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Sustainable development of Latin American and the Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystems
Author’s Accepted Manuscript Sustainable development of latin american and the caribbean large marine ecosystems Kenneth Sherman, Norma Patricia Muñoz Sevilla, Porfirio Álvarez Torres, Betsy Peterson www.elsevier.com/locate/envdev
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S2211-4645(17)30081-7 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2017.04.001 ENVDEV345
To appear in: Environmental Development Cite this article as: Kenneth Sherman, Norma Patricia Muñoz Sevilla, Porfirio Álvarez Torres and Betsy Peterson, Sustainable development of latin american and the caribbean large marine ecosystems, Environmental Development, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2017.04.001 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting galley proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
Sustainable Development of Latin American and the Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystems Kenneth Shermana, Norma Patricia Muñoz Sevillab, Porfirio Álvarez Torresc, Betsy Petersona a
NOAA Large Marine Ecosystems Program, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service Laboratory, Narragansett, RI, USA b
Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigaciones y Estudios sobre Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México c
Consorcio de Instituciones de Investigación Marina del Golfo de México y el Caribe (CiiMAR-GoMC), México
Abstract This thematic issue on Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) focuses attention on a major geographic area of the world, where the goods and services of 10 LMEs are serving the needs of a population of over 500 million people inhabiting the region. The stressors affecting the sustainable development of the LAC-LMEs are negatively impacting the economies of the bordering countries from overfishing, pollution, nutrient overenrichment, habitat degradation, biodiversity loss and climate change. The papers presented in this issue represent a cross-section of assessment studies underway by marine scientists, policy makers and resource managers in the region in a movement to introduce ecosystem based management (EBM) practices for stressed LMEs. This movement is supported in part by an independent international financial entity, the Global Environment Facility (GEF), which exists to help meet the objectives of the international environmental conventions and agreements. The movement has been organized to advance a United Nations effort to assist economically developing nations in the LAC region and in other regions around the globe towards sustainable development of the oceans.
Keywords: Large Marine Ecosystems, ecosystem based management (EBM), sustainable development, modular assessments
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1. The Large Marine Ecosystems Approach to Ecosystems Based Management and Sustainable Development of the Oceans Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) are relatively large areas of coastal ocean space of 200,000 km² or greater delineated on ecological criteria – bathymetry, hydrography, productivity and trophic linkages (Sherman and Alexander 1986). Their ecologically defined boundaries generally transcend national political boundaries and encompass coastal ocean areas of two or more countries thereby fostering international cooperation among countries working towards implementation of ecosystem based management (EBM) of coastal ocean goods and services (Fig. 1). The LMEs’ coastal ocean domains annually produce 80 percent of the world’s marine fisheries catch (Pauly and Lamm 2016) and contribute, in multisectoral goods and services, an estimated $12.6 trillion annually to the global economy (Costanza et al. 1997). They serve as global centers for socioeconomic development of the oceans including marine sectors sustaining fisheries, tourism, shipping, mining and energy production. The socioeconomic benefits of LMEs across the globe and in Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries, can be further developed and sustained under governance frameworks that advance ecosystem based management practices (Sherman 2014).
Fig. 1. The 66 large marine ecosystems of the world (www.lme.noaa.gov/).
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The LME approach to the assessment and management of coastal ocean marine resources is multidisciplinary and multisectoral, framed around the need to link natural sciences with social sciences as part of a global movement towards sustaining the world’s LMEs (Sherman et al. 2005) and the United Nations’ Millennium Goal 14 for sustainable development of the oceans (www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/oceans/). The global EBM movement was energized by the commitment to sustaining the ocean’s health and resilience made by world leaders during three global environment summits convened at 10-year intervals beginning with the 1992 United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED 1992), followed by the World Summit on Sustainable Development convened in 2002 (WSSD 2002), and 10 years later in 2012 by the UNCED Rio +20 Summit (UNCED 2012). The important statements from these summits for supporting sustainable development of the oceans are listed in Table 1. Most pertinent to this LAC issue on LMEs is the commitment made by world leaders at Rio +20 in 2012 to …”protect and restore the health, productivity and resilience of oceans and marine ecosystems and to maintain their biodiversity, enabling their conservation and sustainable use for present and future generations” (Table 1). Table 1 Agreed-upon goals for sustainable development of the oceans from
three global environmental summits, 1992–2012 ______________________________________________________________________ United Nations Conference on Environment & Development, Rio de Janerio, Brazil, 3–14 June 1992, AGENDA 21, Chapter 17, Protection of the oceans, seas, coastal areas and the protection, rational use and development of their living resources: Coastal States commit themselves to: 17.22 17.46 17.5
Prevent, reduce and control degradation of the marine environment so as to maintain and improve its life- support and productive capacities Develop and increase the potential of marine living resources to meet human nutritional needs, as well as social, economic and development goals Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment under their national jurisdiction
World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 26 August to 4 September 2002. Nations commit to: 30d
33d 32c
31a
Encourage the application by 2010 of the ecosystem approach, noting the Reykjavik Declaration on Responsible Fisheries in the Marine Ecosystem and decision V/6 of the Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity Make every effort to achieve substantial progress by the next Global Programme of Action Conference in 2006 to protect the marine environment from land-based activities Develop and facilitate the use of diverse approaches and tools, including the ecosystem approach, the elimination of destructive fishing practices, the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international law and based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012 Maintain or restore [fisheries] stocks to levels that can produce the maximum sustainable yield with the aim of achieving these goals for depleted stocks on an urgent basis and where possible not later than 2015
United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio de Janeiro, 20–22 June 2012. Paragraph 158
We therefore commit to protect and restore, the health, productivity and resilience of oceans and marine ecosystems, and to maintain their biodiversity, enabling their conservation and sustainable use for present and future generations Effectively apply an ecosystem approach and the precautionary approach in the management, in accordance with international law, of activities having an impact on the marine environment.
