Sydney Harbour: Beautiful, diverse, valuable and pressured

Accepted Manuscript Sydney Harbour: Beautiful, diverse, valuable and pressured J.L. Banks, L.H. Hedge, C. Hoisington, E.M. Strain, P.D. Steinberg, E.L. Johnston PII: DOI: Reference:

S2352-4855(16)30052-4 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2016.04.007 RSMA 130

To appear in:

Regional Studies in Marine Science

Received date: 10 August 2015 Revised date: 27 April 2016 Accepted date: 28 April 2016 Please cite this article as: Banks, J.L., Hedge, L.H., Hoisington, C., Strain, E.M., Steinberg, P.D., Johnston, E.L., Sydney Harbour: Beautiful, diverse, valuable and pressured. Regional Studies in Marine Science (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2016.04.007 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

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Title: Sydney Harbour: beautiful, diverse, valuable and pressured

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Author names and affiliations:

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Banks J.L.1, Hedge L.H.1, Hoisington, C.1, Strain, E.M. 1, Steinberg P.D.1,2 and Johnston E.L.1,2

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1

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2088, Sydney, Australia

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Corresponding author:

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Dr Joanne Banks, Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Building 19 Chowder Bay Rd, Mosman NSW

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2088, [email protected],au, T: +61 412 800 839

Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Building 19, Chowder Bay Road, Mosman, New South Wales,

University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052

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Keywords: Sydney Harbour; threats; socio-economic; culture

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Abstract

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Sydney’s Harbour is an integral part of the city providing natural, social, and economic benefits to 4.84

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million residents. It has significant environmental value including a diverse range of habitats and

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animals. A range of anthropogenic and environmental pressures threatens these including loss and

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modification of habitats, oversupply of nutrients and introduction of pollutants such as metals,

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organics, and microplastics, introduction of non-indigenous species and the impacts of recreational

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fishing. Many people now recognise not only the environmental value of Sydney Harbour, but also the

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economic and social benefits a healthy harbour provides. Over 80% of residents recognise the

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importance of maintaining a pollution-free coastal environment and conserving the Harbour’s

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abundant and diverse marine life. A recent review gathered information to make some first estimates

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of economic revenues and values associated with Sydney Harbour. Port and maritime revenues ($430

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million/yr), ferries ($175 million/yr), cruise ship expenditure ($1025 million/yr), major foreshore

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events such as New Year’s Eve and the Sydney Festival ($400 million/yr), and also income from

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culture, heritage, arts and science (over $33 million/yr) inject considerable funds into the Australian

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economy. Notably, proximity to the harbour enhances Sydney domestic real estate capital by an

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estimated $40 billion, equivalent to $3,775 million/yr and biological ecosystem services were valued at

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$175 million/yr. Here we provide i) a synthesis of our current understanding of the natural, social, and

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economic resources of Sydney Harbour, ii) the threats and pressures these resources face, and finally

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iii) how a new marine management framework is being used to address these threats to the natural,

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social and economic wellbeing of Sydney Harbour. This review clearly shows that Sydney Harbour is a 1

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valuable and valued environment that deserves continuing scientific, social, and economic research to

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support management now and in the future.

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1

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Sydney Harbour, situated in south-eastern Australia (Latitude:-33.846355°, Longitude:151.212248°),

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sits within a catchment of 4.84 million residents—approximately one-fifth of the total population of

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Australia (23.49 million; (ABS 2013-14). The harbour is iconic, and is officially recognised as one of

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Australia’s Natural Landscapes; areas that embody the cultural and natural spirit of the nation

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(Tourism Australia 2013). The population of Sydney is set to grow by approx. 1.9 %/yr (City of Sydney

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2014b) and is projected to reach 7 million by 2050. This upward trend places increasing pressure on

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coastal resources and habitats (Barragán and de Andrés 2015). The natural habitats of the Harbour

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and its threats have been extensively covered in Johnston (2015) and Mayer-Pinto (2015). Therefore

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unlike the other world harbour reviews in this manuscript we only briefly describe the natural

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resources and current threats, and focus on the history, and social and economic values associated

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with the Harbour. This knowledge will contribute to this special issue reviewing the specific

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opportunities and challenges found within harbour environments.

