Sustaining human resource via aesthetic practices

Accepted Manuscript Sustaining Human Resource Via Aesthetic Practices

Rohan Crichton, Paul Shrivastava PII:

S0959-6526(17)30370-0

DOI:

10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.144

Reference:

JCLP 9070

To appear in:

Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date:

27 July 2015

Revised Date:

13 February 2017

Accepted Date:

21 February 2017

Please cite this article as: Rohan Crichton, Paul Shrivastava, Sustaining Human Resource Via Aesthetic Practices, Journal of Cleaner Production (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.144

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

-We have connected HRM, sustainability, and aesthetics to support stress intervention. -Organizational aesthetic practices can improve human resource sustainability. -Emotional and sensory knowledge can improve employee skill set and mitigate stress.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

WORD COUNT: 8575 Sustaining Human Resource Via Aesthetic Practices Rohan Crichton Lecturer of Organizational Behaviour Desautels Faculty of Management, McGill University Montreal, Canada and

Paul Shrivastava Professor of Management, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada and Affiliated Faculty, ICN Business School, Nancy, France

Abstract Organizational stress is crippling employees and majorly impacting organizations. Human resource sustainability, that is the health and wellbeing of the workers, is now more than ever in critical focus. Through connecting the human resource management, organizational sustainability, aesthetics, and psychology literature as well as through several case studies of organizational aesthetic best practices our paper proposes a solution to mitigate organizational stress. Our findings suggest that organizational aesthetic practices integrated with sensory and emotional knowledge can mitigate work stress. The value add of this study reaches beyond the confines of traditional worker health and wellness studies, where employee health and wellness are normally sought after for the purpose of benefiting the organization. Instead, our approach is focussed on human sustainability for the purpose of generating more life and discovering one’s potential within the scope of multiple dimensions of life. Keywords: aesthetics, human resource, stress, sustainability, sensory, emotional, knowledge Presented at: The 1st ARTEM Organizational Creativity International Conference. March 26th and 27th 2015 in Nancy, France.

1

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

“…the biggest obstacle to the vexing questions of sustainability is the fact that science, society and politics have for the last 200 years lost their interest in understanding actual, lived and felt human existence” (Weber, 2013, p.11). 1. Introduction This paper explores the concept of sustaining human resources facing high levels of stress in the organization today. Generally, organizations look at human resources as tools or assets for their own instrumental purposes, tools that will facilitate sustainability of the organization. Little research has been done in examining the sustainability of the “tools” themselves, in this case, the workers as humans (Spooner and Kaine, 2010). There is need for new ways of conceptualizing what it means for humans to be sustainable in organizational work as sustainable living can lead to beneficial effects, not only for the individual, but for family and society as well. Our research is a direct response to these needs. Therefore, our focus is on developing sustainable human resource practices in organizational work settings. In this context, we are most interested in the connections between stress, deskilling, burnout, and human resource sustainability. The specific research question we address is how can organizational human resources be sustained in a holistic way? We suggest that human resource sustainability can be improved through organizational aesthetic practices intertwined with access to sensory and emotional knowledge. We illustrate this suggestion through case studies from leading organizations supporting human resource sustainability through such aesthetic practices. In the spirit of transdisciplinarity we integrate knowledge from across several areas of study, including, human resource management, sustainable development,

2

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

aesthetics, and psychology. The purpose of this approach is to improve upon the depth of the knowledge basket, and in doing so, hopefully, propose further-reaching implementable solutions. The contributions of this paper are several. Firstly, it introduces the under-researched topic of aesthetics to the discourse on sustaining human resources. Secondly, through our case studies investigation, we identify and illustrate multiple organizations that are already sustaining their human resources through aesthetic practices, thus, perhaps, leading the way for other organizations going forward. Finally, we introduce a new model that focuses on utilizing organizational aesthetic practices intertwined with sensory and emotional knowledge access to combat organizational stress. 2. Organizational stress and burnout: Mitigating with organizational aesthetic practices and knowledge acquisition. We begin by defining, discussing, and substantiating the link between the extensive toll of stress and burnout in organizations. To facilitate this discussion we explore organizational stress typologies in order to better understand causes. We also explore how these stress typologies might come about in the organization (e.g., deskilling, changing work environment). We then move to explore possible solutions, and in doing so, we introduce and explore human resource sustainability and it’s link to an aesthetic approach of human resources management. Relevant in this equation, we also introduce the mediating variable of sensory and emotional knowledge that we suggest should be accessible and obtainable for the worker if organizational stress mitigation is to succeed.

3

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

2.1. Toll of stress Stress is ubiquitous in daily life, especially so in work settings. Work stress has been studied endlessly and despite excellent understanding of the phenomenon we continue to work under increasingly stressful work conditions. According to Teasdale (2006) “stress itself is not an illness; rather it is a state” (p.251), however, this state can be a very powerful contributor towards illness and associated health care costs. Teasdale (2006) posits that the cost associated with stress is largely brought about through work (in the US). To begin with the misdiagnosis of stress-related disorders alone costs the US billions of dollars each year (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004). Once diagnosed, stressrelated disorders in the US are estimated to cost $42 billion per year. In addition, individuals suffering from stress related illness are 3 to 5 time more likely to visit the doctor and 6 times more likely to be hospitalized than non- sufferers. Disturbingly, 43% suffer from depression and have alcohol and substance abuse issues (Kalia, 2002). Though outside the scope of this paper, organizations are also impacted from this stress related phenomenon. In fact, human resource related stress has been found to “increase worker’s compensation claims, litigation, grievances, accidents, errors of judgement, conflict and interpersonal problems”(Kaila, 2002, p.50). Indeed, this is a multifaceted social problem that calls for investigation, thus, one must ask: what causes this work stress? Perhaps, a good starting point in addressing this question is to examine stress typologies as a whole within the organization.