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The concerns expressed by world leaders at the initial UNCED Summit in 1992 led to the establishment of a financial mechanism designated as the Global Environment Facility (GEF) located within the World Bank in Washington, DC, to provide financial support to economically developing countries seeking assistance for mitigating environmental degradation in several focal areas including international transboundary waters. In 1995, the GEF included LMEs in their operational guidelines as spatial domains for advancing the concept of ecosystem based assessment and management practices to recover and sustain coastal ocean goods and services (GEF 1995). The LME approach supports the merger between natural science and social science in the application of a five module assessment and management strategy to assess and monitor changing conditions in ecosystem: (i) productivity, (ii) fish and fisheries, (iii) pollution and ecosystem health, (iv) socioeconomics and (v) governance (Sherman 1995; Duda and Sherman 2002). The modular approach provides a very broad umbrella-like framework for assessing changing LME conditions from natural science using indicators from modules (i) to (iii) and from a social science perspective from modules (iv) and (v). Examples of suites of metrics for each of the five modules are given in Figure 2.
Fig. 2. The five LME modules and suites of indicators of changing ecosystem conditions
2. LME Modular Approach Supporting Sustainable Development 2.1 Productivity Module 4
Primary productivity measured as g Cm²yˉ¹ drives the trophodynamics of the LME and can be related to the carrying capacity of the ecosystem in relation to supporting fish resources (Pauly and Christensen 1995; Christensen et al. 2009; Fogarty et al. 2016, Stock et al. 2017). Primary productivity has also been used to monitor the growing coastal eutrophication problem leading to an increase in the frequency and extent of dead zones in coastal waters within the spatial domain of LMEs around the globe (Diaz and Rosenberg 2008). Also associated with nutrient loading and increased levels of primary production are harmful algal blooms promoting the emergence of pathogens in cholera outbreaks, red tides and paralytic shellfish toxins (Epstein 2000; B. Sherman 2000). Biogeochemical constituents useful as indicators of change in LMEs include photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), water column transparency, chlorophyll a, zooplankton including biomass and species diversity, ichthyoplankton and oceanographic conditions including temperature, salinity, density, circulation and nutrient flux (O’Reilly and Sherman 2016; Sherman 2015; Sherman et al. 1998, 2009) and acidification (Oliver et al. 2012). Plankton can be measured over decadal time scales by deployment of Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) systems monthly across LMEs for ships of opportunity (Batten et al. 2003; Jossi 2003: Wiafe et al. 2016; Verheye et al. 2016) and deployment of plankton nets for zooplankton and ichthyoplankton (Sherman 2015; Koslow and Davison 2016; Wiafe et al. 2016; Verheye et al. 2016). Advanced plankton samplers can be fitted with electronic sensors for temperature, salinity, chlorophyll, nutrients, oxygen and light (Melrose et al. 2006). Application of satellite derived data coupled to appropriate algorithms will allow for visualization of LME scale sea surface temperature hydrographic fronts, chlorophyll concentrations and primary productivity estimates (Sherman et al. 2011).
2.2 Fish and Fisheries Module The goods and services of LMEs are tightly integrated in the fish and fisheries module, wherein the fish and fisheries serve the LMEs both as economic goods and vital trophodynamic services transforming primary production (g Cm²yˉ¹) from plankton to small schooling swarms of pelagic species (e.g. anchovy, sardine, herring), up the food web to mid-size bottom feeders (e.g. grouper, cod, pollock), to apex predators including sharks and marine mammals. Human interaction through overfishing can affect the structure and sustainability of the fisheries of an LME giving rise to the need for ecosystem based adapted fisheries management (Pauly et al. 1998; Frank et al. 2005; Friedland et al. 2012; Christensen et al. 2009; Fogarty et al. 2016; Bianchi et al. 2016). In addition to human interventions on fisheries sustainability, during the past three decades climate warming has been driving change in the distribution and abundance of fish populations (Sherman et al. 2009; Blanchard et al. 2012; Cheung et al. 2013; Hollowed et al. 2013).
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The fish and fisheries indicators of change within the LMEs are derived from fisheries independent trawl surveys for bottom fishes and acoustic surveys for pelagic species. Bottom surveys have been deployed for decades by NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Service (Roper 2008; TRW Systems Group, 1974). When access to large vessels is limited or unavailable, standardized sampling methods of fish populations can be deployed from small calibrated trawlers (Sherman and Laughlin 1992). Time series collection of fish catch samples provide information on species demographics, while providing biological specimens for stock identification, age and growth, fecundity and pathobiological data as well as population data for preparing stock assessments. A more detailed description of fish and fisheries indicators for applications to adaptive ecosystem based management is given in Jennings (2005), Jennings and Brander (2010) and Liu and Fogarty (2014).
