Sustainable development of coastal and marine areas in small island developing states: A basis for integrated coastal management

Ocean & Coastal Management 21 (1993) 269-284

Sustainable Development of Coastal and Marine Areas in Small Island Developing States: A Basis for Integrated Coastal Management M a r k D. Griffith Environmental Unit, Ministry of Labour, Consumer Affairs and the Environment, Christ Church, Barbados & John Ashe Permanent Mission to Antigua and Barbuda to the United Nations, New York, USA

INTRODUCTION T h r o u g h o u t the preparatory process leading up to the United Nations Conference on E n v i r o n m e n t and D e v e l o p m e n t ( U N C E D ) much emphasis was placed on integrated m a n a g e m e n t of coastal and marine areas. A central theme running through Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 is the need for integrated m a n a g e m e n t of coastal and marine areas. More specifically, two program areas: integrated m a n a g e m e n t and sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t of coastal and marine areas, including exclusive economic zones and the sustainable development of small island developing states (SIDS), address this issue explicitly. The latter addresses the specific concerns of SIDS and calls u p o n these countries to adopt plans and programs to support sustainable development of their marine and coastal resources. Furthermore, the concern about global climate change and the prospect of accelerated sea level rise and its potential impacts, particularly on low-lying coastal areas and small islands, has focused renewed attention on integrated m a n a g e m e n t and planning of coastal areas as a framework within which coastal states can formulate response options to adapt to a n d / o r mitigate climate change. The 269 Ocean & Coastal Management 0964-5691/93/$06.00 t~) 1993 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd, England. Printed in Northern Ireland

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importance of this is exemplified in the convocation by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of a Coastal Zone Management Subgroup (CZMS) of the Response Strategies Working Group. As part of its future programing the CZMS has as an important element of its activities the support for coastal zone management (CZM) planning and the assistance to coastal countries for the development of integrated coastal management plans by the year 2000.' The potentially important role that integrated coastal management (ICM) can play in providing the planning, policy and management context for a nation's vulnerability program has led to increased intellectual work directed at refining this concept. The Center for the Study of Marine Policy (CSMP), University of Delaware, USA, in collaboration with the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has undertaken an initiative aimed at exploring the relationship between coastal management and sea level rise problems, and to assess the extent to which a common understanding of key elements of integrated coastal management exists among coastal states. 2 A major conclusion resulting from this initiative is that the concept of ICM is sufficiently well developed and understood to the extent that the IPCC should use it as a key element of an international strategy to reduce vulnerability to sea level rise. 2 The convening of the World Coast Conference in November, 1993 and its preparatory regional workshops and the parallel initiative by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) O C A / P A C in collaboration with FAO, the World Bank, IPCC and participating countries in developing guidelines for CZM, is further evidence of the growing appreciation of the need for assessing responses to the impact of climate change in the context of integrated coastal management. As front line states for the impacts of accelerated sea level rise, these initiatives are of particular significance to small islands and low-lying coastal areas.

C O A S T A L A N D M A R I N E AREAS: I M P O R T A N T YET THREATENED The marine and coastal resources of SIDSs are diverse and productive habitats, upon which these culturally, economically and politically diverse groups of States and Territories depend for their economic development. These resources although of considerable importance to the socio-economic development of these countries, are being

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subjected to considerable stress resulting from local, regional and transboundary sources. Furthermore, current approaches at the national, regional and international levels have not always proved capable of facilitating the sustainable development of marine and coastal resources in SIDS. The coastal zone

