Sustainable energy policies in Cameroon: A holistic overview

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Sustainable energy policies in Cameroon: A holistic overview ⁎

Erasmus Muha, , Sofiane Amarab, Fouzi Tabetc a b c

Pan African University, Institute of Water and Energy Sciences (including Climate Change), BP 119 Tlemcen 13000, Algeria Unité de Recherche Matériaux et Energies Renouvelables (URMER), University of Tlemcen, BP119 Tlemcen 13000, Algeria DBFZ - Deutsches Biomasseforschungszentrum gemeinnützige GmbH, Torgauer Straße 116, D-04347 Leipzig, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Energy Renewables Energy policy Renewable energy technologies Cameroon

Cameroon has an abundant reserve of energy resources, such as crude oil, natural gas, hydropower, biomass, solar, wind and geothermal energies. However, these resources are still weakly valorised. The country relies mainly on hydropower energy for electricity generation (73%) with persistent power outages throughout the country especially in the dry seasons when water levels are low. Electricity access is about 65–88% in urban areas and around 14% for rural populations. Cameroon has experienced a strong economic growth (growth rate of 5.9% in 2015), accompanied by a rapid increase in electricity demand (1455 MW in 2014). Electricity needs are expected to continue rising over the next decade to reach 5000 MW by 2020 and 6000 MW by 2030. This paper seeks to address energy issues (reliability, accessibility and security) in Cameroon and brings to light the potential and meaningful contributions of renewables in solving energy concern. In order to achieve this objective, an overview, of the energy sector (energy source, access, demand, supply and distribution) is given followed by a review of renewable energy potential, policy, benefits and barriers. In addition, this paper introduces the energy roadmap to achieve a universal access to electricity, which will pave the way for the country emergence by 2035. It is found that energy sector of Cameroon holds promising possibilities of development and diversification given the country's energy potential. With adequate policy, standards, regulations, awareness, capacity building and off-grid renewable energy investments measures, it is possible for Cameroon to meet the future energy targets and ensure meaningful development throughout the country.

1. Introduction 1.1. Country description and location Cameroon (Fig. 1) is a sub-Saharan African country, located at the Gulf of Guinea between latitude 2° and 13° N and longitude 8° and 16° E [1]. It has a surface area of 475,440 km2 [2], with a 420 km South-West maritime border along the Atlantic Ocean. Cameroon has a population of 23,739,218 inhabitants (2015) (urban 54.4% and 45.6% rural) and is the most populated country in Central Africa [2]. An estimate in 2000 shows that 48% of the population live below the poverty line and in 2015, USAID [3] reports that about 40% of Cameroonians live below the poverty line of $2/day. The population growth rate and economic (GDP) growth rate are 2.59% (2015) and 5.9% (2015), respectively. Over 60% of Cameroon's active population is employed in agriculture, representing 42% of GDP while mining and industry accounts for 22%. Cameroon is endowed with significant natural resources: oil and gas, high timber species, minerals (uranium, tin, platinum, limestone, iron), hydropower etc. and agricultural products (coffee, cotton, cocoa,

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maize, cassava, banana and oil palm) [4] and serves as a transportation hub for good moving into the Central African Republic and Chad [3]. However, the industries heavily depend on hydroenergy of about 90%. The Carbon dioxide emissions from the consumption of fossil energy in 2012 stood at 6.224 million metric tonnes [4,5]. Cameroon is generally referred to as “African in miniature” as it represents all the major climatic, geographical and vegetation characteristics typical of the African continents (deserts, coastal, mountains, rainforest and savannah regions) [6], as well as it great cultural and ethnic diversities. The climate varies within the terrain from tropical along the coast to semi-arid and hot in the North. The environmental issues prevalent in Cameroon are: water borne diseases, deforestation, overgrazing, overfishing, desertification and poaching. 1.2. Energy sector overview The energy sector of Cameroon is diverse with a vast potential of natural and resources such as timber, cobalt, nickel, uranium, tin, platinum, limestone, iron, coal, oil, natural gas and renewables. Despite

Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Muh).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.049 Received 23 October 2016; Received in revised form 12 July 2017; Accepted 26 October 2017 1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Muh, E., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.049

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Nomenclature

DNI Direct Normal Irradiation PV Photovoltaic ENEO Energy of Cameroon NGO Non-Governmental Organisation CIA Central Intelligence Agency UNIDO United Nation Industrial Development Organisation MINEPDED Ministry of Environment, Protection of Nature and Sustainable Development REN21 Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century USAID Unites States Agency for International Development

Acronyms Description GDP Growth Domestic Product kW Kilowatt kWh Kilowatt hour MW Megawatt GW Gigawatt GWh Gigawatt hour TWh Terawatt hour