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2

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The Sydney Harbour surrounds were inhabited from up to 50,000 years ago (Heiss and Gibson 2015).

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The most ancient camp, located at Cammeray in Middle Harbour (Figure 1), is approximately 6000

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years old (Hoskins 2009). Campsites were usually located close to the shore, especially during summer

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when fish and shellfish was the main food (Heiss and Gibson 2015). A prominent Harbour-side carving

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of a marine creature with a man carved inside its body indicates the importance of the Harbour’s

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marine resources to the local community (Figure 2) (Hoskins 2009).

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Figure 1: A map of Sydney Harbour featuring sites mentioned in the text

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Introduction

History

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Figure 2: Aboriginal carving at Balls Head Reserve on Sydney’s North Shore (see Figure 1 for location).

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Photograph (circa 1900) is in the North Sydney Heritage Centre Collection, Stanton Library (Hoskins 2009)

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Europeans first entered Sydney Harbour on 28 April 1770; the 400-ton British ship The Endeavour,

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under the captaincy of James Cook, sought safe anchorage, freshwater, food and a place for Joseph

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Banks, the renowned naturalist, to gather flora and fauna (Hoskins 2009). Colonisation by the First

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Fleet of British ships began in 1788 with the foundation of a penal colony (Hoskins 2009). The fleet

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consisted of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and six convict transports, carrying more than

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1,000 convicts, marines and seamen, and stores (Hoskins 2009). The expedition leader Captain Arthur

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Phillip described Sydney Harbour as ‘one of the finest harbours in the world, in which a thousand sail of

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the line might ride in perfect security’ (Hoskins 2009). The colony quickly grew with the arrival of the

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Second (June 1790) and Third Fleets (August 1791) (Birch 2007). For the indigenous owners of the

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land, the arrival of Europeans had devastating consequences: conflicts arose with the new settlers and

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almost half of the population died in a smallpox epidemic (Heiss & Gibson, 2015).

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The settlement developed rapidly from a penal colony to a thriving town and then city and a gateway

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to the continent (Hoskins 2009). By the 1800s tanneries, metal foundries, coppersmiths and paint

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manufacturers were established on the shores of the Harbour (Birch 2007). Shoreline industry

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expanded along with imports of raw materials and exports of manufactured goods (Walsh 1962). By

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the latter half of the century, engineering, building materials, metals, clothing and textiles were the

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major industries on the foreshore (Birch 2007). Industrialisation of the Harbour surrounds grew rapidly

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in the 19th century and into the first half of the 20th century. Factories, oil refineries, and power

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stations made use of the freshwater supplies and transport links, and the surrounding population

78

continued to expand. By 1850, industry occupied 95 % of the eastern shoreline of Darling Harbour and

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expanded into Iron Cove and Hen and Chicken Bay between 1892-1936 (Figure 1), (Birch et al. 2015). 3

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The harbour environment deteriorated and water quality plummeted. Sewage and industrial pollution

81

were released directly into the Harbour and public abattoirs dumped blood, offal and effluent into the

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drains and sewers (Hoskins 2009). During the summer months the smell from the harbour engulfed

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the city, leading to fears of pestilence and disease (Hoskins 2009).

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Despite these issues, the land surrounding the harbour rapidly urbanised (Birch et al. 2015). An 1888

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painting of the Harbour by the artist A. H. Fulwood depicts the intimate connection between the busy

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Harbour and its people (Figure 3). Sydney was and is a city ‘intrinsically connected to its waterfront’

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(Hoskins 2009). Sydney’s population doubled between 1901 and the early 1920s (Hoskins 2009). Ferry

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and railway expansion and the building of the Sydney Harbour Bridge enabled settlement to the north

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and west of the Harbour (Birch et al. 2015). By the end of the Second World War Sydney began its

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gradual evolution from a site of heavy industry and shipping to the more modern city that we know

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today (Hoskins 2009). Over the next half a century, heavy industries such as chemical plants, gasworks,

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and paint manufacturers relocated from the waterfront and the input of heavy metal and organic

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contaminants reduced (Birch 2007). In addition, the Harbour began to lose it status as a major

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shipping terminal (Hoskins 2009).