Coastal zones of SIDS are usually the most productive. Coastal zones are essential to marine life and support considerable living marine resources. Its wetlands, sea grass beds and coral reefs are nurseries or feeding grounds for coastal and marine species which represent a valuable source of marine biodiversity. In addition, the coastal zones in most SIDS are the location of the vast majority of population and the focus of economic activity. For example, some 97% of the Pacific islanders (excluding Papua New Guinea) now live in coastal areas and an estimated 82% remain in the rural sector, although a significant proportion of rural residents are economically dependent on the urban sector. 3 The intensification of human population and activities in coastal areas, particularly in coastal urban areas, results in the concentration of waste, much of which is disposed of inadequately, mainly because many SIDS do not have the necessary infrastructure to deal effectively with these problems. Coastal management problems are therefore exacerbated and magnified in these areas. The urban areas of all the Pacific Islands are undergoing rapid population growth and are experiencing degradation and destruction of coastal habitats, overcrowding and inadequate housing, poor sanitation and public health conditions, reduced coastal and freshwater quality, inadequate infrastructure, over exploitation of nearshore resources and conflict in resource u s e . 4 In the case of the countries of the Indian Ocean, increasing population pressure has led to an intensification of the fishing effort in the coastal lagoons. This, in turn, has led to falling fish yields, and significant damage to the fragile coral reefs and some sea-shell varieties that have maintained ecological balance in the marine fauna; uncontrolled toursim expansion has also contributed to marine and coastal degradation. Notwithstanding the economic importance of marine and coastal areas to SIDS, these resources are under considerable stress in many countries. Uncontrolled or ill-conceived development schemes, mismanagement of living resources including coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, wetlands and other coastal and terrestrial ecosystems, have

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resulted in damaged habitats and thus threats to the survival of various species. The many stresses on coastal and marine areas in many SIDS, are further c o m p o u n d e d by the tourism sector, a major growth industry and the main foreign exchange earner in many countries. As a consequence of the concentration of tourism related infrastructure in coastal areas, considerable pressure is being placed on coastal ecosystems, particularly mangroves, which are filled to provide additional land for construction. Coral reefs which form part of an interdependent natural support system in coastal and marine areas are also under considerable pressure from tourism related activities.

The ocean environment and transboundary impacts The enactment of the provision under the United Nations Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS) pertaining to the 200 mile exclusive economic zone ( E E Z ) has significantly expanded the national territories of SIDS (Table 1). Many SIDS, particularly those outside the Caribbean and the Mediterranean have acquired vast EEZ. The Pacific, for example, accounts for 22 island states or territories which are spread across some 29 million km 2 of ocean, roughly equal to the size of Africa and almost seven times that of the Caribbean. The collective land area in contrast, covers only 5 5 0 0 0 0 k m , with Papua New Guinea alone covering 462 234 km. ~ (Getz et al., 1984). Kiribati with only 690 k 2 of land, has over 3.5 million K 2 of sea area. The ocean for many SIDS constitutes a valuable resource and a frontier for future development. Dolman 6 argues that the marine resources of the E E Z are able to contribute positively to sustainable development in SIDS and outlines a n u m b e r of areas in which efforts to use marine resources to promote sustainable socio-economic development in these countries should focus. These include the promotion of artisanal fisheries, the identification and exploitation of the potential for appropriate forms of mariculture, seaweed and other forms of marine algae for food, fuel animal feed, fertilizers and mulch; the identification of potential for renewable sources of energy; conservation of high marine productivity, especially coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangrove communities. It also has considerable potential for a n u m b e r of marine-based activities such as recreation and toursim, mineral deposits, offshore oil and gas, and other forms of energy such as tidal power, wave power, and ocean thermal energy conversion. The ocean as a resource, is also important for interests such as

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TABLE 1 Land and Sea Area of Small Island Developing States (Adapted from Ref. 7) Country

Land (kin 2)

Exclusive economic zone (×103 km 2)

Atlantic Cape Verde Sao Tome and Principe

4 033 964

---

444 13 935 431 751 10 991 344 5 130 268 616 383

-759 167 20 -27 77 68 68 68

1 862 298 280 2 045

-959 349 1 183

9 241 316

99 66

240 701 18 272 690 181 21 259 471 424 462 243 27 556 699 26 11 900 2 935

1 830 2 978 1 290 3 550 2 131 320 390 1 823 629 3 120 1 340 700 900 680 120

581

--

Caribbean Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados Dominica Jamaica Grenada Trinidad and Tobago St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines

Indian Ocean Comoros Maldives Seychelles Mauritius

Mediterranean Cyprus Malta

Pacific Cook Islands a Federated States of Micronesia Fiji Kiribati Marshall Islands Nauru b Niue a Northern Mariana Palau c Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands Tonga d Tuvalu Vanuatu Western Samoa

South China Sea Singapore

a Independent State in free association with New Zeland. b Independent Republic, member of the Alliance of Small Island States. c Republic in free association with USA. d Independent monarchy.