Fig. 1. Geographic map of Cameroon [7].

with the residential sector on the lead with 68.7%, followed by the transport sector with 16.4% (Fig. 2b). With respect to sources of origin, 71.8% of energy consumption in 2014 came from biomass (Fig. 2c). Hydropower dominate electricity generation in Cameroon with 69%, followed by self-production 22%, with an installed capacity of 1558 MW in 2009 [12]. In 2014, total electricity generation [13] was 6922 GWh (fig. 2d) (73.2% Hydro, 12.9% gas, 12.8% oil and 1.0% biofuels) and in sectorial consumption (total 5485 GWh), industry is the highest electricity consumer with 54.9% (Fig. 2e). Apart from hydropower as the main installed capacity, 298 MW currently results from thermal power plants. The country potential to produce electricity from biomass residues is estimated at 1072 GWh [13]. Amongst the oil products, kerosene is the most widely consumed due to low access of electricity in the rural areas. It is estimated that two-third of the rural populations used kerosene for lighting and 10% of urban dwellers [14]. For more than a decade now, Cameroon has experienced a strong economic growth (growth rate of 5.9% in 2015 [2]), accompanied by a rapid increase in demand and consumption of electricity [9]. This growth in demand for electricity is expected to continue rising over the next decade as seen in the 2012–2025 demand forecast (Fig. 3.), using business as usual scenario (BAU). The supplier of electricity (ENEO), responsible for the overall electricity system management (production, transmission and distribution), is actually struggling to meet the growing demand for power but is currently incapable of satisfying all needs especially during peak periods [15]. The state however plans to increase generation capacity in the future. A number

the availability of these resources, Cameroon's economy is powered mainly by hydropower for electricity generation and petroleum products for transportations. Fossil products (paraffins) are mostly used in remote areas of the country where energy access is very low. In terms of energy consumption, the majority of energy use in the country comes from biomass and mainly traditional biomass. The under utility or exploitation of these resources is the primary reason for energy supply and access deficit in the country. 1.2.1. Energy demand and consumption Cameroon is endowed with a great potential of energy resources: oil, natural gas, bauxite (iron ores), forestry, hydropower, wind, solar, biomass and geothermal. However, these resources have not been adequately harnessed especially renewables [8]. The main source of commercial energy in Cameroon are: hydropower, coal and petroleum, with 90% of the population using biomass (wood) for cooking, heating and lighting in remote areas [9]. Electricity access is estimated to between 65–88% urban and around 14% for rural populations [5]. Cameroon is a net exporter of energy due to its oil reserves [10], with an estimated 200 million barrels (2015) of oil reserves [2], with a production rate of 24.5 million barrels per year [11]. Natural gas resources proven are estimated at 157 billion m3 with a potential of over 550 billion m3 [11]. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) 2014 energy balance of Cameroon [12], energy production was estimated at 9756 ktoe of which 50.2% came from biofuels and waste and 39.7% from oil (Fig. 2a). Energy consumption in 2014 was 6556 ktoe, 2

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Fig. 2. Energy and electricity production and consumption in Cameroon [12].

plants to increase their generation capacity by 30 MW [16]. However, lengthy delays in these plans and projects will certainly not provide rapid and lasting solutions to the current imbalance in electricity demand and supply [15]. Thus, there is a high need to explore alternative means of power generation such as renewable sources. The distribution of electricity in Cameroon is uneven despite the

of energy infrastructural projects (hydropower, thermal and renewables) has been planned for development, some currently under construction and others at the verge of completion. We have projects such as the Kribi (150 MW) thermal gas plant, Natchigal (280 MW) hydropower plant, Lom-Pangar (170 MW) dam, the menve’ele (200 MW) dam, as well as the rehabilitation of the Song-Loulou and Edéa power 3

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corrupt in the African settings, delays in effective implementations for political reasons and the setting up of special agencies to manage such processes of which powers are never given to the agency to act directly but still controlled from above. A true example of such agency is the Rural Electrification Agency in Cameroon in charge of development and implementations of rural electrification projects of diverse origins which receives instructions from the Ministry of Water and Energy Resources of Cameroon. Despite all these challenges with grid electrification, the country is still dependent on grid extensions for electrification with the inclusion of diesel generation and mini-hydro plants to improve energy access in rural electrification [20] as well as in improving energy access in urban. Most people in semi-urban and remote communities rely on Lead-acid batteries for lighting and to run their appliances and a great majority on traditional biomass and fossil products such as paraffins for cooking, heating and lighting and this has adverse effects on their health especially children and women [21] as well as causes air and environmental pollutions, forest degradations and consequently climate change and health related effects (respiratory diseases) [22]. Although off-grid renewables are intermittent with very high initial capital cost, these systems are capable of counteracting the associated problems with grid electrifications especially in Cameroon and rapidly improving the country energy access especially in rural areas where energy access is very low. The use of hybrid off-grid systems are equally encouraged to minimize the effects of intermittency of these systems on standalone basis. Also, off-grid systems have great potential benefit to the environment and the socio-economic development of the country. All these points show the potential contributions of renewables in improving energy access and security of Cameroon and the need to boast the sector in Cameroon through better policies, standards and regulations as well as the introduction of energy efficiency measures and off-grid renewable energy investments measures.