2.3 Pollution and Ecosystem Health Module The pollution and ecosystem health indicators recommended for LME applications are based on an index to assess the health and benefits of the global ocean (Halpern et al. 2012, 2016). The index is based on a consideration of the analysis of LME (i) food provisioning, (ii) artisanal fishing opportunity, (iii) natural products, (iv) carbon storage, (v) coastal protection, (vi) tourism and recreation, (vii) coastal livelihoods and economies, (viii) clean water and (ix) biodiversity. Another indicator of LME health can be derived from an analysis of multiple marine ecological disturbances (B. Sherman 2000). The number and frequency of multiple marine ecological disturbances (MMEDs) can be used as an indicator of ecosystem health (B. Sherman this issue). Nutrient overenrichment of coastal ocean waters within the spatial domains of LMEs is a growing problem exacerbating pollution and ecosystem health. Total dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) loads to LMEs has been determined by Seitzinger et al. (2008). Included in the assessment were natural biological N₂ fixation, agricultural N₂ fixation, fertilizer, manure, atmospheric deposition and sewage. Export of nitrogen to LMEs is predicted to increase three times the 1990 baseline by 2050 (Seitzinger and Harrison 2008; Lee et al. 2016). In the absence of substantial effort to control the source of excessive nitrogen levels from human activity, serious water quality degradation is predicted for LMEs globally, with greatest increases in eastern and southern Asia by 2050 (Seitzinger and Kroeze 1998; Lee et al. 2016). With regard to ecosystem health, the European Union defines a healthy ecosystem as the condition of a system that is self-maintaining, vigorous, resilient and with the capacity to sustain services to humans (Tett et al. 2013).
2.4 Socioeconomics Module
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The socioeconomic module emphasizes the practical application of scientific findings to managing LMEs along with the integration of social and economic indicators and analyses to assure that management measures are cost effective. Economists and policy analysts work closely with ecologists and other scientists to quantify and evaluate management options that are scientifically credible and economically practical and sustainable with regard to LME goods and services. In order to respond and manage adaptively to changing ecological conditions, socioeconomic considerations must be closely integrated with science based assessments (Sutinen et al. 2005; Tallis et al. 2008; Sumaila 2016). An initial step toward comparative socioeconomic conditions among LMEs was made by Hoagland and Jin (2006). Their characterization of socioeconomic condition included metrics from fish landings, aquaculture production, ship building, shipping traffic, merchant fleet size, oil production, oil rig counts and tourism.
2.5 Governance Module The governance module provides a consensus framework for nations committed to developing and practicing EBM through application of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) and Strategic Action Programme (SAP) required by the GEF from developing countries seeking GEF financial support. The TDA and SAP process when applied to the goods and services of the spatial domain of an LME is legally acceptable under the terms of the UN Conference on Law of the Sea (Belsky 1986, 1989, 1992; Somers 1998; Wang 2004). The ecosystem based governance perspective of LMEs has precedence in the implementation of the Commission for the Convention of Antarctic Living Marine Resources (Scully et al. 1986), the Great Barrier Reef Authority (Kelleher 1993) and with the governance mechanism developed specifically by the Guinea Current Interim Commission (Honey and Elvin 2013) and the Benguela Current LME Commission and Convention (Hamukuaya et al. 2016; Neto et al. 2016). The integrative process for advancing the TDA and SAP application to moving the data and analysis of the five-module assessment framework forward to support overall ecosystem based management practice can be found in the results of Carlisle (2014) and Duda (2016). Chen and Ganapin (2016) and Debels et al. (this issue) describe a governance approach for the Caribbean Sea LME, Vousden (2016) for the Agulhas and Somali Currents LMEs, Abe et al. (2016) for the Guinea Current LME and Hamukuaya et al. (2016) and Neto et al. (2016) for the Benguela Current LME. Sustainability of fisheries in the Barents Sea LME is attributed to the long standing ecosystems based approach of Norway and the Russian Federation (Grønnevet 2016).