4

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

2.2. Typologies of work stress Organizational stress can be attributed to many factors and researchers have proposed and validated many different models to better understand and examine causes of work stress (cf., Cannon, 1929; Lazarus, 1966; Selye, 1976; French et al., 1982). However, one particular model remains extremely prevalent in the literature. The model commonly referred to as the person-environment theory has almost 100 years of support in the literature (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). This model suggests, “[…] that the degree of fit between individual and the job environment determines the stressfulness (or strain) that is experienced” (Gangster and Schaubroeck, 1991, p. 240). This is manifested in two ways, firstly, by the outcomes of job to the needs, motives, and preferences of the worker, and secondly, by the demands of the job versus the abilities of the worker (French et al., 1982). To date, this is still a valuable indicator of causal stress as it relates to occupational experience. However, its theoretical limitations lie in its inability to conceptualize and operationalize “[…] specific work characteristics that are expected to be important” (Ganster and Schaubroeck, 1991, p.241). In response to this shortcoming, Albrecht’s (1979) typology of work stress casts an overarching net that better encapsulates specific work characteristics. His typology examines the causes of stress through two different categories, namely, physically induced stress and emotionally induced stress. However, for the purpose of this paper our focus will solely be related to emotionally induced stress. Emotional stress is induced from an electrochemical trigger, which is often due to a perceived event or one where an anticipated event will have unpleasant results (Albrecht, 1979). This type of emotional stress is further broken down into four categories, namely, time stress, anticipatory stress,

5

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

situational stress, and encounter stress. Time stress refers to the anxiety felt due to shortage of time (e.g., a deadline is approaching and one must do something which can often lead to work overload). Anticipatory stress refers to anxiety felt due to an upcoming event, generally, with little basis (e.g., perhaps an upcoming presentation). Situational stress refers to individual anxiety as a result of being in an overwhelming situation out of one’s control. Finally, encounter stress refers to anxiety about interacting with people whom one perceives to be unpleasant. It should be noted that both types of organizational stress are brought about differently - deskilling of the worker being the most common (Bowen, 1996). 2.3. Worker deskilling Deskilling can be characterized as reducing skilled labour in favour of technologies and/or through the implementation of unskilled and semi-skilled work (Braverman, 1974). As such, deskilling is associated with a reduction in social relationships and civic orientation and this can attribute to workers being less skilled in dealing with people in general. Deskilling can also attribute to one being awkward in social settings and unproductive in tasks that require emotional and social intelligence (Braverman, 1974). More seriously, as we lose touch and fail to develop responsive, resonating relationships with our colleagues, clients, and physical workspace (ever changing tools and instruments) we develop higher chances of burnout and an increased loss of meaning in work and life (cf., Ehrenfeld and Hoffman, 2013; Rosa, 2013). Many organizations believe that deskilling workers through repetitive tasks, narrowly defined tasks, and generally simplifying the job will lead to better efficiency and productivity for the organization. However, this strategy can create issues in quality of work (Bowen,

6

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

1996). In fact, deskilling is notoriously associated with a decline in quality of work (cf., Spenner, 1990; Vallas, 1990). Furthermore, workers are unable to provide proper service to their clients as they not only lack the knowledge and competence to do so, but the confidence as well (Bowen, 1996). This can result in workers losing control of their work (Braverman, 1974) and this loss of workers’ control can precipitate into serious issues surrounding self–efficacy and conflict in the workplace. Finally, apart from the concepts of organizational efficiency, technological implementation, and dynamics of modernization, deskilling implementation has been fundamentally identified to be driven by control and power over the worker (Braverman, 1974). Often, this type of elicited control and power (principally exercised by management) can lead to the disempowerment and alienation of the worker (Burawoy, 1979). As depicted above, the impacts of stress, in part, brought about through deskilling can cause many different negative outcomes - burnout being the most common (cf., Freudenberg, 1974; Maslach and Jackson, 1981; Maslach and Goldberg 1998). 2.4. Burnout Burnout can be characterized as “overwhelming exhaustion; feelings of frustration, anger, and cynicism; and a sense of ineffectiveness and failure (Maslach and Goldberg, 1998, p.63). These characteristics can be debilitating in the work environment, as sufferers are prone to reduced quality of work and minimal production levels of work. More seriously, burnout victims are plagued with physical and psychological health deterioration (Maslach and Goldberg, 1998). Even more troubling is the frequency in which burnout occurs. The Washington Business Group on Health asserts that over 46% of all workers severely stressed out, result in burnout (Kalia, 2002). Why is this? Apart

7

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

from deskilling, what else in the workforce is making this happen? Leading theorists suggest that burnout is prevalent in the workforce due to associated time pressure, role conflict, lack of support, and lack of decision making in one’s role (Ahola et al., 2006). Others lay the blame on the changing work environment, where growth, acceleration and competiveness create a breeding ground for escalation in work (Rosa, 2013). Workers feel that they must work harder just to keep their positions. If they are successful working harder, something else is sacrificed, like family, personal fitness or mental relaxation. In fact, more and more people report they find it hard to relax or ‘come down’, or ‘turn off’ in the evening or on the weekend. “There is an overwhelming (and realistic) sense that the flows and fluids of the digital world – its challenges and opportunities – incessantly surround us, and that whoever turns them off is in danger of being left behind” (Rosa, 2013, p.12). This notion of being left behind, and the actions associated with it, can certainly add to one’s stress levels and overtime can attribute to burnout. So, whether work stress takes place through, deskilling, organizational culture and/or a changing work environment. Maslach and Goldberg (1998) asserts that both over-arching typologies of work stress outlined above have the potential to lead to burnout as the effects of stress conceptualized out of person-environment theory, as well as those borne out of emotionally induced stress can lead to emotional exhaustion. This emotional exhaustion has the capacity to cause the worker to “[…] feel drained and used up, without any source of replenishment. They lack enough energy to face another day or another person” (p.64). Furthermore, this emotional exhaustion can then lead to depersonalization. A detached response to other workers, “[…] self-