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commercial shipping, fisheries and mineral exploitation and tourism development in the nearshore coastal areas. Given the ocean's vast potential in numerous spheres of economic activity, SIDS will no doubt have to rely more heavily on their ocean resources for future sustainable socio-economic development. The ocean resource, however, is not without its threats. The expansion and intensification of human activities into the ocean sphere, brings with it increased potential for environmental damage. The transboundary movement of waste, particularly toxic and hazardous waste, poses a significant threat to island ecosystems. So does the transport of oil. In the Caribbean, for example, the transport of oil is by far the most important contributor to the volume of traffic and potential risk to the marine environmentY The occurrence of one moderate spill could destroy the tourism-based economies of many SIDS of the Caribbean. In addition to oil spills resulting from tanker accidents, significant quantities of hydrocarbons (as high as 17 million barrels in 1 year) are deposited in local Caribbean ports as a consequence of ballasting, ship cleaning, tank washing and docking and undocking operations. 8 The growing appreciation of the critical role played by the ocean in maintaining global ecological balance and in moderating world climate, including the impact of the 'greenhouse' effect is an important element which SIDS should bear in mind in the on-going negotiations on protocols to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. This will entail worldwide interdisciplinary research and monitoring programs to further substantiate the role of the ocean in moderating world climate. The cfimate factor

The stresses on the coastal and marine resources in many SIDS are likely to be further compounded by the prospects of additional environmental impacts that will result from impending climate change and accelerated sea level rise under a greenhouse scenario. Such impacts would include increased frequency and intensity of hurricanes, inundation of low-lying areas, increased coastal erosion, damage to coral reefs, sea grass beds and mangroves, threats to coastal infrastructure and loss of freshwater reserves and arable land. The net result of this would be the removal of coastal stabilization factors and vital nurseries for harvestable living resources and the generation of substantial economic losses to many sectors of the economies, particularly

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tourism, fisheries and agriculture--vital activities in many SIDS. Recent storms in the Republic of the Maldives have already caused protective structures such as break waters and sea walls to be built at great expense (e.g. shore protection costs of US$800 per meter). Protecting 10 km of shoreline for Male alone would cost nearly US$8 million, with a total protection for the Maldives estimated at nearly $1 billion. ~ Sea level rise would impact greatly on many SIDS, particularly atolls which, as IPCC points out, ~ are very vulnerable to sea level rise. The situation for atolls is very critical since they are generally very small, lie within 3 m of current sea level and have no land at higher elevations where populations and economic activities could relocate. As rightly pointed out by IPCC, ~ sea level rise often represents significant additional burden for many SIDS and will place an onerous financial burden on them to implement coastal and marine management plans to reduce their vulnerability to accelerated sea level rise and to potential coastal impacts of global climate change. The inextricable link between the issue of sea level rise and coastal and marine management will impact on decisions regarding the sustainable development of these resources in SIDS. This further underscores the need for the successful implementation of comprehensive coastal and marine management programs.

O V E R V I E W OF ICM IN SIDSs

The use of ICM plans as a tool in the sustainable development of coastal and marine areas is not well developed in many SIDS. In the South Pacific region coastal management plans have not been developed, for example, with the exception of the US Territories which participate in the US CZM programs. All the independent countries of the South Pacific region are, however, developing National Environmental Management Strategies (NEMS). These strategies provide a broad national institutional framework for integrated management and planning, within which the development and implementation of ICM can be incorporated? SPREP identified the major constraint to adequately addressing coastal issues in the South Pacific region as the lack of specific capability within governments to undertake and implement ICZM programs? This includes the absence of institutional structures, legislative mandate, trained personnel and financial resources. In addition,