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3. The LME Approach in Latin America and the Caribbean At the present time, world leaders are in agreement on the need for improving the condition of marine ecosystems around the globe. They have committed to the statement at Rio +20 to protect and restore the health, productivity and resilience of oceans and marine ecosystems (Table 1). This commitment serves as a challenging goal for linking the applications of natural science and social science to sustain ocean goods and services for the seven billion people inhabiting the planet. For Latin America and the Caribbean region of the world, 525 million people benefit from the resources of the 10 LMEs located along the coasts of their countries including the Gulf of Mexico LME, Caribbean Sea LME, North Brazil Shelf LME, East Brazil Shelf LME, South Brazil Shelf LME, Patagonian Shelf LME, Humboldt Current LME, Pacific Central American Coastal LME, Gulf of California LME and the California Current LME. The movement in Latin America and the Caribbean towards ecosystem based assessment and management of LMEs is underway and assisted by the GEF. The United States and Mexico are entering the second five-year phase of their joint GEF supported project for advancing EBM for the goods and services of the Gulf of Mexico LME (Álvarez Torres et al. this issue; Zaldívar-Jiménez et al. this issue). The project has catalyzed GEF financial support to Mexico and in-kind scientific and technical support (S&T) from the U.S. The U.S. is also providing S&T support to a second five-year phase of the Caribbean Sea and North Brazil Shelf LMEs project financed by the GEF to introduce EBM for recovering and sustaining the goods and services of both LMEs. The United Nations Development Programme is the UN agency serving as the executing agency for this project being conducted jointly by 26 countries and 18 overseas territories (Debels et al. this issue). Along the western coast of South America, Chile and Peru are joined in the second five-year phase of an EBM organized Humboldt Current LME project assisted with financial support of the GEF. A description of the EBM assessment and management actions leading towards sustainable development of the Humboldt Current LME is given by Gutiérrez et al. (this issue). The U.S. is supporting the assessment and management of the California Current LME from an ecosystem perspective as one of the 11 LMEs located around the coasts of the U.S. (Executive Order 2010), (Fautin 2010; Schwing 2010; Barth et al. 2007; Coleman 2008). The Mexican federal and state governments are engaged in assessment and management studies of the Gulf of California that can contribute to EBM practice for this LME (Azuz-Adeath this issue; Arreguín-Sánchez this issue). The North Brazil Shelf LME in relation to EBM is examined in a policy paper presented by Debels et al. (this issue). Missing from the present issue are assessments of the Patagonian Shelf and the East Brazil Shelf and South Brazil Shelf LMEs. Published reference papers to these 8
LMEs are available from several journals. Ecological conditions of the three Brazilian Shelf LMEs are described in Freire et al. (2008), Freire and Pauly (2010), Schiavetti et al. (2013), Santos and Schiavetti (2014a,b) and Trindade-Santos and Freire (2015). Conditions of the fisheries of the Patagonian shelf from an LME perspective are given by Alemany et al. (2009, 2016). A “Commentary” paper on all 10 of the LAC-LMEs is given in the present issue (Muñoz Sevilla and Le Bail this issue).
4. Outlook for Advancing Sustainable Development of LMEs The outlook for additional movement towards sustainable development of the world’s 66 LMEs including the 10 LMEs of the LAC area is good. During the 21st Conference of the Parties to the UN Climate Change Convention convened in Paris in 2015 (COP 21), the GEF distributed a report entitled, “From Coast to Coast: Celebrating 20 Years of Transboundary Management of Our Shared Oceans” wherein the GEF stated … “that today the LME approach is the cornerstone of the GEF strategy for ocean and coastal conservation and the GEF is the leading funding source for transboundary water systems” (GEF 2015). In addition, the United Nations Development Programme distributed to COP 21 participants a report entitled, “International Waters – Delivering Results.” Included is a report on the Latin American LME projects for which UNDP serves as the UN representative for overseeing LME project planning and implementation (UNDP 2016). For the next decade, one of the important pathways toward sustainable development of the oceans is through the application of the LME approach for assessing, managing and sustaining coastal ocean goods and services. One of the outcomes of the COP 21 was the agreement of the Parties to establish a funding source (the Green Fund) to support developing nations in mitigating the effects of climate change. The GEF is expected to continue to support countries committed to practicing EBM for shared LME resources. Since 1995, the GEF has catalyzed $3.15 billion in financial support to 110 developing countries whose governments are committed to advancing EBM practice for sustainable development of LME goods and services (Sherman 2014). An additional $2.86 billion is in the GEF pipeline for its sixth four-year financial replenishment period (2014 to 2018) to support projects carrying forward EBM practices within the spatial domain of LMEs (Bosch 2015). The pathway has been prepared for expanded and accelerated opportunities for economically developing countries bordering LAC-LMEs to continue the forward global movement towards sustainable development of LMEs at risk from human and environmental stressors. Continuing support for the LME assessment and management movement in Latin America is provided by the United Nations Development Programme (Troya this issue) and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (Susan this issue). Authors of the papers presented in 9
this issue are representative of the growing number of marine experts in Latin America and the Caribbean region of the world, who through their scientific efforts are already on the sustainable development pathway. Their contributions to LME research and assessment results and ecosystems based management frameworks are advancing countries towards increasing socioeconomic benefits of healthy and resilient Latin American and Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystems.
Acknowledgements We thank the Editor-in-Chief Dr. Eleanor Milne and the Elsevier staff of Environmental Development for allowing us the opportunity to bring to the readership results of LME activities underway to redress the environmental and human stressors on the goods and services of the Ocean Commons. The guest editors are indebted for the willingness of our Latin American and Caribbean colleagues to take time from their busy schedules to prepare the expert syntheses and reviews that serve to move us forward towards ecosystem based assessment and management of 10 critically important LMEs located along the coasts of the Caribbean Sea, Central America and South America. We are pleased to acknowledge the indirect and financial support of the Instituto Politécnico Nacional- CIIEMAD and the Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco and its Consorcio de Instituciones de Investigación Marina del Golfo de México y el Caribe. This LME theme issue would not have been possible without the capable cooperation of many people who gave unselfishly of their time and effort. We are especially indebted to Banupria Mahesh, Elsevier India, for tirelessly working with us to master the intricacies of the Elsevier Science EVISE system and for her superb technical support provided in moving the peer review and technical editing process forward. The guest editors express their appreciation to the President and Executive Committee of SCOPE for their support in bringing this LME theme issue forward.