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Figure 3: Bird's-eye view of Sydney, 1888 / A.H. Fullwood. ‘A representation of a city intrinsically connected to its

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waterfront (Hoskins 2009). Reproduced with permission of Sydney’s Historic Houses Trust,

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http://collection.hht.net.au/firsthhtpictures/fullRecordPicture.jsp?recnoListAttr=recnoList&recno=41984

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Prior to 1960, Sydney's international shipping facilities were exclusively located at Darling Harbour and

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Walsh Bay, with bulk and break bulk docks, and bulk and roll-on, roll-off docks at Glebe Island and 4

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White Bay (Figure 1), (Port Authority of New South Wales 2016). However, as both the volumes of

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trade and the size of ships increased, Sydney’s wharves were gradually becoming less adequate

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(Sydney Ports Accessed 05.04.16) and the Harbour’s steep topography made further reclamation of

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land difficult (Hoskins 2009). As a result, in 1979, a deep-water seaport located in Botany Bay, Port

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Botany, was opened to the south of the city and this has since become Australia’s second biggest

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container port (Sydney Ports Accessed 05.04.16).

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By the 1960s Sydney was fast becoming Australia’s financial capital and the waterfront close to the

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CBD was rapidly modernised (Hoskins 2009). By the 1980s the city and its harbour was a global tourist

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attraction: the number of tourists increased from approximately 1 to 5 million from 1980 to 1985

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(Hoskins 2009). The waterfront Sydney Opera House had opened in 1973, highlighting the cultural

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development of the city. The Bicentennial celebrations of 1988 continued the development of ‘cultural

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precincts’ remodelling the waterfront and replacing old harbour infrastructure (Hoskins 2009). In

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2000, Sydney hosted the successful 2000 Olympics, engendering a massive shoreline rehabilitation

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program at Homebush Bay (Figure 1), a former wetland site that had been heavily degraded by a

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century worth of pollution from an abattoir, brickworks, armaments depot and waste dumps

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(Burchett et al. 1999). Sydney is now a world city – cosmopolitan, vibrant with culture, and an

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economic powerhouse. Sydney Harbour has been integral to its evolution.

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2.1

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Sydney Harbour lies in the Hawkesbury Sandstone and Ashfield Shale of the Sydney Basin. It is a

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drowned river valley that formed approximately 10,000 years ago during a rise in sea level (Roy 1984,

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Birch 2007). The estuary is approximately 30 km long with an area of 50 km2 and a total catchment of

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about 500 km2 (Birch 2007) and a steep sandstone shoreline approximately 300 km long (Creese et al.

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2009). The entrance to the harbour is 3 km wide and ~30 m deep (Hutchings et al. 2013). Tidal

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patterns generally determine circulation in Sydney Harbour and tides are diurnal, reversing every six

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hours (Das et al. 2000) and the maximum tidal range is 2.1 m (Roy et al. 2001). The bathymetry is

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complex consisting of dredged channels for shipping, a number of deep holes (28-45m) and shallow

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embayments (Figure 4) (OzCoasts 2015). Sand, transported by waves, has created a tidal delta at the

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mouth and sediments transported and deposited by rivers have formed a fluvial delta in the upper

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parts of the estuary (Johnston et al. 2015). Thus the sand content of the bottom sediments decreases

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upstream: the lower harbour towards the mouth has mostly sandy sediments, the central and upper

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harbours have mostly muddy sand sediments, and the shallow mid-harbour embayments are mostly

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blanketed in thick mud (Birch 2007).

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Geology

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Figure 4: The bathymetry of Sydney Harbour, which includes a series of deep ‘holes'. The dashed line indicates the

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position of the landward margin of the flood tide delta. To the west (left) of this line the bottom sediments

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become dominated by terrestrial mud (OzCoasts 2015)

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2.2

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Sydney’s climate is temperate-humid; the mean atmospheric temperature range from a mean

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minimum of 8.1 °C to a mean maximum of 16.3 °C in July (austral winter) and from a mean minimum

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of 18.7 °C to a mean maximum of 25.9 °C in January (austral summer), (Bureau of Metereology).