8

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

protective at first - an emotional buffer of detached concern. But the risk is that the detachment can turn into dehumanization” (Maslach and Goldberg, 1998, p.64). Finally, burnout can also be attributed to reduced personal accomplishment caused by one’s inability to cope with demands of the job. This is often manifested in low selfefficacy, which can lead to depression (Maslach and Goldberg, 1998). This depression (a manifestation of these elements of burnout), incidentally, “[…] was ranked as the third leading cause of the global burden of disease in 2004 and is predicted to move into the first place by 2030, surpassing infectious, heart diseases, and cancer” (Weber, 2013, p. 13). As such, a problem this severe calls for steadfast interventions, and, though, many academics, practitioners, policymakers, and administrators have responded to the call (e.g., through workshops, books, pamphlets, self-tests) (Maslach and Goldberg, 1998), the devastating problem continues to grow (as indicated above). In hopes of seeking much-needed resolve, we propose that part of the solution lies in Leiter and Maslach’s (2005) multidimensional burnout reduction model (Fig.1, in part, encompasses this model). This multidimensional model focuses on mitigating burnout through implementing engagement-oriented (the polar opposite of burnout) interventions. Leiter and Maslach’s (2005) assert that to be effective these interventions should be high in energy versus exhaustion (as is the case in burnout), strong in involvement versus depersonalizing, and finally, enhancing to self-confidence versus diminishing in selfefficacy. Interventions should also be designed and planned to reduce the constituent components of stress and burnout more comprehensively (Leiter and Maslach, 2005). Thus, in this regard, constituent components to consider would not only include, stress derived from the person-environment theory (Canon, 1929), deskilling (Braverman,

9

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

1974), and emotionally induced stress (Albrecht, 1979), but as well, include, emotional exhaustion and reduced personal accomplishment (attributed components of burnout) (Maslach and Goldberg, 1998). As such, moving forward, perhaps a valuable question an organization might ask itself is: What organizational intervention(s) has the capacity to best respond to these constituent components of stress and burnout, and in doing so, enhance human resource sustainability.

Stress (brought on by)

Can lead to burnout (due to):

-outcome of job to worker needs, motives, and preferences -demand of job to workers abilities (e.g., through deskilling) -emotionally induced aspects

-emotional exhaustion -depersonalization -reduced personal accomplishments

Therefore, proposed interventions (should be): -high-energy -strong in involvement -enhance selfconfidence

Fig. 1. Proposed relationship between stress, burnout, and interventions (based on: Canon, 1929; Braverman, 1974; Albrecht, 1979; Maslach and Goldberg, 1998; Leiter and Maslach, 2005).

2.5. Sustainable human resource management Sustainability of human resources is a newer area of research and practice. Sustainability of the worker encompasses the emotional development and fulfillment of human needs (cf., Benn et al., 2006; Pfeffer, 2010). Thus, in an organizational context it might refer to the effects of management practices on the employee’s physical and psychological wellbeing. Wellbeing is a broad term, however, for the purpose of this paper, we take our definition from Seligman (2012) as he asserts that wellbeing refers to

10

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

positive emotion, engagement, meaning, positive relationships, and meaningful accomplishments. As outlined in the introduction of this paper, very little of the literature (cf., Marcus and Fremeth, 2009; Pfeffer, 2010) actually confronts the issue of how HRM might address the sustainability of human resources within organizations, beyond organizational goals and performance (Baptiste, 2007; Spooner and Kaine, 2010). Therefore, in this regard, our intention is to counter this shortcoming and to examine human resource sustainability principally for the purpose of improving the wellbeing of the individual. Certainly, there is already a great deal of epidemiological, and public health literature out there that suggests organizational policies may affect the health and lifespan of the worker (Pfeffer, 2010). However, this literature has generally centered-around organizational policy resolution related to health and lifespan, and include, the effects of layoffs (Budros, 1997), lack of health insurance (Levy and Meltzer, 2004), and work hours (Rosseau, 2006). Indeed, interventions centered-around these topics are extremely valuable for the health and wellbeing of the worker, thus, the intended scope of our paper is by no means aimed at reducing this value. Rather, our aim is to add a much-needed component and approach to the health and well-being discussion. As such, our position differs in that it attempts to expand the topic of sustainability to include a more a holistic approach, one that encourages and attempts to bring out the creativity, self-confidence, self-efficacy, and ability to innovate in the worker. In a nutshell, our approach to human sustainability means improving overall well being and invoking full human potential of workers by reducing stress and its related side effects. It is about enabling human beings to flourish (Ehrenfeld and Hoffman, 2013) and

11

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

“ […] generating more life, creating new possibilities of development and meeting (human) needs in novel ways” (Weber, 2013, p.68). We conjecture that this can be accomplished, in part, by developing human resource practices that actualize the whole human being and holistically engage workers through aesthetic practices. 2.6. Aesthetic practices The above review of the literature suggests that current HRM practices are narrowly focused on increasing worker efficiency and organizational rationality and ignore the emotional needs and fulfilment of the worker. Taylor et al., (2015) echoes this rationale as they assert that management practices have traditionally been viewed as a science, which can take away from the caring element of the worker. Therefore, to mitigate stress and improve the well being of the worker we propose that sustainable human resources can be achieved through a more aesthetics-based approach to human resource management. This aesthetics-based approach can be conceptualized in many different ways. Narrowly defined, aesthetics encompasses the very appreciation and nature of beauty, generally in the context of art (Gibb, 2004). This practice of art can be characterized as the “ […] molding of clay, chipping of marble, casting of bronze, laying on of pigments, construction of buildings, singing of songs, enacting roles on stage, going through rhythmic movement in the dance” (Dewey, 1934, p. 207) – but, as you peel away these top layers, art has the capacity to bring about so much more. More in terms of the “[…] simultaneous, and unified, engagement of the mind, body, and sensibilities” (Gibb, 2004, p. 59). A type of aesthetic engagement that Shrivastava et al., (2012) characterizes as having the capacity to integrate our thoughts and feelings - it can connect us with the