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PII: DOI: Reference:
S2211-4645(17)30081-7 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2017.04.001 ENVDEV345
To appear in: Environmental Development Cite this article as: Kenneth Sherman, Norma Patricia Muñoz Sevilla, Porfirio Álvarez Torres and Betsy Peterson, Sustainable development of latin american and the caribbean large marine ecosystems, Environmental Development, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2017.04.001 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting galley proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
Sustainable Development of Latin American and the Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystems Kenneth Shermana, Norma Patricia Muñoz Sevillab, Porfirio Álvarez Torresc, Betsy Petersona a
NOAA Large Marine Ecosystems Program, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service Laboratory, Narragansett, RI, USA b
Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigaciones y Estudios sobre Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México c
Consorcio de Instituciones de Investigación Marina del Golfo de México y el Caribe (CiiMAR-GoMC), México
Abstract This thematic issue on Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) focuses attention on a major geographic area of the world, where the goods and services of 10 LMEs are serving the needs of a population of over 500 million people inhabiting the region. The stressors affecting the sustainable development of the LAC-LMEs are negatively impacting the economies of the bordering countries from overfishing, pollution, nutrient overenrichment, habitat degradation, biodiversity loss and climate change. The papers presented in this issue represent a cross-section of assessment studies underway by marine scientists, policy makers and resource managers in the region in a movement to introduce ecosystem based management (EBM) practices for stressed LMEs. This movement is supported in part by an independent international financial entity, the Global Environment Facility (GEF), which exists to help meet the objectives of the international environmental conventions and agreements. The movement has been organized to advance a United Nations effort to assist economically developing nations in the LAC region and in other regions around the globe towards sustainable development of the oceans.
Keywords: Large Marine Ecosystems, ecosystem based management (EBM), sustainable development, modular assessments
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1. The Large Marine Ecosystems Approach to Ecosystems Based Management and Sustainable Development of the Oceans Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) are relatively large areas of coastal ocean space of 200,000 km² or greater delineated on ecological criteria – bathymetry, hydrography, productivity and trophic linkages (Sherman and Alexander 1986). Their ecologically defined boundaries generally transcend national political boundaries and encompass coastal ocean areas of two or more countries thereby fostering international cooperation among countries working towards implementation of ecosystem based management (EBM) of coastal ocean goods and services (Fig. 1). The LMEs’ coastal ocean domains annually produce 80 percent of the world’s marine fisheries catch (Pauly and Lamm 2016) and contribute, in multisectoral goods and services, an estimated $12.6 trillion annually to the global economy (Costanza et al. 1997). They serve as global centers for socioeconomic development of the oceans including marine sectors sustaining fisheries, tourism, shipping, mining and energy production. The socioeconomic benefits of LMEs across the globe and in Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries, can be further developed and sustained under governance frameworks that advance ecosystem based management practices (Sherman 2014).
Fig. 1. The 66 large marine ecosystems of the world (www.lme.noaa.gov/).
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The LME approach to the assessment and management of coastal ocean marine resources is multidisciplinary and multisectoral, framed around the need to link natural sciences with social sciences as part of a global movement towards sustaining the world’s LMEs (Sherman et al. 2005) and the United Nations’ Millennium Goal 14 for sustainable development of the oceans (www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/oceans/). The global EBM movement was energized by the commitment to sustaining the ocean’s health and resilience made by world leaders during three global environment summits convened at 10-year intervals beginning with the 1992 United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED 1992), followed by the World Summit on Sustainable Development convened in 2002 (WSSD 2002), and 10 years later in 2012 by the UNCED Rio +20 Summit (UNCED 2012). The important statements from these summits for supporting sustainable development of the oceans are listed in Table 1. Most pertinent to this LAC issue on LMEs is the commitment made by world leaders at Rio +20 in 2012 to …”protect and restore the health, productivity and resilience of oceans and marine ecosystems and to maintain their biodiversity, enabling their conservation and sustainable use for present and future generations” (Table 1). Table 1 Agreed-upon goals for sustainable development of the oceans from
three global environmental summits, 1992–2012 ______________________________________________________________________ United Nations Conference on Environment & Development, Rio de Janerio, Brazil, 3–14 June 1992, AGENDA 21, Chapter 17, Protection of the oceans, seas, coastal areas and the protection, rational use and development of their living resources: Coastal States commit themselves to: 17.22 17.46 17.5
Prevent, reduce and control degradation of the marine environment so as to maintain and improve its life- support and productive capacities Develop and increase the potential of marine living resources to meet human nutritional needs, as well as social, economic and development goals Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment under their national jurisdiction
World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 26 August to 4 September 2002. Nations commit to: 30d
33d 32c
31a
Encourage the application by 2010 of the ecosystem approach, noting the Reykjavik Declaration on Responsible Fisheries in the Marine Ecosystem and decision V/6 of the Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity Make every effort to achieve substantial progress by the next Global Programme of Action Conference in 2006 to protect the marine environment from land-based activities Develop and facilitate the use of diverse approaches and tools, including the ecosystem approach, the elimination of destructive fishing practices, the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international law and based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012 Maintain or restore [fisheries] stocks to levels that can produce the maximum sustainable yield with the aim of achieving these goals for depleted stocks on an urgent basis and where possible not later than 2015
United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio de Janeiro, 20–22 June 2012. Paragraph 158
We therefore commit to protect and restore, the health, productivity and resilience of oceans and marine ecosystems, and to maintain their biodiversity, enabling their conservation and sustainable use for present and future generations Effectively apply an ecosystem approach and the precautionary approach in the management, in accordance with international law, of activities having an impact on the marine environment.