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there is usually a lack of information on which to base coastal m a n a g e m e n t decisions and to develop coastal plans. Like the South Pacific, few SIDS in the Caribbean have developed (ICM) programs. The Island Resources Foundation ~ ~ summarized the situation in St. Lucia as it relates to integrated planning of coastal marine resources by indicating that the present trend has been to pursue coastal development as a series of unrelated activities on a site-by-site basis without regard for inherent limitations or interrelationships of important natural resources. A need, therefore, exists for integrating national goals for the marine sector with resource m a n a g e m e n t and resource objectives." In the case of St. Kitts and Nevis, The Island Resources Foundation"' sees the need for comprehensive C Z M planning as a mechanism or framework for addressing the coastal and marine issues confronting that country and as a means of avoiding future resource degradation while achieving economic development. Such a framework should be implem e n t e d to provide overall guidance for specific development and m a n a g e m e n t activities. Similarly, in Antigua and Barbuda the need exists for a comprehensive CZM. ~ In Barbados, the deterioration of the country's coastal resources has been occurring over time; on the other hand, action to deal with these problems has occurred on an ad hoc basis. This has led to a 'fragmented' approach to coastal management in Barbados. ~2 The increasing demands being placed on the country's coastal resources and the threat this poses to undermining the vital tourism sector has prompted efforts towards the formulation of a coastal m a n a g e m e n t framework. The coastal conservation project, presently in progress in Barbados, is the most comprehensive approach to solving coastal zone problems to date in the Caribbean. The scale of this project on the two most fully developed coastlines of Barbados appears to be a global first. ~3 The project has two major components: institutional strengthening and a coastal conservation feasibility study. Figure 1 outlines the major components of the coastal conservation project in Barbados. One of the primary outputs of this project will be the formulation of a coastal zone m a n a g e m e n t programme for Barbados. The C Z M program will seek to unite the various elements identified in Table 2 and blend them into a manageable, working, implementable program? -~ The outputs at the conclusion of this project in 1995 along with the provision of the infrastructure to deal effectively with waste, particularly liquid waste, should lay the basis for a comprehensive coastal m a n a g e m e n t plan for Barbados.

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A basis ]'or integrated coastal management Project A. INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING PROJECT a

Major Components

Subcomponents

INSTITUTIONAL

m

--Analysis of Existing Institutional Framework for CZM --Financial Analysis i.e. cost recovery

B. FEASIBILITY STUDY ON COASTAL CONSERVATION

(

LEGAL

--Review and Analysis of legal provisions for coastal resources

COASTAL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME

--Field Data Acquisition --Shoreline Mapping --Wave climates determination of the South and West Coasts --Tides and Water Level ~ a s t a l Water Circulation --Shoreline characterization --Beach and Coast improvement techniques --Development of experimental pilot projects for testing techniques

- - TERRESTRIAL WATER QUALITY PROGRAMME

--Compilation of Existing Data --Water Quantity Programme

-- MARINE AND ENVIRONMENTAL

--Nearshore water quality --Nearshore benthic marine communities --Shoreline vegetation communities --Geomorphological processes along Coastline

-- SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROGRAMME

--Financial and economical evaluation Tourism --Land Use Planning --Geographical Information Systems --Public Information

-- PILOT PROJECT

--Construction of Offshore breakwaters PRIMARY OUTPUTS:

:Institutional Arrangement for Coastal and Environmental Management :Comprehensive Coastal Zone Management Legislation :Coastal Zone Management Plan :Construction of Experimental Offshore Breakwaters :Cost Recovery Mechanisms Source: Compiled by the Authors on the basis of (a) Willms and Shier (1992) and (b) Declan et al. (1992),

Fig. 1. Major components of coastal cconservation project in Barbados. (Adapted from Refs 12 and 13.) In the Republic of the Maldives, comprised primarily of atolls, most of which are coral reefs no higher than 1 and 2 m above mean sea level (MSL), CZM has assumed a degree of urgency in the light of the overwhelming evidence that highlights this country's susceptibility to natural phenomenon. This has spurred the Maldives to initiate CZM through legislation, planning and monitoring?