12

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

community through understanding one another. It engages us emotionally. “It has the potential for providing emotionally compelling solutions and bringing about real changes in individuals […] ” (p.28). Bateson (1979), Ramirez (1996), Taylor and Hansen (2005), and Taliaferro (2011) concur with this premise as they too assert that aesthetic engagement can breed emotional connection through the process of creating, doing and experiencing art. Furthermore, this connectedness has the capacity to bring about meaningful interactions and belongingness. But, perhaps, Weber’s (2013) position on connectedness is most convincing as he asserts “ […] that we regard life as embodied beings as a common denominator for all living organism. Life is what we all share. And life is what we all can feel: the emotional experience of feeling our needs and having them satisfied is a direct sign of how well we realise our aliveness” (p. 17). Simply put, life is connection – connection to ourselves, to others, and to nature. Certainly, then, a critical dimension of organizational aesthetic practices must encompass the concept of connectedness. In addition, this connectedness, as Shrivastava et al., (2012) asserts allows for the concept of passion to emerge. He characterizes this passion to be holistic, subjective, and experiential in nature. This passion is often expressed through the mind, body and spirit and can mobilise and motivate one to make transformational differences, create, and innovate. It “ […] has been related to drive, tenacity, persistence, greater efforts, courage, enthusiasm, commitment, high levels of initiative etc.” (p.32). Thus, acquisition of these traits is likely very beneficial in supporting the journey towards organizational stress reduction (Maslach and Goldberg, 1998). However, we conjecture that even more is needed if this trait-like acquisition is to take place. Organizational aesthetic practices must ensure that a definitive access to knowledge acquisition is clear

13

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

and present. For without knowledge and skill acquisition - drive, tenacity, persistence, greater efforts, courage, enthusiasm, commitment and high levels of initiative cannot be applied.

2.7. The mediating role of sensory and emotional knowledge To reiterate, Leiter and Maslach’s (2005) proposed multidimensional burnout reduction model suggested organizational interventions should be oriented around mitigating emotional exhaustion, preventing the tendency to depersonalize, and enhancing one’s sense of accomplishment. We hypothesize that these interventions, expressed through aesthetic practices must also have an empowering knowledge acquisition component if they are to mitigate stress. The literature suggests that sensory and emotional knowledge meet this requisite and can be prevalently encompassed within organizational aesthetic practices (cf., Adler, 2006; Strati, 2007; Shrivastava, 2010; Ivanaj et. al., 2014). To clarify, these types of knowledge are very different from typical organizational knowledge, like, concrete knowledge, procedural knowledge or structured knowledge, which are generally, only acquired cognitively and mentally (cf., Strati, 2007; Gherardi et al., 2007; Cunliffe, 2008; Swart, 2011; Ivanaj et. al., 2014). Instead, sensory knowledge can be characterised as knowledge derived from our five senses, namely, touch, taste, sight, smell, and hearing (Strati, 2007). “[…] This knowledge perceived through the senses, judged through the senses and produced and reproduced through the senses, […] generates dialectical relations with action and close relation with the emotions of organizational actors” (Strati, 2007, p.62). Thus, sensory knowledge acquisition can be empowering for the worker. Evidenced by example, Strati

14

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

(2007) asserts that a practicing surgeon whose principal tool are his hands, needs to competently and confidently touch and feel his way around the open cavity if there is to be success. Therefore, through aesthetic practices that embrace, support, promote, and integrate sensible knowledge; that doctor is fine-tuning his skill of touch and better arming himself with the sensible knowledge for a successful surgery, whilst improving decision making too. Indeed, a contradiction to the results deskilling can bring about. The other type of knowledge that we propose as a mediator is emotional knowledge. Emotional knowledge refers to the ability for one to guide one’s thinking and actions based on their own, as well as the feelings and emotions of others. Emotional knowledge within the organization can be empowering. Shrivastava et al., (2012) and Salovey and Mayer (1989) assert that it has the capacity to support the worker in adaptation and change, and in doing so, has the capacity to improve overall satisfaction levels for the worker. Carmeli (2003) echoes and expands on this position as he asserts that emotional knowledge is very much linked to job satisfaction (through positive feelings associated with facets of the situation). Moreover, organizational commitment (tied to positive feelings, attachment and identification with the organization), career commitment (overall attitude towards profession), and organizational citizenship behaviour (rolebehaviour characterized by going beyond one’s formal role requirements, altruism) all benefit as well. Therefore, based on this literature we hypothesize that as the worker’s emotional knowledge is enhanced, emotional exhaustion and depersonalization are likely reduced. Thus, potentially reducing burnout.

15

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

3. Method With the above literature in mind, we sought out practical manifestations of organizational aesthetic practices interlaced with elements of sensory and emotional knowledge. A qualitative approach involving case study methodology was particularly advantageous here as “[…] it can ‘close in’ on real-life situations and test views directly in relation to phenomenon as they unfold in practice” (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p. 19). Thus, over a three-year period, we collected data from four companies and presented them here as mini-case study vignettes. The organizations included, Johnson and Johnson, The Walt Disney Company (Disney), 3M, and Google. We purposely selected these companies based on their differing industries, services, and product offerings (so as to include a diverse set of organizational contexts). Further consideration was based on sheer size of their human resources (so as to include a broad diversity in cultural backgrounds and occupational roles of the workers), global reach and visibility (so as to reflect the trans-boundary nature and capacity for such practices), and value of their market capitalization (so as to illustrate that industry leaders are participating in these aesthetic practices). Our data collection consisted of twenty-one informal employee (participants and non-participant) discussions and interviews (open-ended). Furthermore, as Zikmund (2000) suggested, target population should include specific individuals directly tied to the research in question and each individual should be able to offer a unique perspective. Therefore, our informal interviews and discussions consisted of fourteen individuals from the human resource departments of the four organizations. Specific human resource divisions included, learning and development, employee health and wellness, organizational