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The concerns expressed by world leaders at the initial UNCED Summit in 1992 led to the establishment of a financial mechanism designated as the Global Environment Facility (GEF) located within the World Bank in Washington, DC, to provide financial support to economically developing countries seeking assistance for mitigating environmental degradation in several focal areas including international transboundary waters. In 1995, the GEF included LMEs in their operational guidelines as spatial domains for advancing the concept of ecosystem based assessment and management practices to recover and sustain coastal ocean goods and services (GEF 1995). The LME approach supports the merger between natural science and social science in the application of a five module assessment and management strategy to assess and monitor changing conditions in ecosystem: (i) productivity, (ii) fish and fisheries, (iii) pollution and ecosystem health, (iv) socioeconomics and (v) governance (Sherman 1995; Duda and Sherman 2002). The modular approach provides a very broad umbrella-like framework for assessing changing LME conditions from natural science using indicators from modules (i) to (iii) and from a social science perspective from modules (iv) and (v). Examples of suites of metrics for each of the five modules are given in Figure 2.
Fig. 2. The five LME modules and suites of indicators of changing ecosystem conditions
2. LME Modular Approach Supporting Sustainable Development 2.1 Productivity Module 4
Primary productivity measured as g Cm²yˉ¹ drives the trophodynamics of the LME and can be related to the carrying capacity of the ecosystem in relation to supporting fish resources (Pauly and Christensen 1995; Christensen et al. 2009; Fogarty et al. 2016, Stock et al. 2017). Primary productivity has also been used to monitor the growing coastal eutrophication problem leading to an increase in the frequency and extent of dead zones in coastal waters within the spatial domain of LMEs around the globe (Diaz and Rosenberg 2008). Also associated with nutrient loading and increased levels of primary production are harmful algal blooms promoting the emergence of pathogens in cholera outbreaks, red tides and paralytic shellfish toxins (Epstein 2000; B. Sherman 2000). Biogeochemical constituents useful as indicators of change in LMEs include photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), water column transparency, chlorophyll a, zooplankton including biomass and species diversity, ichthyoplankton and oceanographic conditions including temperature, salinity, density, circulation and nutrient flux (O’Reilly and Sherman 2016; Sherman 2015; Sherman et al. 1998, 2009) and acidification (Oliver et al. 2012). Plankton can be measured over decadal time scales by deployment of Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) systems monthly across LMEs for ships of opportunity (Batten et al. 2003; Jossi 2003: Wiafe et al. 2016; Verheye et al. 2016) and deployment of plankton nets for zooplankton and ichthyoplankton (Sherman 2015; Koslow and Davison 2016; Wiafe et al. 2016; Verheye et al. 2016). Advanced plankton samplers can be fitted with electronic sensors for temperature, salinity, chlorophyll, nutrients, oxygen and light (Melrose et al. 2006). Application of satellite derived data coupled to appropriate algorithms will allow for visualization of LME scale sea surface temperature hydrographic fronts, chlorophyll concentrations and primary productivity estimates (Sherman et al. 2011).
2.2 Fish and Fisheries Module The goods and services of LMEs are tightly integrated in the fish and fisheries module, wherein the fish and fisheries serve the LMEs both as economic goods and vital trophodynamic services transforming primary production (g Cm²yˉ¹) from plankton to small schooling swarms of pelagic species (e.g. anchovy, sardine, herring), up the food web to mid-size bottom feeders (e.g. grouper, cod, pollock), to apex predators including sharks and marine mammals. Human interaction through overfishing can affect the structure and sustainability of the fisheries of an LME giving rise to the need for ecosystem based adapted fisheries management (Pauly et al. 1998; Frank et al. 2005; Friedland et al. 2012; Christensen et al. 2009; Fogarty et al. 2016; Bianchi et al. 2016). In addition to human interventions on fisheries sustainability, during the past three decades climate warming has been driving change in the distribution and abundance of fish populations (Sherman et al. 2009; Blanchard et al. 2012; Cheung et al. 2013; Hollowed et al. 2013).
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The fish and fisheries indicators of change within the LMEs are derived from fisheries independent trawl surveys for bottom fishes and acoustic surveys for pelagic species. Bottom surveys have been deployed for decades by NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Service (Roper 2008; TRW Systems Group, 1974). When access to large vessels is limited or unavailable, standardized sampling methods of fish populations can be deployed from small calibrated trawlers (Sherman and Laughlin 1992). Time series collection of fish catch samples provide information on species demographics, while providing biological specimens for stock identification, age and growth, fecundity and pathobiological data as well as population data for preparing stock assessments. A more detailed description of fish and fisheries indicators for applications to adaptive ecosystem based management is given in Jennings (2005), Jennings and Brander (2010) and Liu and Fogarty (2014).