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THE NEED FOR A HOLISTIC FRAMEWORK The multiple uses--fisheries, tourism development, human settlement, commerce and industrial d e v e l o p m e n t - - t o which coastal and marine areas are being subjected have not always been compatible with the concept of the sustainable development of these resources. The multiple uses and sometimes conflicting activities in coastal and marine areas underscore the need for a framework which seeks to rationalize these demands while ensuring sustainable utilization of these resources. The need for such a framework when considered within the context of SIDS which are ecologically fragile and vulnerable is a sine qua non condition. A comprehensive and holistic framework within which the coastal and marine resources can be managed sustainably, becomes even more critical for SIDS, given their limited developmental options and the special challenges these countries face in planning for and implementing sustainable development options. Any framework aimed at the sustainable development of coastal and marine areas in SIDS must take into account the special characteristics and circumstances of SIDS, particularly as they relate to these resources (Table 2). Cognizance should therefore be taken of a number of critical elements which are fundamental to the sustainable development of coastal and marine resources in SIDS. (l)

(2)

Islands should be considered as integrated resource systems; thus recognizing the interrelationships between both the terrestrial and the coastal and marine ecosystems. In the decision-making process about resources--both marine and terrestrial-deliberate efforts should be directed towards ensuring that action in one area is linked to action in another. It is becoming increasingly clear that in island ecosystems, as rightly pointed out by the US Congress, TM the value of individual ecosystems includes not only the particular resources they contain, but also their essential functions in the insular ecology. The acceptance of this a p p r o a c h - - a systems approach--which by implication must be integrated, has implications for institutional requirements, particularly project design and intersectoral coordination and planning for the m a n a g e m e n t of coastal and marine areas. The expansion o f human use o f the ocean and the impacts which are likely to result from such use (e.g. marine pollution) and their potential implications for the development o f SIDS, make it imperative that consideration be given to the E E Z as an integrated management unit. In the final analysis, however, a

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TABLE 2 Island Characteristics and their Constraints on Sustainable Development ( A d a p t e d from Refs 14-17)

Ecological/environmental characteristics • small size • narrow range of natural resources • limited and fragile resource base that allows less room for error in its utilization and management • susceptibility to natural environmental events (hurricanes, cyclones, typhoons, etc.) • little natural organic biological diversity • distance from continents and external competition fosters species endemism • generally little overall climate variability, but potential for climate upsets • tendency towards ecological instability when isolation is breached • abundance of marine biodiversity and similarly high rates and number of species due to environmental change

Geographical Characteristics • relative isolation • a completely circumferential sea frontier and E E Z , giving a high ratio of ocean space to land • extensive l a n d - s e a interface which increases the fragility of coastal ecosystems and the demand for coastal zone management • no interior hinterland or central terrestrial core area that is essentially distant from the sea such that coastal resource planning and management are essentially synonymous with national resource planning and management • dominance of the sea and its use for shipping makes these countries particularly vulnerable to hazards associated with international shipping and waste disposal • small land mass to ocean space makes island especially vulnerable to global environmental phenomena such as sea level rise

Socio-economic characteristics • extreme openness of their economies (external relations of trade, aid technology flows and investment) • more dependent on foreign trade than larger countries and having less influence on the terms in which that trade is carried on • extreme dependence on the external sector (other states, and agencies and large transnational corporations • low economic resilience in recovering from shocks • Intimate association/relation between economic development and environmental assests • a narrow range of skills and specific difficulty in matching local skills with jobs

c r i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h i c h h a s t o b e a d d r e s s e d , is t h e d e f i n i t i o n of what constitutes a viable and manageable integrated management unit--a narrow coastal strip called the coastal zone or a country's terrestrial and marine space and resources--the next frontier of integrated coastal management?

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(4)

Mark D. Griffith, John Ashe

The potential impacts of accelerated sea level rise and the devastating impacts which are likely to occur in SIDS make it necessary for such a policy framework to provide the orientation within which adjustments and adaptation strategies to global environmental problems can take place. Threats posed by regional and global environmental problems such as accelerated sea level rise will have specific and strategic policy implications for effective integrated coastal and marine management in SIDS. Having the capability to make decisions and manage coastal resources through integrated resource management planning would in and of itself constitute a strong response option towards addressing the consequences of sea level rise. ~ Ethno-knowledge must be incorporated with modern practices and technology. The mistake should not be made of discarding traditional processes as being irrelevant to modern resource management and development methods. As argued by CarewReid, 3 traditional practices can hamper properly planned modern development, and are often inadequate to deal with modern pollution problems, but many traditional practices are laws based on a rich knowledge of natural processes and have ensured sound environmental management over generations. Such wisdom must be carefully interwoven into processes aimed at facilitating the sustainable development of coastal and marine areas.