Fig. 3. Electricity demand projection for Cameroon using business as usual Scenario [9].

high hydroelectric potential. Only 20% of the population have access to the national grid [14], with no connections to neighbouring countries [9]. Mainly the urban dwellers benefit from power supply whereas the rural and isolated communities are mostly unconnected to the grid [17]. Cameroon electricity distribution is carried out in three separate supply networks or grid systems, each grid responsible for meeting its full demand requirement. These grids are: the northern interconnected grid (NIG), the southern interconnected grid (SIG) and the eastern isolated grid [8]. The Northern Interconnected Network or grid (110 kV and 90 kV structure) dispatches power from Lagdo power station to supply the three northern regions of Cameroon, the Southern Interconnected Network (225 kV) supplies the southern regions from Edéa and Song Loulou and the 30 kV low voltage autonomous (Eastern) network supplies power to the East region of Cameroon [12,14].

2. A review of the renewable energy potentials of Cameroon 1.2.2. Energy access Cameroon electrification rate is moderate despite limited access and affordability in most remote communities [18]. The country presently has an electrification rate 55% with 10 million people without access to electricity in 2013 [19]. The urban and rural electrification rate was 88% and 17% in 2016, respectively [20]. Despite this moderate access levels compared to neighbouring countries, very few rural facilities (schools, clinics, businesses etc.) are electrified and electrification is mainly through grid extensions, which are often expensive, time consuming as it involved only government initiation, development and implementation. This lengthy government process mostly involved adopting laws and policies, budgetary allocations and adoptions in parliament, tenders and contracts awarding which are most often very

Economy growth depends strongly on the availability of a reliable, consistent and secure energy supply and resources. The lack of a reliable and consistent power supply in Cameroon is among the major hindrances for investors and this has caused the country close to 2% annual loss in GDP [11,23]. Cameroon is endowed with a great potential for renewable energy: solar, wind, biomass, geothermal and hydropower. Hydropower plays a major role in Cameroon's energy sector with 75% of electricity generation. According to Lighting Africa Policy Report 2012 [24], the introduction and proper implementation of off-grid, low cost, reliable and durable lighting options (including renewables) in Cameroon will result in rapid growth in electrification rates and energy access in the rural and urban between 2010 and 2025. This is illustrated in the model growth of electricity access in Cameroon Fig. 4. Model growth of electricity access in Cameroon between 2010 and 2025 [24].

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areas without grid access. Also, there is a recent development and interest in solar street lighting for the cities of Douala and Yaoundé. Yaoundé has already installed PV lighting systems on major streets and public sites (Fig. 5b), powered by about 3000 street light panels (Fig. 5b). Other recent applications include: solar security and surveillance cameras for both street and public offices, solar phone charging for small businesses and remote applications, solar home systems for both remote and some city applications, solar powered deep freezers and air conditioning systems. Cameroon Telecommunication sector has installed solar powered surveillance cameras in Douala and Yaoundé [30] and the government security agencies are currently installing these cameras at major streets, crossroads and strategic places in the major cities of the country for security purposes. MTN Cameroon has equally installed PV systems to power their equipments where power supply is unreliable. Hindrances to these developments includes: dust coverings of solar cells in the streets, poor maintenance, no government commitment to boost the sector and no clear policy on solar technology that can encourage both local and international investors [25]. The multinational company Bolloré, in line with its vision to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in African cities and in the framework of a pilot project called Bolloré Blue Solutions, commissioned in 2013 two solar powered 30 passengers’ electric mini-buses (Blue buses) (Fig. 6a) on the campus of the University of Yaoundé 1, for the transport of students and staffs. The buses are equipped each with three 460 V batteries charged by a 200 m2 solar charging station (Fig. 6b). The batteries when fully charged are capable of powering the buses between 50–200 km. The buses can transport at least 2000 students and staffs daily [30]. In partnership with a Canadian organisation and supports from the rural community of Sabongari in the North-West Region of Cameroon [32], a solar powered mini-grid PV plant (Fig. 7a) was installed in 2011 to provide a reliable 24 h daily power to 30 homes, three small shops and a local hotel. This project enabled the villagers to have access to clean and reliable energy services instead of the unreliable kerosene lamps and diesel generators they had before. Another solar energy installation in Cameroon is a 6 kWp PV plant with 28.8 kWh battery storage system and a 5 kW inverter in Bambouti Cameroon (Fig. 7b), constructed by the group Energy for development with an alternative design using timber frame to mount the solar panels on a container [33]. Similarly, Huawei Technologies Company Cameroon Ltd. constructed a 72 kW solar power plant in Mvomeka village in the South Region of Cameroon with 293 solar panels and 93 street lights, which provides power access to 15,000 villagers [34]. This solar