16

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

development, and employee education and development and each employee varied in role from specialist to the vice-president level. The remaining seven interviewees were a program coordinator, portfolio director, technical director, R&D manager, creator, and two general participants. Interviews focussed on deriving personal insights on the respective organizational aesthetic practice within the context of work stress, health, knowledge accessibility, and acquisition. Our data also included the analyses of dozens of external company documents. Specifically, working papers, media releases, CSR reports, annual reports, and other secondary sourced publications. All content (form the various sources of data) was triangulated to identify convergences across organizations (Heracleous, 2006). This approach is particularly useful in investigating phenomena that is misunderstood and is very common in this type of exploratory research (Yin, 2014). Finally, our mini-case study sought a level of literal replication (each case was designed to corroborate with one another). This type of replication of patterns has a tendency of increasing the strength and validation of findings (Yin, 2014). 4. Findings The mini case profiles and findings for each organization follow: a) Johnson and Johnson has more than 250 companies located in 60 countries around the world, and employs almost 130000 people worldwide. It is the world’s sixth largest consumer health company, biologics company, and pharmaceutical company. It also the world’s largest medical device company. It launched its 19th annual employee art exhibition to encourage employees and their families to “showcase their creativity, ingenuity and artistry”. This feat was accomplished through a variety of aesthetic displays, including, fine art, photography, and craft exhibitions. The goal of the program

17

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

was to inspire and engage employees through these displays and exhibitions of their work. According to our review of both secondary documents and informal discussions this initiative gave employees a chance to “reveal their hidden talents to colleagues” and it gave them a chance “to stand up in front of their peers and share the inspirations behind their work, allowing everyone in the room to understand and appreciate their art on a new level”. Furthermore, with respect to emotional knowledge acquisition, the annual Art Exhibition Coordinator (and corroborated by members of the HR, Learning and Development division) contends that emotional knowledge accessibility is intertwined in these aesthetic practices. Therefore, not only do Johnson and Johnson workers benefit from the “joy and passion associated with creating sculpture, craft, and paintings, but they develop competencies too”. This is exemplified in the team creations segment of the event where they “work together, build together, and anticipate and focus on the other’s perspective”. Johnson and Johnson HR members also assert that this “improves worker engagement, provides deeper insights (more insight-driven), and improves worker relationships”. Furthermore, “in sculpting, painting, and crafting workers uncover and develop skills they never new they had, seemingly giving many of them a new found sense of confidence”. Participants add that the entire exercise also gives them “opportunity to express their individuality” and “to see their passion and creativity come through in their art”. b) The Walt Disney Company is the second largest broadcasting and cable company in the world (in terms of revenue), it operates in over 40 countries, including, Argentina, Russia, India, China, and Japan. Disney employs over 165000 people worldwide. Disney offers a similar program to Johnson & Johnson; however, in this case employees are

18

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

encouraged to perform and film special onstage performances. Employees are cast members, directors, producers, and the technical expertise are provided by Disney. Employees are given an opportunity to create, to act, to sing, and dance. Our examination of secondary sourced documentation, combined with informal interviews with several Disney human resource specialists and a section manager uncovered that this exercise has several benefits, including, the improvement of self-confidence in the employee as they showcase their acts. Moreover, as they rehearse together and coordinate the show each gets to know one another’s strengths. According to Disney’s HR staff, “this type of event brings out the best in the employee’s character as well as exposes the employee to cast members in ways that lead to interpersonal bonds over the entire course of shooting”. Interestingly, a trend that we noticed in our informal discussions with Disney HR specialists was that humour was a very large part of these creations and they felt that this element of humour had the capacity to bring out a great deal of satisfaction in the participant. These specialists also asserted that there is an element of knowledge acquisition in this use of humour “as one can really get to know the other through one’s humour”. In fact, they further asserted that, “that this humour is another dimension of the individual that is often not seen in the work place and that sharing and interacting within the confines of humour can bring about long lasting bonds”. c) 3M is a science-based company, a leader in several markets ranging from highway safety to abrasives, and adhesives. 3M had global revenue of over $30 billion in 2013 and operates in over 70 countries. 3M employs almost 90000 people globally. 3M’s aesthetic practice philosophy is expressed through their Time to Think initiative that allows employees to spend up to 15 percent of their day creating and developing ideas on their

19

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

own projects. The 3M core belief is that “creativity needs freedom” and their rationale is to give people the time and resources to do so. According to secondary sourced reports and informal discussions with 3M Human Resource Managers, a creator, and a Portfolio Director, Time to Think “is the most passionate and engaging event at 3M”. It provides the worker with a means to focus on “their personal passion and develop it. Essentially, they work on whatever idea they want to work on and we really support it”. 3M also asserts, in doing so, the worker perhaps takes on “a feeling of freedom”, “encouraged to follow their own instincts”, and innovative accomplishments, borne directly from these ideas, often follow. This has been exemplified through innovations, such as, the reinvention of sport through the creation of a technologically advanced bicycle that offers the lightest bike frame technology available in the world. In fact, this bicycle technology has even been utilized in the 2013 tour de France, suggesting the level ingenuity and craftsmanship. According to the creators, each bike is custom made and a great deal of workmanship and team collaboration goes into the final product. “The symbiotic relationship between man and machine is foremost on the mind during creation”. d) Google is a multinational leader in internet-related services and products with global revenues of over $50 Billion (2012). It operates in more than 70 offices in more than 40 countries globally and they employ over 40000 “googlers”. Similar to 3M, Google encourages employees to use 20 percent of company time to create and innovate. According to secondary sourced documents and informal interviews with members of their HR team, without a conducive environment, how can one create? How can ideas arrive from creativity? “Some of the most creative ideas are born out of brainstorming sessions where groups of people, come together, connect, discuss, and debate possible

20

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

solutions to a problem. Furthermore, in conjunction with this 20 Percent of company time program, Google goes further by working with these employees to develop their emotional knowledge too. Google’s HR specialists suggest that this emotional knowledge program can improve the employee’s skill-set through a deeper understanding of the self and their relationship to others. Chade Meng-Tan (Search Inside Yourself Program Founder) asserts that this is achieved through Google’s “Search Inside Yourself” (SIY) initiative. This aesthetics oriented, in part, program focuses on augmenting worker selfawareness, calmness, resilience, optimism, spiritual development, and confidence in crises through various events and courses oriented around connectedness and meditation. Programs such as this support the worker, and in turn, “ideas flow better, and more traction can be achieved”. Internal documents report that solutions borne out of this 20 percent company time policy are several, including, the creation of retrofitted hybrid cars developed through innovative recharge projects and Google news platform; a popular IT tool (millions of users) that brings related news stories to one place. Table 1 summarizes these principal findings:

21

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 1 Summary of narratives from secondary sourced documents and interviewees: Organizational aesthetic practices intertwined with elements of sensory and emotional knowledge. DimensionsCompany Based on Leiter Johnson and Johnson The Walt Disney 3M Google and Maslach’s Company (19th annual employee art (Time to Think) (20 percent of company time) exhibition) (2005) (Perform and film special onstage multidimensional performances) burnout reduction model High in energy

-Participants are inspired and engaged in the exhibition. They embrace the joy and passion associated with creating sculpture, craft, and paintings.