Integrated coastal management, as a concept and a tool, provides an adequate framework for the sustainable use and development of coastal and marine areas in SIDS. It provides a framework which allows for the consideration of the many diverse but sometimes conflicting uses of coastal and marine resources, as well as the anthropogenic impacts on these resources. Furthermore, it provides an adequate framework for addressing vulnerability to sea level rise. The assessment of vulnerability to sea level rise in a number of SIDS, under the guidance of the IPCC has demonstrated the importance of taking action, within the context of ICM, to reduce vulnerability.

A PLAN OF A C T I O N F O R C O A S T A L A N D M A R I N E A R E A S U N C E D ' s Agenda 21 plan of action for the sustainable development of the planet recognizes small island developing countries as a special case for both environment and development. Chapter 17, Section G, of Agenda 21 notes that SIDS and islands supporting small communities

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are ecologically fragile and vulnerable; their small size and limited resources; their geographic dispersion and isolation from markets place them at a disadvantage economically and limit economies of scale; and that for SIDS the ocean and coastal environment is of strategic importance and constitutes a valuable development resource. Agenda 21 further notes that because the development options of SIDSs are limited, there are special challenges to planning for and implementing sustainable development, and that SIDS will be constrained in meeting the challenges without the cooperation and assistance of the international community in the development of plan and programmes, including response strategies aimed at 'integrating environmental, social and economic factors in maintaining cultural and biological diversity and conserving endangered species and critical habitats on both land and sea'. However, any plan or program to support the sustainable development of marine and coastal resources in small island developing States must include effective integrated management that allows for increased economic growth. Therefore, such a plan and/or programme will require the assistance of the international community and must be based on the following principles: (1) mutual technical assistance and adequate financial resources; (2) strengthening the environmental policy and legislative framework for coastal and marine resources protection and exploitation; (3) encouraging integrated resource management; (4) strengthening endogenous institutions; (5) developing standardization of approaches and methodologies; (6) encouraging policy-oriented research and exchange of relevant information; (7) increasing technology transfer; (8) development of human resources; (9) joint management of transboundary resources; and (10) participation of relevant NGOs, in particular, those from small island developing countries. The First Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States to be convened in Barbados in April/May 1994 provides SIDS with the opportunity to further articulate and develop their case for special consideration as they strive to achieve sustainable development. The objectives of the Conference as contained in the UN General Assembly Resolution 47/189 are as follows: ( 1 ) to adopt plans and programmes to support the sustainable development of SIDS and the utilization of their marine and

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Mark D. Griffith, John Ashe

I Earth Summit Agenda 21 ] UN General Assembly Res / 47/189 Organizational Session

Regional Technical Meetings

L ICaribbean / Atlan<

~cific / Asia~

L_

__

I

IPreparatoryCommittee I i,

]GLOBALCONFERENCEI Fig. 2. Organizational structure for global conference.

(2)

coastal resources, which includes meeting essential human needs, maintaining biodiversity and improving the quality of life for island people; and to adopt measures that will enable SIDS to cope effectively and creatively and in a sustainable manner with environmental changes and to mitigate the impacts on and reduce the threats posed to marine and coastal waters. PLAN OFACTION FORSlDS Means of implementation

~

Responsibility

/

~sland~,~

Fig. 3.

developing

\

Outcome of global conference.

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The organization structure of the global conference (Fig. 2) has been so designed to ensure m a x i m u m input by SIDS themselves. In this regard, the convening of Regional Technical Meetings, one for the Caribbean and Atlantic states and the other for the Pacific and Asia States are of great importance in ensuring that SIDS perspective influences the preparatory process for the Conference. It is anticipated that the major output of the conference will be a Plan of Action for SIDS (Fig. 3) outlining the priority areas for sustainable development, the responsibility of SIDS, the international community and regional and international organizations and the means of implementation.