between 2010 and 2025 (Fig. 4). The progress in renewable energy in Cameroon is hindered by several issues: inadequate policies, regulations and institutions; information, awareness and technical capabilities; and financial constraints due to the high initial capital investments associated with the implementation of renewable [25]. Insignificant financial resources are devoted to the development of renewable energy in Cameroon despite its vast potentials. 2.1. Solar energy potential The potential of solar energy in Cameroon is high with an average estimated solar irradiance of 5.8 kWh/day/m2 in the Northern parts of the country (42% diffused [26]) and 4.9 kWh/day/m2 for the rest of the country [5,11]. The national yearly average is about 4.2 kWh/day/m2 [22]. This potential, however, is weakly valorised despite the availability of ideal conditions throughout the country. The main reason is the lack of dedication and commitments from the government to stimulate the sector [23]. The Northern regions of Cameroon are endowed with a huge solar potential (Fig. 5a), that can be commercially exploited to help improve the electricity and energy problems in Cameroon. Seasonal and substantial potentials also exist in other part of the country that can be exploited on micro scales to enhance sustainable water supply pumping systems, food processing and conservation, agricultural and as off-grid solutions to local communities without access to the grid. Between December and March (peak of dry season), water levels in streams decreases and induces insufficient power to meet the demand. During this period, solar irradiance is at its peak [26] and if exploited, can fulfil the deficit. High solar radiation values are common between October and June, with the highest in March and least in August. Also, the annual average solar radiation intensity and sunshine in 2009 were 240 W/m2 and 3000 h respectively [26], with most part receiving an average of 8.2 h daily [27]. 2.1.1. Solar energy applications Currently, solar power is applied in distributed generation systems in Cameroon, particularly to power cellular telecommunications network. Solar thermal is used traditionally to dry agricultural products, fish, fuel wood and clothes [26,28]. About 50 PV (Photovoltaic) installations currently exist in Cameroon [14]. The country has installed energy-keep it simple and safe (e-kiss) PV mobile off-grid systems from Antaris solar ESI-Africa [29], which generate electricity on a standalone basis. This technology can supply power up to 2 kW, enough for rural

Fig. 5. (a) DNI map of Cameroon and (b) solar street light in Yaoundé [30,31].

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Fig. 6. Electric mini-bus and a solar powered charging station at Yaoundé 1 University campus [30].

the South from the North, with wind speeds between 2.8 and 4.1 m/s in towns in the North and speeds of about 1.2 – 1.8 m/s in some cities in the South such as Ebolowa [18]. Studies and applications of wind energy in Cameroon are very limited. In terms of realisations, there are some wind turbines installed in Douala, especially in hotels. There is, also, an installed wind electric pumping system in Ndoh Djutissa [25]. In terms of feasibility studies for future investment, wind energy evaluation studies to establish wind turbines in the North West region of Cameroon has been carried out by the Spanish firm Ecovalen in collaboration with the government of Cameroon, with the aim of supplying electricity for up to 20 years to this region [14]. The wind energy potential of Cameroon is not as vast as solar and very low consideration has been devoted to it so far. Most studies on wind energy potential such as [1,38–41] are concentrated in the northern regions of the country where the potential is fairly high. According to some recent studies, the coastal town of Kribi is the most probable site for offshore wind farm installation compared to Douala and Limbe, although the average wind speeds in all these towns falls below the normal cut-in speed [42]. The potential of wind energy for small scale applications (water pumping systems, water farms for livestocks and small irrigation schemes) for rural households in the far north region of Cameroon has been assessed in [41].

power station is in operation since August 2015. 2.1.2. Future investments in solar energy in Cameroon The government of Cameroon has signed Memorandum of understanding with a number of companies to develop solar electricity in the country.

• JCM's local partner (JCM Greenquest), to finance, develop, build

• •

and operate 500 MW solar PV Systems in Cameroon, as the first renewable energy Independent Power Producer. Currently, JCM is developing a 72 MW fixed axis ground mounted solar PV plant project in Mbalmayo, near Yaoundé with funding from the Dutch Development Bank and the African Development Bank [35]. Joule Africa to construct 100 MW solar power plant. Joule Africa, Bethel Industrievertretung and its local partners will work together with the Cameroon government to identify five possible sites for this project, mostly likely in the northern regions of Cameroon [36]. The project is expected to go into full commercial operation in 2017. GSC Energy (South African based), to construct 500 MW solar PV park in the northern regions of Cameroon. The project will be led by GSE Energy consortium including Austrian Sun Value, South African Tricom Structures and Conco [37].