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Under normal conditions rainfall in the Sydney catchments is small, with 32.7 mean number of days of

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rain > 10 mm per year (157 year average), (Bureau of Metereology). During these dryer periods, inputs

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of freshwater are low, and the harbour remains mostly saline (Lee et al. 2011, Lee and Birch. 2012).

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However, under periodic heavy rainfall conditions (>50 mm/day), large volumes of rainwater flow into

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the harbour creating an upper freshwater layer up to 2m thick (Beck and Birch 2012a).

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3

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Sydney Harbour has a diverse biota reflecting the diversity of the habitats found in the Harbour

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including: rocky intertidal, mangrove, saltmarsh, sub-tidal rocky reef, seagrass, soft-sediments,

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beaches and open water systems (Johnston et al. 2015). These habitats support a rich diversity with

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over 3000 species of crustacea, mollusc, fish, polychaete and echinoderm species (Hutchings et al.

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2013) and an unknown number of microbial taxa (estimated at > 10,000 by Chariton et al. 2010).

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There are a number of threats to this diversity and resultant ecosystem functioning. Over 50% of the

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original shoreline of Sydney Harbour has been altered and replaced with artificial structures such as

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seawalls and pontoons (Chapman and Bulleri 2003, Mayer-Pinto et al. 2015). These changes can have

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major impacts on adjacent ecosystems (e.g. soft-sediment and rocky-shore communities) via physical

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disturbance, loss of habitat, and noise and light pollution (Airoldi and Beck 2007, Dafforn et al. 2015a).

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The Sydney Harbour catchment is largely impervious to rainfall, due to infrastructure and housing, and

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stormwater run-off can be as great as 500 gigalitres per year (Beck and Birch 2012b). Stormwater

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contains an array of pollutants such as litter, sediment, oil and metals that are picked up from roads 6

Climate and hydrology

The natural resources of Sydney Harbour and current threats

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and properties (Beck and Birch 2012b).

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Other pollution sources are from a large chemical industry that historically operated in the western

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areas of Sydney Harbour (Birch and Taylor 2000, McCready et al. 2000, McCready et al. 2004). Poor

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environmental management strategies and waste disposal mechanisms at the time created pockets of

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dangerous contamination, in particular dioxins, Pb and other heavy metals (Dafforn et al. 2012). The

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introduction of the Clean Waters Act and Regulations in the early 1970s banned the dumping of

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domestic and industrial waste into the harbour (except under licence), producing an improvement in

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water and sediment quality (Birch and Taylor 2000). There remains, however, a historical legacy of

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contamination in the benthic sediments around these areas (Dafforn et al. 2012).

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Introduced marine species are a problem in ports and coastal waters around the world and Sydney

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Harbour has a diverse array (AMBS 2002). In 1996, Australia’s Centre for Research on Introduced Pests

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formulated sampling protocols for Australian Ports prioritising sampling areas and targeted species

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likely to create the most disturbance within the Australian environment (Hewitt and Martin 1996). The

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report recommended top priority areas for sampling within ports: 1) around commercial shipping

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facilities, particularly active berths and slipways, and 2) around non-commercial facilities, particularly

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mariculture facilities and fishing vessel berths and moorings (Hewitt and Martin 1996). Species of

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particular concern were identified as Schedule 1: those classified by the Australian Ballast Water

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Management Advisory Council (ABWMAC) as target introduced pest species and Schedule 2) marine

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species that pose a threat to Australia (Hewitt and Martin 1996). Two schedule 1 species have been

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recorded in Sydney Harbour – the toxic dinoflagellates Alexandrium catenella and A. tamarense; and

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one species in Schedule 2 – the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) (AMBS 2002).