2.3 Pollution and Ecosystem Health Module The pollution and ecosystem health indicators recommended for LME applications are based on an index to assess the health and benefits of the global ocean (Halpern et al. 2012, 2016). The index is based on a consideration of the analysis of LME (i) food provisioning, (ii) artisanal fishing opportunity, (iii) natural products, (iv) carbon storage, (v) coastal protection, (vi) tourism and recreation, (vii) coastal livelihoods and economies, (viii) clean water and (ix) biodiversity. Another indicator of LME health can be derived from an analysis of multiple marine ecological disturbances (B. Sherman 2000). The number and frequency of multiple marine ecological disturbances (MMEDs) can be used as an indicator of ecosystem health (B. Sherman this issue). Nutrient overenrichment of coastal ocean waters within the spatial domains of LMEs is a growing problem exacerbating pollution and ecosystem health. Total dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) loads to LMEs has been determined by Seitzinger et al. (2008). Included in the assessment were natural biological N₂ fixation, agricultural N₂ fixation, fertilizer, manure, atmospheric deposition and sewage. Export of nitrogen to LMEs is predicted to increase three times the 1990 baseline by 2050 (Seitzinger and Harrison 2008; Lee et al. 2016). In the absence of substantial effort to control the source of excessive nitrogen levels from human activity, serious water quality degradation is predicted for LMEs globally, with greatest increases in eastern and southern Asia by 2050 (Seitzinger and Kroeze 1998; Lee et al. 2016). With regard to ecosystem health, the European Union defines a healthy ecosystem as the condition of a system that is self-maintaining, vigorous, resilient and with the capacity to sustain services to humans (Tett et al. 2013).
2.4 Socioeconomics Module
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The socioeconomic module emphasizes the practical application of scientific findings to managing LMEs along with the integration of social and economic indicators and analyses to assure that management measures are cost effective. Economists and policy analysts work closely with ecologists and other scientists to quantify and evaluate management options that are scientifically credible and economically practical and sustainable with regard to LME goods and services. In order to respond and manage adaptively to changing ecological conditions, socioeconomic considerations must be closely integrated with science based assessments (Sutinen et al. 2005; Tallis et al. 2008; Sumaila 2016). An initial step toward comparative socioeconomic conditions among LMEs was made by Hoagland and Jin (2006). Their characterization of socioeconomic condition included metrics from fish landings, aquaculture production, ship building, shipping traffic, merchant fleet size, oil production, oil rig counts and tourism.
2.5 Governance Module The governance module provides a consensus framework for nations committed to developing and practicing EBM through application of the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) and Strategic Action Programme (SAP) required by the GEF from developing countries seeking GEF financial support. The TDA and SAP process when applied to the goods and services of the spatial domain of an LME is legally acceptable under the terms of the UN Conference on Law of the Sea (Belsky 1986, 1989, 1992; Somers 1998; Wang 2004). The ecosystem based governance perspective of LMEs has precedence in the implementation of the Commission for the Convention of Antarctic Living Marine Resources (Scully et al. 1986), the Great Barrier Reef Authority (Kelleher 1993) and with the governance mechanism developed specifically by the Guinea Current Interim Commission (Honey and Elvin 2013) and the Benguela Current LME Commission and Convention (Hamukuaya et al. 2016; Neto et al. 2016). The integrative process for advancing the TDA and SAP application to moving the data and analysis of the five-module assessment framework forward to support overall ecosystem based management practice can be found in the results of Carlisle (2014) and Duda (2016). Chen and Ganapin (2016) and Debels et al. (this issue) describe a governance approach for the Caribbean Sea LME, Vousden (2016) for the Agulhas and Somali Currents LMEs, Abe et al. (2016) for the Guinea Current LME and Hamukuaya et al. (2016) and Neto et al. (2016) for the Benguela Current LME. Sustainability of fisheries in the Barents Sea LME is attributed to the long standing ecosystems based approach of Norway and the Russian Federation (Grønnevet 2016).