To promote the development of solar energy systems in Cameroon, the government of Cameroon as of 2012 passed a law prohibiting the payment of value added tax (VAT) on the importation of solar equipments.

2.3. Biomass energy Cameroon has the third largest biomass potential in sub-Saharan Africa [28] with three-quarters of its territory covered by 25 million hectares of forest [25] and over 60% of the population actively involved in agriculture [2]. This biomass potential is categorized into agricultural, woody, animal sources, waste stream from timber and forest [2,25]. Most of biomass potential of Cameroon originates from agroand wood industries. Their annual capacities are summarized in Tables 1, 2, respectively. The massive dependence on biomass energy for cooking, heating and lighting particularly in the rural communities in Cameroon has led

2.2. Wind energy The Northern and Littoral regions of Cameroon have substantial potential for wind energy with wind speeds averaging 5–7 m/s and 2–4 m/s at 100 m high in most parts of the country [5,11]. There is potential of wind energy in Ngoundéré and the Moudou lake area (not yet investigated). The wind potential of Cameroon decreases towards

Fig. 7. (a) Mini grid solar plant in Sabongari [32] and (b) PV plant in Bambouti [34].

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commissioned in 2014 another biogas plant at PK10 in Douala. Both plants worth €10 million (about $13.6 million) [47]. SNV Cameroon is actively involved in the construction of domestic biogas digesters in rural communities in the Adamawa, Centre, West and North-West regions of Cameroon.

Table 1 Cameroon biomass residues from wood transformation in 2007 [6]. Sector

Companies

Annual Capacity (m3)

Simple sawmills and sawmills with driers Integrated sawmill with carpentry Roll-out factory, jib board or cutting Global

45 13 8 66

1,475,000 792,000 412,000 2,679,000

2.4. Geothermal energy Potential for geothermal energy exists in Cameroon. However, the exact capacity is unknown since no studies have been yet carried out to estimate this potential. Hot springs are found in many areas within the country such as the Ngaoundéré region, mount Cameroon region and the Manengoumba area with lake Moundou [5,10,16].

Table 2 Cameroon biomass residues from agricultural crops in 2006 [6]. Crop

Residues

Annual Capacity (m3/tons)

Rubber Cotton Robusta coffee Sugar Cane Palm oil

Timber Cotton/seed cake Chaff Bagasse/molasses Stalks/palm kernel shells

123,000 m3 147,642 tons/45,780 t 145,900 t 244,750 t/32,040 t 57,695 t/28,847 t

2.5. Hydropower Hydropower is the major source of power generation in Cameroon [25]. Cameroon has the second largest hydropower potential in subSaharan Africa (294 TWh) [43], after the Democratic Republic of Congo, with an estimated total theoretical potential of 23 GW and a production potential of 103 TWh/year [9]. Hydroelectric theoretical generation potential of Cameroon is estimated at 297 TWh with only 13,700 MW currently implemented due to numerous environmental obstacles [27]. Water variations induces regular and frequent power shortages throughout the country. The hydroelectric potential of Cameroon as of 2006 is illustrated in Table 5. The electricity production capacity of Cameroon as of 2015 was 817 MW (88% hydroelectricity and the rest from thermal sources) [25]. The major hydropower stations in the country are: Edéa (263 MW), Song Loulou (388 MW) and Lagdo (72 MW); with Edéa and Song Loulou located along the 920 km Sanaga river producing 97% of hydropower supply [27] and Lagdo in the north near Garoua. The electricity demand of Cameroon in 2014 was estimated at 1455 MW. It is forecasted to reach 5000 MW by 2020 [25,27] and 6000 MW by 2030. To meet up with this growing demand, the government planned to install additional 2500 MW between 2012 and 2020, and 298 MW from thermal sources. To increase the productive capacity of the biggest facilities and two pioneered dams in the country (Edea and Songloulou dams), these dams will be renovated to increase generation by 75 MW. Other dams such as: Lom Pangar dam (170 MW), Natchigal (280 MW), Song Dong (280 MW) and Menve’elé (200 MW); are also being constructed [27]. Cameroon also has a huge potential for small hydro (estimated at 1.115 TWh), mainly in the western and eastern regions [9,43]. However, these small hydro potentials are poorly utilized.