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Climate change is also likely to impact upon the ecosystems of Sydney Harbour as waters warm, sea

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level rises and ocean acidification progresses (Mayer-Pinto et al. 2015). Warming waters in subtidal

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waters could result in the south-ward expansion of tropical species and northern retreat of temperate

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species (Hughes 2003), altered biotic interactions (Vergés et al. 2014), and potentially greater

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exposure of hosts to pathogens and disease (Lafferty et al. 2015). In the intertidal, sea level rise,

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warming and changes in precipitation and salinity may lead to loss of foreshore and intertidal

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vegetation and changes to some natural systems (Johnston et al. 2015).

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4

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Some argue that a key socio-ecological question of our times is whether humans are losing their

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connection with the natural world (Vining et al. 2008) and if so, what are the consequences of this

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(Mayer and Frantz 2004). One idea is that to protect the natural environment and use its resources

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sustainably, humans first need personally to value it in monetary terms. This can be difficult because 7

Societal-environmental interactions in Sydney Harbour

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the social benefits conferred by natural resources, such as security, basic material for good life, health

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and good social relations (Pleasant et al. 2014), are rarely captured by conventional market-based

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economic activity and analysis (Balmford et al. 2002, Glaser and Glaeser 2011).

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It is clear that many people value the natural world in many ways without reference to financial or

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economic values. We like walking along the Harbour or picnicking in a park, swimming etc. without

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any thought of estimating economic values for these activities. However, when decision-makers have

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to decide where public funds will be spent (and sometimes private investors also), benefit-cost (and

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other financial calculations) become important. This is where non-estimated values, whether social,

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environmental or others tend to be left out because we often do not have the means to put them into

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monetary terms. When decisions regarding funding priorities and budgets are based on financial

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calculations, the non-estimated values become in effect zero, despite the fact that people may care a

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great deal about these non-quantified and non-estimated values.

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However, efforts are now made to review the non-monetary values that humans place on their

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natural environment (Lehtonen 2004, Millenium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, Millennium Assessment

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2005, Olsen et al. 2006, Glaser and Glaeser 2011, de Jonge et al. 2012) and, increasingly, researchers

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are incorporating the valuation of ecosystem services in environmental decision making (Heal et al.

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2005, Fisher et al. 2009, Jones-Walters and Mulder 2009, Liu et al. 2010, Atkins et al. 2011, Luisetti et

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al. 2011, van den Belt 2011, Costanza et al. 2014, Dickinson et al. 2015, Guerry et al. 2015, Li et al.

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2015, Marre et al. 2015, Ruckelshaus et al. 2015).

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In this vein, in a recent review of the economics of Sydney Harbour, Hoisington (2015) characterised

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the economic values of Sydney Harbour as all aspects of the Harbour ‘that society would want to

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retain or enhance, and for which it would consider incurring a sacrifice’. The report, Our Harbour Our

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Asset made a first attempt to gather and assemble data on all of the wide range of uses and values for

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which Sydney Harbour is essential or very important. The report was organised into eight groupings of

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values, ranging from harbour activities through social values to ecosystems services. It is a compilation

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of estimations and a listing of information gaps. It offers a framework for beginning the complex task

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of estimating values of a harbour that residents and visitors use in a variety of ways and value highly,

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without directly paying for the harbour itself.

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The economic assessments include user activities that can be explicitly calculated or estimated (e.g.,

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the marginal uplift in property values, the total revenue for boat storage and mooring operations, or

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the generation of income for local businesses as a result of Harbour-side events), and also those that

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rely implicitly on the Harbour to provide goods and services. The latter includes the non-material

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benefits to the community such as beach trips, swimming, snorkelling, diving, boating, bushwalking, 8

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and enjoyment of the natural beauty. Recreation activities such as these have become a major

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contributor to the gross domestic product (GDP) and wellbeing of coastal populations worldwide

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(Ghermandi et al. 2011). Here we summarise key features of the review.