-The concept of humour, which is evident in these productions bring about group laughter, satisfaction, joy, and camaraderie.

-Allowing work time and freedom to create brings about a great deal of passion and engagement in the worker.

-Participants are fulfilled, not only by the allowance of time to create and innovate, but from the support of the Search Inside Yourself initiative. There, participants come together in an inspirational environment and develop strengthening competencies (e.g., selfawareness, resilience, etc.) (Also allowing for an opportunity to develop emotional knowledge).

Strong in involvement

- Participants showcase their creativity, ingenuity, and artistry, and in doing so, work together, build together, and anticipate and focus on the other’s perspective (Also allowing for an opportunity to develop emotional knowledge).

-Through rehearsing and coordinating the show together, each participant gets to know one another’s strengths.

-Participants work together, leveraging each other’s strengths to fine-tune inventions, thus improving quality control and technical judgment (Also allowing for an opportunity to develop sensory knowledge).

- Creative ideas, in part, are born out of brainstorming sessions where groups of participants, come together, connect, discuss, and debate possible solutions to a problem.

-Participants are provided with the freedom, resources, and encouragement to create. As such, innovative ideas can come about. Through recognition of these ideas, selfefficacy is enhanced.

- Participants are provided with the time, support, and competency- development to create. As such, innovations can come about and can go to market, thus, acting as recognition and adding to selfefficacy.

- Strong interpersonal bonds between participants are also developed over the entire course of shooting. Enhancing to self -confidence

-Participants are allowed the opportunity to “reveal their hidden talents to colleagues” and to share their inspirations. In turn, allowing others to appreciate their work on a whole new level. -Through various aesthetic practices “workers uncover and develop skills they never new they had, seemingly giving many of them a new found sense of confidence”. (Also allowing for an opportunity to develop emotional knowledge.

- Participant selfconfidence is improved as the employee showcases their acts.

22

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Our data analyses also uncovered that the effects of wellness programs like these had implications on the health and wellbeing of the worker. Dr. Fikry Isaac, VicePresident of Global Health Services at Johnson and Johnson explains this point as he asserts since the inception of wellness programs (e.g., annual employee art exhibition), Johnson and Johnson reports that their healthcare costs rose just 1 percent versus its industry peers averaging a 4.7 percent for the same period (Clarke 2014). Alex Gorsky, Chairman and Chief Executive on employee health and wellness at 3M would seem to agree with this line of thinking as he asserts that wellness programs like these are “investments and not costs”. Similarly, our informal discussions with other senior human resource management specialists at 3M and Google also uncovered improved satisfaction (measured internally) levels amongst their employees since the introduction of their time to think and create initiatives, respectfully. 5. Discussion The findings from this study suggest that organizational aesthetic practices, mediated by emotional and sensory knowledge acquisition may have the capacity to mitigate stress. Fig.2 indicates this hypothesized relationship.

Aesthetic Practices in the Organization

Sensory & Emotional Knowledge

Stress level mitigation

Fig. 2. Proposed model of aesthetics practices mediated by sensory and emotional knowledge to mitigate stress.

23

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Our findings also illustrate that organizational aesthetic practices intertwined with sensory and emotional knowledge access support Leiter and Maslach’s (2005) proposed multidimensional burnout reduction model of engagement. To reiterate, Leiter and Maslach (2005) assert to be effective at mitigating burnout organizational practices (interventions) should be high in energy, strong in involvement, and enhancing to selfconfidence. They also posit that interventions or practices must be oriented to reduce the constituent components of stress and burnout too. As such, we sought, found, and analyzed organizational aesthetic practices encompassing these dimensions of engagement as well as other key dimensions (e.g., knowledge acquisition) necessary in combatting the aforementioned constituent components of stress. Evidenced by example, the Johnson and Johnson’s 19th annual employee art exhibition and the Walt Disney Company’s creation and production of theatrical performances were both high-energy activities, encompassing strong involvement, creativity, innovation, and self-efficacy prone activities. Through creating, sharing, showcasing, performing, and filming their art and dance a stronger sense of worker involvement emerged. Furthermore, as the worker’s creations were appreciated, self-confidence was enhanced, potentially leading to improved self-efficacy. This concept of self-efficacy, though differently achieved, was yet again, found at 3M and Google. However, in this scenario, workers followed their passions (again, supporting the concept of strong in involvement) to create and were rewarded by their products (e.g., technologically advanced bicycle, retrofitted hybrid car), going to market (improving self-efficacy).

24

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Our findings also indicated the knowledge component intertwined with aesthetic practices realized by several of our case study organizations. In the context of sensory knowledge, for example, 3M’s reinvention of sport through the team creation of a technologically advanced and crafted bicycle (utilized in the 2013 tour de France) is testament to the capacity sensory knowledge can have in developing specialized skills. Expressed through analogy, Cook and Yanow (1993) assert, just as the flute goes up and down the assembly line, from worker to worker, comments like, “ it does not feel right”, “this bit doesn’t quite look right” (p.380) ensure that quality control and technical judgment are present. Further exemplifying that sensory knowledge can empower the worker, to not only, “express judgements based on taste and to live the social practices performed in organizations with emotion, affect and attachment” (Gherardi et al., 2007, p.318), but in doing so, perhaps effectively enhance-self confidence and combat the challenges brought about by organizational deskilling- a critical constituent stressor. Evidence was also plentiful regarding emotional knowledge intertwined in our aesthetic practice organizations. For example, Johnson and Johnson posit as workers “[…] build together, and anticipate and focus on the other’s perspective” a level of emotional knowledge is garnered. Thus, improving worker engagement, providing deeper insights, and supporting the development of co-worker relationships. Google also engaged in similar practices, however, their aesthetic programs (e.g., Search Inside Yourself Program) were deliberately infused with specific components (e.g., self-awareness modules, spiritual development) aimed at augmenting emotional knowledge. Apart from the obvious engagement factors emotional knowledge would support. We also expect this augmentation in emotional knowledge would better serve