to massive deforestation that increase carbon dioxide emission and hence global warming [25]. Biomass energy resources are used both in residential (75% of residential energy consumption) and industrial (more than 90% of energy requirements) sectors in Cameroon [6]. Despite the country great forest reserve, the unsustainable use of this potential has led to a nationwide high deforestation rates, with an annual clearance rate of 200,000 ha/year and only 3000 ha/year as regeneration [3]. The use of palm oil for biodiesel is a viable prospect for Cameroon since 2005, with the produced biodiesel mainly used for agricultural purposes. Currently, close to 108,000 ha of land are used for palm plantations and between 2001–2006, the cultivated area was enlarged by 30,000 ha through deforestation [8,40,43]. Cameroon is currently not taking part in any commercial production of biofuels [44]. However, some isolated trials have been undertaken by some Cameroonian companies such as the Cameroon Development Corporation (CDC), SOSUCAM, SODECOTON, MAISCAM and SOCAPALM. The government together with some foreign capitals supported the industrial production of oil palm at 5000 ha/year, aiming to produce 250,000 t of oil in 2010. Cameroon target by 2020 is to produce 74 million litres of biodiesel and 77 million litres of bioethanol [44]. In order to meet this target, suitable regions and feedstock has been identified for potential biodiesel production (Table 3) [41]. A great potential for small and medium size forest operating enterprises in Cameroon producing energy from biomass exist. Studies in 2006 [6] identified 66 units of 2.7 million m3 transformation capacity, 9 of which were equipped with biomass drying machine and gasoline generators for self-generation of electricity. Mainly cogeneration (steam turbines using gas or biomass) based technology are used. Biomass Cogeneration technologies (steam turbines) are used in food industry with an estimated 12.8 MW capacity [6]. Companies that implemented steam turbines for energy cogeneration as of 2007 are shown in Table 4.

2.6. Energy policies, strategies and programs for renewable energy promotion Cameroon unlike many other African countries such as Nigeria has no clear energy policy and hence no clear guidelines regarding renewables. However, most of the laws enacted in the Cameroonian parliament has aspects of renewables but mostly hydropower is usually addressed [25]. Although the government of Cameroon has established a strategy to modernize the electricity sector with several measures to facilitate the deployment of renewables, no fiscal incentives are so far

2.3.1. Biogas production Biogas production and use is currently not given considerable attention. However, biogas technology (both domestic and large scale) is currently use in some localities in the country, especially in the northern regions. The Hygiene and Sanitation Company of Cameroon (HYSACAM) and the Netherland Development Organisation (SNV) are currently investigating a lot of effort to promote biogas production and use in Cameroon. HYSACAM inaugurated in 2011 its first biogas plant from household waste at its 48 ha’ landfill site in Nkolfoulou, Yaoundé, worth 2.5 billion FCFA. In 21 years, the plant is expected to capture about 75,000 t of methane (equivalent to 1.6 million tons of CO2) rejected into the atmosphere from domestic and urban waste [45] and to cut down carbon emissions by about 1670 million tons [46]. The biogas from this plant is to be used to produce electricity [46]. HYSACAM also

Table 3 Biofuel types, feedstock and location sites in Cameroon [44].

7

Biofuel type

Location (Region)

Feedstock

Bioethanol Biodiesel

Centre Southwest, Northwest

Biogas

Centre

Sugarcane Oil palm, groundnut, jatropha and vegetable oil Urban waste

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introduced: equipment manufacturers benefit from import tax reduction and special fiscal measures and the Rural Energy Fund subsidises investments (70%) and studies (80%) in rural energy projects. The state also hopes to create another funding mechanism, the Electricity Sector Development Fund [10]. Most recently, law N°2011/022 of 14 December 2011 governing the electricity sector in Cameroon attempts to organises the renewable energy sector in Cameroon [5]. State agencies actively involved in the management of the energy sector in Cameroon are the following [5,24]:

Table 4 Cameroon Steam turbines cogeneration companies and capacities in 2007 [6]. Company (location)

Units

Total Capacity (KW)

PAMOL (Lobe) PAMOL (Mudemba) SPFS (Fermes, Suisses, Edéa farms) SOSOCAM (Nkoteng) SODECOTON Global

1 1 1 1 1 8

310 450 1124 9054 400 12,801

• The Ministry of Energy and Water (MINEE), with a department of

Table 5 Hydropower potential of Cameroon as of 2006 [6]. Region

Site/River

Natural Potential (TWh)

Development Potential (TWh)

Hydropower Plan (MW)

•

Sanaga

Sanaga Mbam Nyong Ntem Other Region Wouri (Noun) Katsina Manyu Munaya Other Region Dja Boumba Kadei Other Region Benoue Faro Vina du Nord