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At the centre of a populous city, Sydney Harbour supports a transport network, tourism and cruise-

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liners, port operations, a large recreational boating community, fishers, swimmers, divers, snorkelers,

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adventure and entertainment seekers, and many users of harbour-side parks and walkways. Many

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private businesses are associated with these uses of the Harbour, but financial revenue data is often

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commercial in confidence. Therefore, only some of these values (harbour operations, cruise ships,

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ferries, and some major events and icons) are estimated. The value of scientific research and the more

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abstract values of aesthetic enjoyment and the spiritual beliefs of traditional owners are also

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important, but unquantified.

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For some people, a boat trip on the Harbour forms part of their daily commute while others use ferries

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for recreation. Out of 14.7 million ferry journeys in 2011-12, sightseers made commuters made 32 %

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and 47 % (Sydney Ferries 2012). During this time Sydney Ferries generated a $9.8 m income surplus

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(Sydney Ferries 2012). Not quantified is the additional economic value attributable to both the

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aesthetic value of travelling by ferry and resulting from there being fewer cars on the road, lessening

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road maintenance costs and a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.

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The Glebe Island and White Bay port precincts in Sydney Harbour are home to deep-water berths that

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accommodate dry bulk imports and cruise terminals (Figure 1), (Port Authority of New South Wales

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2016). Although most Sydney-bound container traffic now flows to Port Botany, the Harbour supports

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a substantial volume of vessels. In 2013, 1419 commercial vessels were recorded in Sydney Harbour

247

(Maritime Management Centre 2013). Sydney Port Operations generated $80.1 m income in 2014

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with 1.570 million mass tonnes of total trade, comprised of 1.345 million mass tonnes of bulk liquids,

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gas and oil and dry bulk (Sydney Ports Corporation 2014). Note that this figure combines Sydney

250

Harbour figures with those for the much larger Port Botany and the report did not supply the

251

information necessary to separate the accounts.

252

Recreational boaters use Sydney Harbour for sailing, kayaking, motor cruising, fishing, and attending

253

public events such as New Year’s Eve fireworks (NSW RMS 2012). The harbour has a large number of

254

boat moorings: 4850 private, 920 commercial, 1700 marine berths, 220 marina-visitor and charter

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vessel berths, 1680 domestic berths, moorings and associated storage spaces, and 480 private marina

256

berths (Maritime Management Centre 2013).

257

Fishing, whether via boat or from the shore, is popular: a three-month survey of recreational fishers in

258

the summer of 2008 recorded 300,000 hours of daytime fishing effort on the Harbour (Ghosn et al. 9

259

2010). In 2013, recreational fishing was worth $71 m/year based on figures for amount spent on

260

equipment and supplies (Hoisington 2015) rather than the lesser value of retail equivalent prices for

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fish caught. Additionally, Sydney resident day fishers are estimated to spend around $100/day (in

262

2003 figures) on tackle, boat fuel and hire, clothes and travel (Dominion Consulting PL 2003, McIlgorm

263

and Pepperell 2013 ). A large proportion (62 %) of fishing in Sydney Harbour is from the shore, with

264

average expenditure estimated at $75/day (Hoisington 2015).

265

Sydney is an internationally renowned tourist destination receiving 2.6 million international visitors in

266

2012-13 (Tourism Australia 2013). Tourist expenditure in Sydney in 2014 was estimated at $14.5

267

billion, although these figures are for Sydney as a whole, it is frequently acknowledged that the

268

Harbour is a vital part of the city’s appeal (Destination NSW 2015). The growth of the cruise ship

269

industry overall, largely from tourists, but to some extent by Australian travellers as well, has been

270

around 24% per year for about 10 years. During 2009/10, 119 cruise ships visited Sydney Harbour,

271

while 280 were scheduled for 2014/15 (AEC Group Ltd. 2013 , Sydney Ports Corporation 2014). Visitors

272

and residents use the Harbour side for walks (there are 122 km of Harbour walks), visiting parks and

273

reserves, dining out, as well as water recreation such as swimming, diving, and snorkelling.

274

Residents and tourists also visit the most well-known and iconic sights in the Harbour, including the

275

Opera House, Darling Harbour and the Botanical Gardens, which are closely related to the Harbour.