25

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

the worker in combatting deskilling and improving social relations and conflict resolution (part of the encounter stress component). Our findings also suggest that organizational aesthetic practices intertwined with access to sensory and emotional knowledge may perhaps be effective in stress reduction. We extrapolate this point from Johnson and Johnson’s internal studies relating to wellness programs and their health care reduction costs. We also identified improved satisfaction levels via 3M and Google workers participating in the various time to create initiatives, perhaps, indicating a relationship to worker wellbeing. It should be noted, though, that the purpose of this paper was exploratory in nature, thus, further explanatory research would be required to sufficiently draw this latter cause and effect relationship. Furthermore, a richer and specific data set substantiating this cause and effect relationship would be warranted. As such, future empirical studies pursuing this research question more specifically would be a worthy endeavour. Dovetailing on future research and with respect to our unexpected results, interestingly, we identified the practice of humour present in all of Disney’s employee productions examined. In the context of stress mitigation, several studies (cf., Hochschild, 1983; Folkman and Lazuras, 1988) indicate that humour and amusement can relieve tension and facilitate emotional management in threatening situations. Humour can also have the effect to deflect or mitigate the amount of stress brought on by a negative event or a perceived threat (Francis, 1994). Therefore, shifting one’s attention to a more docile aspect of the event is an effective way of reducing emotionally induced stress. Certainly, then, this would seem to be helpful in combatting the constituent component of stress (e.g., situational, encounter). As such, we encourage further empirical research (e.g., case studies) examine

26

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

this phenomenon. We posit, in the context of human sustainability, valuable questions might be: What role does humour play in the organizational stress mitigation equation? How can humour be used strategically in the organization to improve human sustainability? And, how might humour be successfully intertwined (on a grander scale) in aesthetic practices. 6. Conclusion This review of the literature and our data analyses (interviews, documents, working papers etc.) illustrate that aesthetic practices intertwined with sensory and emotional knowledge in the organization may enhance human resource sustainability. However, as briefly mentioned above, more empirical research (perhaps quantitative) and testing are needed to determine the strength of relationships between variables. The results of such studies may help shape interventions within organizations in enhancing their human resource sustainability practices and generate a deeper understanding that human sustainability practices that are exercised in our daily work lives, infused into organizational philosophies, polices and practices can cause sustainability to go “viral”, beyond the walls of the organization. As these changes “[…] permeate human values, attitudes, and behaviours, we can expect to see changes in sustainability indicators, such as increased human health […]” (Starik and Kanashiro, 2013, p.25). We hope that this paper initiates that call for increased human health and reduced worker stress. We also hope that we have demonstrated that organizational aesthetic practices are one way of achieving it. We posit that we are just scraping the surface when it comes to exploring the effects of organizational aesthetic practices. Yes, we have explored the potential effects as it relates to stress in work settings, however, the indirect

27

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

results to implementing other organizational creative solutions (e.g., music, cooking) are numerous and perhaps far-reaching. We believe that creativity feeds the soul. This nourishment of soul inspires our actions to embrace what is good in life. To reach beyond the status quo, the norm, and to induce change, where change is needed. It is this ethos, at the intersection of human sustainability and creativity that we hope comes through in the many studies going forward.

Acknowledgements This study, in part, was financially supported by the David O’Brien Centre for Sustainable Enterprise (DOCSE). The authors would also like to thank Alpna Patel for her research and critical comments

28

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

References Adler, N. J. (2006). The Arts & Leadership: Now that we can do anything, what will we do?. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 5(4), 486-499. Ahola, K., Honkonen, T., Isometsä, E., Kalimo, R., Nykyri, E., Koskinen, S., & Lönnqvist, J. (2006). Burnout in the general population. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 41(1), 11-17. Albrecht, K. (2010). Stress and the manager. Simon and Schuster. Amabile, T. M. (1996). Assessing the work environment for creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 39(5), 1154–1184. Ambec, S., & Lanoie, P. (2008). Does it pay to be green? A systematic overview. Academy of Management Perspectives, 22, 45–62. Baptiste, N.R. (2007). Tightening the link between employee wellbeing at work and performance: A new dimension for HRM. Management Decision, 46, 284-309. Barling, J. (2014). The science of leadership. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Bateson, G. (1979). Mind and nature: A necessary unity. New York: E. P. Dutton. Benn, S., Dunphy, D., & Griffiths, A. (2006). Enabling change for corporate sustainability: An integrated perspective. Australasian Journal of Environmental Management, 13(3), 156-165. Bowen, P. W. (1996). The need for quality cultures. Training for Quality, 4(2), 14-18. Braverman, H. (1974). Labor and monopoly capital: The degradation of work in the Twentieth century. New York: Monthly Review Press. Budros, A. (1997). The new capitalism and organizational rationality: The adoption of downsizing programs, 1979–1994. Social Forces, 76(1), 229-250. Burawoy, M. (1979). Manufacturing consent: Changes in the labor process under monopoly capitalism. University of Chicago Press. Cannon, W. B. (1929). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage. Boston: Brandford. Carmeli, A. (2003). The relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, behavior and outcomes: An examination among senior managers. Journal of managerial Psychology, 18(8), 788-813.