162 n.a 17 22 8

72 n.a 7 8 3

5600 1600 700 1000 500

•

10

5

3300

9 6

5 2

n.a n.a

7

2

560

13 8 5 2

4 2 1 1

n.a n.a n.a 650

14

2

n.a

10

2

n.a

Southwest

West

East

North

• • •

renewable energies is in charge of design and implementation of the national energy policy as well as providing administrative and technical oversight of the establishments in the energy sector. The Ministry of Environment, Protection of Nature and Sustainable Development is responsible for the promotion of sustainable development in the renewable energy sector. The Rural Electrification Agency (AER) is responsible for promoting and implementing rural electrification programs in Cameroon. It also manages the Rural Energy Fund (FER). The Electricity Sector Regulatory Agency (ARSEL) is responsible for regulating the electricity sector as well as setting electricity rates and determining electrical standards. The Electricity Development Corporation (EDC) is in charge of construction and development of all hydroelectric projects in Cameroon. It also plays a strategic role in the development of the electricity sector while ensuring conservation of the public heritage in the sector. ENEO Cameroun is responsible for power generation, transmission and distribution.

Development players such as SNV is helping Cameroon in the development of its renewable energy sector through the improvement of the livelihood of rural dwellers through the use of domestic biogas and other renewable energy technologies [5].

available [6]. In order to increase access to modern energy services in the rural communities, Cameroon has created the Rural Electrification Board or Agency charged with support and allocation of licences for electricity production for remote areas. In terms of investment, the Cameroon Renewable Energy Fund (CREF) was established by the E +CO company and the National Investment Corporation (SNI) to provide expertise and funding for the development of renewable energy projects (hydropower and biomass) to enhance the provision of modern energy services in the country [6]. Cameroon aims at becoming an emerging country in its 2035 vision. Under this vision, one of its targets is to achieve universal access to electricity for all Cameroonians through a significant investment in the energy sector, including renewables [10]. The Growth and Employment Strategy Paper (including energy goals) [10], to be implemented from 2010 to 2020 aimed at improving the country's energy supply security at the lowest possible cost while ensuring better energy services and capacity building of stakeholders. Here, a target of 3000 MW of installed hydropower capacity has been set for 2020. Regarding energy access, under the Energy Sector Development Plan 2030 (PDSE 2030), Cameroon has established a long-term policy with the goal of achieving by 2030 a 75% total and 20% rural electrification rate. Moreover, Rural Electrification Master Plan is also under development with the aim to electrify 660 localities through grid extensions, rehabilitation and construction of isolated diesel plants and mini-hydro grids as well as through the development of regional grids [10,11]. The policy for renewable energy is still under preparation. The goal is to increase the share of renewables in power and heat generation as well as to involve private capital in the delivery of energy [9]. In order to attract private investors into the energy and renewable energy sectors in Cameroon, special mechanisms have been

2.7. Potential benefits of renewable energies in Cameroon Renewable energies development in Cameroon has significant health and environment impacts. It also enhances the socio-economic growth of the country. Also, the deployment of renewable energies is particularly interesting in remote areas where traditional biomass is the main source for cooking, heating and lighting [3]. The promotion of modern biomass technologies together with other renewables will reduce health risks associated with traditional biomass burning such as respiratory diseases, lung cancer, tuberculosis, eye problems, etc. From the environmental point of view, renewables in Cameroon will contribute to country carbon dioxide emissions mitigation. It will also reduce the country dependence on fossils products for transportation and power generation and ensure better energy security and access. Renewables will help the country to diversify and expand its economy. There will be enough energy to power diverse economic activities which will be translated into economic growth. Also, this will give rise to a strong labour force to produce more goods and services that will foster economic and sustainable development. In addition, modern energy services will allow children, especially girls, in remote areas to spend more time for learning by preventing them the duty of collecting wood for cooking.

3. Prospects and challenges of Cameroon energy sector The energy sector of Cameroon holds promising possibilities of development and diversification given the country's energy potential. However, managerial and financial constraints exist. 8

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water management and modelling to improve the productivity of the Sanaga river basin, the main hydropower source in the country [14]. The Lom Pangar dam has been constructed by China International Water and Electric Corporation. Projects currently under construction are: Natchigal (280 MW) by EDF (Electricité de France) and Menve’ele (200 MW) by China Sinohydro company. Also, a number of power projects has been shortlisted for future developments. These are: Song Mbengue (450 MW), Kikot (350 MW), Bini Warack (75 MW), Njock (170 MW), Ngodi (475 MW), Song Dong (280 MW) and Nyamzom (375 MW). The African Development Bank among others supports these projects with the aim of attracting investors and investments in the power sector [11].

