to maritime environmental management The importance of coastal areas has received much recognition during the past decade and many countries have designated marine conservation areas along their coasts [4,5]. Canada has studied the possibility of designating marine parks [6] and in 1997 passed the ‘‘Oceans Act’’ [7] providing a legal outline for the marine environment that recognizes it as an ecosystem of importance. One option for management of the islands would be to apply the concept of a multiple-use module [8] in conjunction with a zone approach to designating marine areas (see Fig. 3). This would allow the natural environment to be protected while allowing visitors to have wilderness experiences. The World Wildlife Fund [9] has described an example of a zoned system as containing: (a) a highly protected area (b) a research-only zone (c) a recreation zone, and (d) a limited fishing zone. The areas on the beaches and near the islands would be limited in use to quiet, nonconsumptive activities such as kayaking and scuba-diving. The islands themselves would be highly protected areas, and the channels between islands could have designated speed limits for motorized vessels, similar to minimum heights for airplanes flying over terrestrial parks [10]. 4.4. Limitations and further investigations The small population and low return rate of questionnaires limits the generalizability of the results. There was some difficulty in making questionnaires available to every person who completed a kayak trip to the study islands during the study period. Future studies should attempt to obtain a larger sample of the population. This might be achieved by having someone other than the guide handing out and receiving completed surveys. There were some results from the study that should be investigated in more detail. For example, the female participants tended to be more critical of the state of the environment, and their response to the wilderness experience was lower than that of the male participants. Also, one additional question should be added to the
196
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questionnaire. We asked about the quality of the wilderness experience (Q15), how that experience was affected by encounters with other people (Q16) and by the quality of the environment (Q17), and in a repeat study we would ask the respondents to provide a personal rating of the quality of the environment. It would be valuable to conduct a longitudinal study of the biophysical characteristics of the islands over a period of several years to determine if there are long-term impacts of kayaker use. In order to most effectively determine zoning of the maritime area it would be important to survey other users of the area including whale watching tours, professional and recreational fishers, pleasure craft (motor boats, sailboats) users, and aquaculture operators.
5. Conclusions Sea kayakers had little measurable impact on the natural environment of the four islands tested in this study. The impact that was measured was determined to be short term and could be expected to be quickly erased by wave and tidal action. Kayakers reported almost unanimous agreement that their wilderness experience was very good to excellent. The quality of the natural environment had a positive to very positive effect on the quality of the wilderness experience of a large majority of the respondents. Encounters with other people had a generally negative impact on the kayakers’ wilderness experience. The concept of a multiple-use module [8] provided a framework through which the island environments might be managed, and maritime zoning has the potential to provide sustainable use of maritime islands.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Bruce Smith of Seascape Kayak Tours in collection of primary data.
References [1] Hundloe TJ. Parks in the marine environment. In: Messer J, Mosley JG, editors. The value of national parks to the community: values and ways of improving the contribution of Australian national parks to the community. Melbourne: Australian Conservation Foundation, 1980. p. 168–84. [2] Conkling PW, editor. From Cape Cod to the Bay of Fundy: an environmental atlas of the Gulf of Maine. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1995. [3] Conkling PW, Drury WH, Leonard RE. People and islands: resource management issues for islands in the Gulf of Maine. Rockland, Maine: The Island Institute, 1984. [4] Zhengling K. China’s marine nature reserves. Beijing Review. September 5–11, 1994. p. 29–31. [5] Dixon JA, Scura LF, van’t Hof R. Meeting ecological and economic goals: Marine parks in the Caribbean. Ambio 1993;22(2–3):117–25. [6] Wilbur R. A marine park in the Bay of Fundy? Canadian Geographic 1985;105(1):70–5.
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[7] Government of Canada. Oceans Act of January 31, 1997. http://www.ec.gc.ca/agenda21/2000/ land.htm. [8] Noss RF, Harris LD. Nodes, networks and MUMs: preserving diversity at all scales. Environmental Management 1986;10(3):299–309. [9] Thurston H. A wilderness of sea: protecting Canada’s oceans and great lakes with protected areas. Canada: World Wildlife Fund, 1997. [10] Lucas RC. Wilderness perception and use: the example of the boundary waters canoe area. Natural Resources Journal 1964;3(3):394–411.