29

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Cavanagh, S. (1997). Content analysis: Concepts, methods and applications. Nurse Researcher, 4, 5–16. Clarke, T. (2014, September 16). Coke, J&J join big companies behind new employee wellness push. Retrieved October 1, 2014, from http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/16/us-usa-healthcare-wellnessidUSKBN0HB2A720140916 Cook, S., and Yanow, D. (1993). Culture and 0rganizational learning. Journal of Management Inquiry, 2(4), 373–90. Cunliffe, A. L. (2008). Orientations to social constructionism: Relationally responsive social constructionism and its implications for knowledge and learning. Management Learning, 39(2), 123-139. Dewey, J. (1934). Art as experience. New York: Perigee Books. Ehrenfeld, J. R., & Hoffman, A. J. (2013). Flourishing: A frank conversation about sustainability. Greenleaf Publishing. Eisenberger, R., & Armeli, S. (1997). Can salient reward increase creative performance without reducing intrinsic creative interest? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 652–663. Ekvall, G. (1971). Creativity at the place of work. Stockholm: Reklamlito. Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. Qualitative inquiry, 12(2), 219-245. Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. (1988). Coping as a mediator of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 535-546. Francis, L. E. (1994). Laughter, the best mediation: Humor as emotion management in interaction. Symbolic Interaction, 17(2), 147-163. Fraser, K., Gosling, D., & Sorcinelli, M. D. (2010). Conceptualizing evolving models of educational development. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 10(122), 49-58. Fereday, J., & Muir-Cochrane, E. (2006). Demonstrating rigor using thematic analysis: A hybrid approach of inductive and deductive coding and theme development. International journal of qualitative methods, 5(1), 80-92. French, J. R. P., Caplan, R. D., & Harrison, R.V. (1982). The mechanisms of job stress and strain. London: Wiley

30

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Freudenberger, H. J. (1974). Staff burnout. Journal of social issues, 30(1), 159-165. Ganster, D. C., & Schaubroeck, J. (1991). Work Stress and Employee Health. Journal Of Management, 17(2), 235-271. Gherardi, S., Nicolini, D., & Strati, A. (2007). The passion for knowing. Organization, 14(3), 315-329. Gherardi, S. (2009). Practice? It’s a matter of taste! Management Learning, 40(5), 535550. Gibb, S. (2004). Imagination, creativity, and HRD: An aesthetic perspective. Human Resource Development Review, 3(1), 53-74. Heracleous, L. (2006). A tale of three discourses: The dominant, the strategic and the marginalized. Journal of Management Studies, 43(5), 1059-1087 Hochschild, A. (1983). The managed heart: The commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Ivanaj, V., Poldner, K., & Shrivastava, P. (2014). Hand/heart/head: Aesthetic practice pedagogy for deep sustainability learning. The Journal of Corporate Citizenship, (54), 23-47. Kalia, M. (2002). Assessing the economic impact of stress: The modern day hidden epidemic. Metabolism, 51(6), 49-53. Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals’ fit at work: A meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel psychology, 58(2), 281-342. Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. New York: McGrawHill. Lederman R. P. (1991). Content analysis of word texts. The American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing, 16, 169. Leiter, M. P., & Maslach, C. (2005). A mediation model of job burnout. In A. S. G. Antoniou & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Research companion to organizational health psychology (544–564). Cheltenham, United Kingdom: Edward Elgar. Levy, H., & Meltzer, D. (2004). What do we really know about whether health insurance affects health. Health policy and the uninsured, 179-204. Marcus, A. A., & Fremeth, A. R. (2009). Green management matters regardless. Academy of Management Perspectives, 23, 17–26.

31

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2(2), 99-113. Maslach, C., & Goldberg, J. (1998). Prevention of burnout: New perspectives. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 7, 63–74. Pfeffer, J. (2010). Building sustainable organizations: The human factor. The Academy of Management Perspectives, 24(1), 34-45. Ramirez, R. (1996). Wrapping form and organizational beauty. Organization, 3(2), 233– 42. Rosa, H. (2013). Social acceleration: A new theory of modernity. Columbia University Press. Rousseau, D. M. (2006). The shifting risk for the American worker in the contemporary employment contract. In E. E. Lawler, III and J. O’Toole, (Eds.), America at Work: Choices and Challenges, 153-171. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Salovey, P. & Mayer, J. D. (1989). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, cognition and personality, 9(3), 185-211. Sandelands, L. E. (1998). Feeling and form in social life. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study. Journal of organizational Behavior, 25(3), 293-315. Seligman, M.E. (2012). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York, USA: Simon and Schuster. Selye, H. 1976. The stress of life. New York: McGraw-Hill Shrivastava, P. (2010). Pedagogy of passion for sustainability. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 9(3), 443–455. Shrivastava, P., Ivanaj, V., & Ivanaj, S. (2012). Sustainable development and the arts. International Journal of Technology Management, 60(1), 23-43. Spenner, K. I. (1990). Skill meanings, methods, and measures. Work and Occupations, 17(4), 399-421. Spooner, K., & Kaine, S. (2010). Defining Sustainability and Human Resource Management. International Employment Relations Review, 16(2), 70.

32

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Starik, M., & Kanashiro, P. (2013). Toward a theory of sustainability management uncovering and integrating the nearly obvious. Organization & Environment, 26, 7-30. Strati, A. (2007). Sensible knowledge and practice-based learning. Management Learning, 38(1), 61-77. Swart, J. (2011). That’s why it matters: How knowing creates value. Management Learning, 42(3), 319-332. Taliaferro, C. (2012). Aesthetics: A Beginner's Guide. Oneworld Publications. Taylor, S. S., & Hansen, H. (2005). Finding form: Looking at the field of organizational aesthetics. Journal of Management Studies, 42(6), 1211-1231. Taylor, S. S., Ladkin, D., & Statler, M. (2015). Caring orientations: The normative foundations of the craft of management. Journal of Business Ethics, 128(3), 575584. Teasdale, E. L. (2006). Workplace stress. Psychiatry, 5(7), 251-254. Vallas, S. P. (1990). The Concept of Skill A Critical Review. Work and Occupations, 17(4), 379-398. Weber, A. (2013). Enlivenment. Towards a fundamental shift in the concepts of nature, culture and politics. Heinrich Boell Foundation, Publication Series Ecology, Retrieved from http://www.autor-andreasweber.de/downloads/Enlivenment_web.pdf Yin, R. (2014). Case study research: Design and Methods, 5th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Zikmund, W. (2000). Business Research Methods, Fort Worth: The Dryden Press.

33