3.1. Government actions to promote renewables The government of Cameroon is still to make sufficient development in the renewable energy sector (except hydro) due to a lack of meaningful policies, standards and regulatory mechanisms which thus hinders local and international investors [29]. The promotion and development of renewables in Cameroon are performed through the provisions of import, export and tax reduction benefits and advantages. Public service operators are obliged to connect to the grid all renewable power producers who request for grid connections. For rural electrification, decentralised generation is prioritised with excess production to benefit from purchase obligations by grid operators [11]. In terms of capacity building in the field of renewables, the government of Cameroon has set up institutions and departments for scientific and technical trainings of young Cameroonians on the design, sizing and installations of renewable energy systems. These programs and institutions are: the renewable energy program at the Higher Institute of Sahel (ISS), the energy laboratory and four series programs on: decentralised energy production, drying, heat and building and energy audits at the National Advance School of Polytechnic (ENSP), the department of agricultural engineering at the University of Dschang, the University Institute of Technology (IUT) and the National Advanced School of Agro-Industries (ENSAI) at the University of Ngaoundéré [5]. There are also renewable energy programs at the National Advanced School of Public Works (ENSTP) Yaoundé and the higher technical college of the University of Buea. Private institutions such as the Fotso Victor University Institute of Technology (IUT-FV) in Bandjoun with its program on environmental engineering and renewable energies, are equally encouraged by the government assist in capacity building in renewable energy technologies.

3.4. Barriers to renewables uptake in Cameroon The uptake of renewables is facing the following challenges [24].

• Policy: lack of renewable energy policies, investment mechanisms and infrastructures. • Incentives: Absence of fiscal incentives and subsidies for renewables. • • •

The present prevailing framework in Cameroon does not encourage the widespread use of clean energy technologies given the high taxes and custom duties in the country. Business environment: Tedious administrative procedures and tax requirements prevent private investors in clean energy. Institutional environment does not encourage investments due to inadequate investment regulations, standards and quality control mechanisms. Low priority given to renewables and, especially, off-grid energy systems.

3.2. Future of Cameroon energy sector 4. Conclusion and recommendations Cameroon's development goal under vision 2035, as prepared by the Ministry of Economy, Planning and Regional Development, envisage significant investments in the energy sector including renewables [10]. The goals of this policy are to ensure energy independence of the country through increased generation and distribution of electricity (from hydropower, oil and gas), in order to foster economic growth. With this vision, the country hopes to achieve a universal access to electricity. The government with partners such as the World Bank's and consultants from EDF (“Electricité de France”) have prepared a long term power policy till 2030 (Electricity Sector Development Plan 2030) [11] with the aim to ensure coherency in the development of power supply and demand. This policy also serves as a guide for electric power development, transmission and distributions in Cameroon. With regards to rural electrification, the Rural Electrification Master Plan (REMP) has been developed with the aim to electrify 660 localities through grid extensions as well as with isolated diesel generators and mini-hydro [9]. In addition, through the National Energy Action Plan for Poverty Reduction (NEAPRP), the government intends to provide modern energy services to 1263 education centres, 923 health centres and 191 drinking water supply networks. Within the petroleum sector, the Government aims to promote private investments and to liberalized the market [6].

Cameroons electricity needs are mainly covered by hydropower. This reliance on a single energy sources gives rise to the country energy insecurity and the observed regular power shortages, particularly in remote and semi urban areas. From this study, it is evident that incorporating renewables (solar, biomass and wind) into the national energy mix will adversely improve national energy access, especially in remote areas. The frequent power blackouts in the country will equally be addressed together with the country energy security and reliability. Although Cameroons government has set up institutions for capacity building in renewable energies and encouraged private institutions to do likewise, poor result was achieved due to low allocated resources. In order to ensure meaningful impacts of renewables in the energy mix of Cameroon and to enhance their deployment, the government of Cameroon should adequately acknowledge the role of renewable energies in meeting the energy demand of the country and create entrepreneurial funding mechanisms in this sector. Also, the state should encourage the participation of private sector by implementing attractive policies and enabling favourable business environment. In addition, awareness and capacity building should be increased through education in clean energies. Furthermore, more importance should be given to renewable energies for rural electrification instead of grid

3.3. Power expansions

Table 6 Future Hydropower investments in Cameroon [14].

Only 5% of hydropower potential of Cameroon is harnessed. Investments are planned (Table 6), with the aim to install additional power capacity estimated at 2500 MW by 2020 [25]. This involves the development of new power generation facilities (mainly hydro), modernization of the national electricity network and infrastructures and the promotion of modern and clean energy services, especially for rural communities [15]. The main electricity supplier in the country (AESSONEL now ENEO) is working with SIEMENS to develop a software for 9

Name

Power generation (MW)

Investment (€m)

Edéa/Song Loulou Lom Pangar Natchigal Warack Song Dong Menve’ele

30 170 280 75 280 200

76.22 76.22 228.67 114.33 266.78 304.9

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