REFERENCES 1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change/Response Strategies Working Group, Global Climate Change and the Challenge of the Sea, Report of the Coastal Zone Management Group. Supporting document for the IPCC-Updata Report 1992. 2. Knecht, W. R., Cicin-Sain, B. & Perez Nieto, H., Summary of Workshop on Integrated Coastal Management and Sea Level Rise, Caracas, Venezuela, 1992. 3. Carew-Reid, J., Environment, aid and Regionalism in the South Pacific (Pacific Research Monograph No. 22). National Centre for Development Studies, The Australian National University, Australia, 1989. 4. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, SPREP Concept Document: Integrated Coastal Zone Management in the South Pacific. Proposed Regional Project for ICZ Methodology for Small Islands Priority Area ICZM Planning Coastal Hazard and Sea Level Rise and Priority ICZM Programme Development (unpublished), 1992. 5. Getz, M. & Henrichsen D., A new South Pacific. Ambio, 13 (5-6) (1984) 291-4. 6. Dolman, A., The Potential contribution of marine resources to sustainable development in small island developing countries. In Sustainable Development and Environmental Management of Small Islands: Man and the Biosphere Series, ed. W. Belier, P.d. Ayala & P. Hein. The Parthenon Publishing Group, Park Ridge, NJ, USA, 1990, pp. 87-102. 7. Hein, P., Between Aldabra and Nauru. In Sustainable Development and Environmental Management of Small Islands: Man and the Biosphere Series, (Vol. 5), ed. W. Belier, P.d. Ayala & P. Hein. The Parthenon Publishing Group, Park Ridge, NJ, USA, 1990, pp. 87-102. 8. Underwood, P., The marine environment and ocean development in the Eastern Caribbean. In A New Law of the Sea for the Caribbean. An Examination of Marine Law and Policy Issues in the Lesser Antilles, ed. E. Gold (Lecture Notes on Coastal and Estuarine Studies, 27). SpringerVerlag, New York, USA, (1988) pp. 112-42. 9. The Island Resources Foundation, Country Environmental Profile of St. Lucia. Prepared under the Aegis of the Caribbean Conservation Association on behalf of the Government of St. Lucia with technical support of

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Mark D. Griffith, John Ashe the Island Resources Foundation and the National Research and Development Foundation of St. Lucia, 1991. The Island Resources Foundation, Country Environmental Profile of St. Kitts and Nevis. Prepared under the Aegis of the Caribbean Conservation Association on behalf of the Government of St. Kitts and Nevis with technical support of the Island Resources Foundation and the St. Christopher Heritage Society and the Nevis Historical and Conservation Society, 1991. The Island Resources Foundation, Country Environmental Profile, Antigua and Barbuda. Prepared under the Aegis of the Caribbean Conservation Association on behalf of the Government of Antigua and Barbuda with technical support of the Island Resources Foundation and the Environmental Awareness Group, 1991. Willms and Shier in association with Sedley Associates Inc., Churchill, Talbot Ltd, David Lashley and Partners Inc., Richard Gill Associates Ltd, Carnegie, A. R. & Anderson, W., Institutional Strengthening Project; Final Report-Stage I. Coastal Conservation Unit, Ministry of Labour, Consumer Affairs and the Environment, Government of Barbados, 1992. Delcan International Corp. in association with Sandwell, PKF and Griffith, G., Feasibility Studies on Coastal Conservation. First Mid-Term Comprehensive Report and Progress Reporet #3. Government of Barbados, Ministry of Labour, Consumer Affairs and the Environment, Coastal Conservation Project Unit (unpublished), 1992. Towle, E., The Island Microcosm. Prepared for the US Park Service under Contract to US Agency for International Development, 1983. Griffith, M. D. & Inniss, V., Environmental Diplomacy: An Effective tool for Small Island States to Define a More Dynamic Role in International Environment-Development Negotiations. Bulletin of Eastern Caribbean Affairs (Vol. 17 Nos 1 & 2). Institute of Social and Economic Research (Eastern Caribbean) U.W.I. Cave Hill Campus, Barbados, 1992. UN General Assembly, Development and International Economic Cooperation: Trade and Development. Specific problems and needs of island developing countries. Report of the Secretary-General; A/47/414, 1992. UN General Assembly, Convening of a Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on the Report of the Second Committee (A/47/179), A/RES/47/189, 1993. US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Integrated Renewable Resources Management for U.S. Insular Areas, OTA-F-325 (Washington, D.C. Government Printing Office), 1987.