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3. The LME Approach in Latin America and the Caribbean At the present time, world leaders are in agreement on the need for improving the condition of marine ecosystems around the globe. They have committed to the statement at Rio +20 to protect and restore the health, productivity and resilience of oceans and marine ecosystems (Table 1). This commitment serves as a challenging goal for linking the applications of natural science and social science to sustain ocean goods and services for the seven billion people inhabiting the planet. For Latin America and the Caribbean region of the world, 525 million people benefit from the resources of the 10 LMEs located along the coasts of their countries including the Gulf of Mexico LME, Caribbean Sea LME, North Brazil Shelf LME, East Brazil Shelf LME, South Brazil Shelf LME, Patagonian Shelf LME, Humboldt Current LME, Pacific Central American Coastal LME, Gulf of California LME and the California Current LME. The movement in Latin America and the Caribbean towards ecosystem based assessment and management of LMEs is underway and assisted by the GEF. The United States and Mexico are entering the second five-year phase of their joint GEF supported project for advancing EBM for the goods and services of the Gulf of Mexico LME (Álvarez Torres et al. this issue; Zaldívar-Jiménez et al. this issue). The project has catalyzed GEF financial support to Mexico and in-kind scientific and technical support (S&T) from the U.S. The U.S. is also providing S&T support to a second five-year phase of the Caribbean Sea and North Brazil Shelf LMEs project financed by the GEF to introduce EBM for recovering and sustaining the goods and services of both LMEs. The United Nations Development Programme is the UN agency serving as the executing agency for this project being conducted jointly by 26 countries and 18 overseas territories (Debels et al. this issue). Along the western coast of South America, Chile and Peru are joined in the second five-year phase of an EBM organized Humboldt Current LME project assisted with financial support of the GEF. A description of the EBM assessment and management actions leading towards sustainable development of the Humboldt Current LME is given by Gutiérrez et al. (this issue). The U.S. is supporting the assessment and management of the California Current LME from an ecosystem perspective as one of the 11 LMEs located around the coasts of the U.S. (Executive Order 2010), (Fautin 2010; Schwing 2010; Barth et al. 2007; Coleman 2008). The Mexican federal and state governments are engaged in assessment and management studies of the Gulf of California that can contribute to EBM practice for this LME (Azuz-Adeath this issue; Arreguín-Sánchez this issue). The North Brazil Shelf LME in relation to EBM is examined in a policy paper presented by Debels et al. (this issue). Missing from the present issue are assessments of the Patagonian Shelf and the East Brazil Shelf and South Brazil Shelf LMEs. Published reference papers to these 8
LMEs are available from several journals. Ecological conditions of the three Brazilian Shelf LMEs are described in Freire et al. (2008), Freire and Pauly (2010), Schiavetti et al. (2013), Santos and Schiavetti (2014a,b) and Trindade-Santos and Freire (2015). Conditions of the fisheries of the Patagonian shelf from an LME perspective are given by Alemany et al. (2009, 2016). A “Commentary” paper on all 10 of the LAC-LMEs is given in the present issue (Muñoz Sevilla and Le Bail this issue).
4. Outlook for Advancing Sustainable Development of LMEs The outlook for additional movement towards sustainable development of the world’s 66 LMEs including the 10 LMEs of the LAC area is good. During the 21st Conference of the Parties to the UN Climate Change Convention convened in Paris in 2015 (COP 21), the GEF distributed a report entitled, “From Coast to Coast: Celebrating 20 Years of Transboundary Management of Our Shared Oceans” wherein the GEF stated … “that today the LME approach is the cornerstone of the GEF strategy for ocean and coastal conservation and the GEF is the leading funding source for transboundary water systems” (GEF 2015). In addition, the United Nations Development Programme distributed to COP 21 participants a report entitled, “International Waters – Delivering Results.” Included is a report on the Latin American LME projects for which UNDP serves as the UN representative for overseeing LME project planning and implementation (UNDP 2016). For the next decade, one of the important pathways toward sustainable development of the oceans is through the application of the LME approach for assessing, managing and sustaining coastal ocean goods and services. One of the outcomes of the COP 21 was the agreement of the Parties to establish a funding source (the Green Fund) to support developing nations in mitigating the effects of climate change. The GEF is expected to continue to support countries committed to practicing EBM for shared LME resources. Since 1995, the GEF has catalyzed $3.15 billion in financial support to 110 developing countries whose governments are committed to advancing EBM practice for sustainable development of LME goods and services (Sherman 2014). An additional $2.86 billion is in the GEF pipeline for its sixth four-year financial replenishment period (2014 to 2018) to support projects carrying forward EBM practices within the spatial domain of LMEs (Bosch 2015). The pathway has been prepared for expanded and accelerated opportunities for economically developing countries bordering LAC-LMEs to continue the forward global movement towards sustainable development of LMEs at risk from human and environmental stressors. Continuing support for the LME assessment and management movement in Latin America is provided by the United Nations Development Programme (Troya this issue) and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (Susan this issue). Authors of the papers presented in 9
this issue are representative of the growing number of marine experts in Latin America and the Caribbean region of the world, who through their scientific efforts are already on the sustainable development pathway. Their contributions to LME research and assessment results and ecosystems based management frameworks are advancing countries towards increasing socioeconomic benefits of healthy and resilient Latin American and Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystems.
Acknowledgements We thank the Editor-in-Chief Dr. Eleanor Milne and the Elsevier staff of Environmental Development for allowing us the opportunity to bring to the readership results of LME activities underway to redress the environmental and human stressors on the goods and services of the Ocean Commons. The guest editors are indebted for the willingness of our Latin American and Caribbean colleagues to take time from their busy schedules to prepare the expert syntheses and reviews that serve to move us forward towards ecosystem based assessment and management of 10 critically important LMEs located along the coasts of the Caribbean Sea, Central America and South America. We are pleased to acknowledge the indirect and financial support of the Instituto Politécnico Nacional- CIIEMAD and the Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco and its Consorcio de Instituciones de Investigación Marina del Golfo de México y el Caribe. This LME theme issue would not have been possible without the capable cooperation of many people who gave unselfishly of their time and effort. We are especially indebted to Banupria Mahesh, Elsevier India, for tirelessly working with us to master the intricacies of the Elsevier Science EVISE system and for her superb technical support provided in moving the peer review and technical editing process forward. The guest editors express their appreciation to the President and Executive Committee of SCOPE for their support in bringing this LME theme issue forward.
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