276

Revenue figures for some of these were found (e.g. the Opera House and immediate surrounds are

277

estimated at $245 million/year in value added, and Taronga Zoo revenues at $42 million just in entry

278

fees), but the value of these in attracting tourists is hard to quantify (Hoisington 2015). In addition, it is

279

estimated that 86,000 people are directly employed in the tourism industry in Sydney (Tourism

280

Australia 2013).

281

A large number of events take place on the water or on foreshores of the Harbour, and enjoyed by

282

residents and visitors alike. The value of some of the foreshore events has been estimated (City of

283

Sydney 2014a, Thomsen 2014, Destination NSW 2015). 

284 285

New Year’s Eve fireworks – $156 m (http://www.sydney.com/destinations/sydney/sydneycity/new-years-eve-sydney)

286



Sydney Festival – $57 m (http://www.sydneyfestival.org.au/info/)

287



Handa Opera – $30 m (http://www.sydney.com/events/handa-opera-on-sydney-harbour)

288



Vivid Festival – $20 m (http://www.vividsydney.com/ )

289

The Harbour is also a centre of employment in traditional port industries, such as cargo handling and

290

cruise liner docking, as well as in recreation and tourism oriented businesses, for example harbour-

291

side attractions, such as the Sydney Opera House and Opera Bridge, as well as restaurants, nightclubs 10

292

and bars. The value of retail and services was not estimated due to the private ‘commercial in

293

confidence’ basis of such financial information. Businesses benefiting from proximity to the Harbour

294

include: water taxis; marinas and commercial docks; boating businesses; fishing businesses; water

295

sport businesses; charter boats; sightseeing and commuter seaplanes; and Harbour-side restaurants.

296

The visual appeal of the Harbour and the desire to be close to its amenities adds a massive boost to

297

the Sydney property market. Proximity to the Harbour greatly increases residential property values. A

298

$40 billion price premium has been estimated for private residences near the Harbour (Hoisington

299

2015, based on data from NSW Government 2012 and 2013) and four of the top five most expensive

300

suburbs in Australia have Sydney Harbour frontage or views (Pelosi 2014).

301

Natural environments still provide humanity with critical ecosystem services (Balmford et al. 2002, de

302

Jonge et al. 2012). Ecosystem services are the benefits people derive from functioning ecosystems; the

303

ecological characteristics, functions, or processes that directly or indirectly contribute to human well-

304

being (Costanza et al. 1997, Millenium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). Understanding the value of

305

ecosystem services to society, relative to other marketed and non-marketed goods and services, as

306

well as the costs of their loss and degradation is vital for policy, planning, and regulatory decisions

307

(Fisher and Kerry Turner 2008, Costanza et al. 2011). Examples of useful environmental functions

308

provided by Sydney Harbour include: water filtration, nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration,

309

cooling the city and moderating its temperature swings, providing nurseries for important seafood

310

species for recreational fishers in the harbour and (for both recreational and commercial fishers) in

311

the ocean and aesthetic and recreational value.

312

Hoisington used an assessment of the value of ecosystem services in Australian estuaries (calculated in

313

Blackwell 2005) to estimate those in the Harbour. The ecosystem services provided by Sydney Harbour

314

are estimated as $175 million per year taking as an area the entire estuary of 55 km2, but reducing the

315

area estimated for swimming to 3 km2 and for fish nursery services to 15km2. A survey of all the

316

ecosystem services provided by Sydney Harbour along with a more accurate calculation of their value

317

will be an important next step in identifying species, habitats, and spatial areas to protect for the

318

maintenance of key goods and services.

319

5

320

5.1

321

The natural resource management of Sydney Harbour is made particularly difficult given the Harbour

322

sits in such a large, urbanised catchment, with a community that places much social and economic

323

value on a functioning Harbour ecosystem (Hedge et al. 2014b). In the past few years there has been a 11

Managing a complex, urbanised estuary Implementing a streamlined management authority

324

consistent effort to understand the biophysical characteristics of Sydney Harbour and how the Sydney

325

community is impacting on natural resources by research and government agencies (Johnston et al.

326

2015, Mayer-Pinto et al. 2015, Banks et al. in review).

327

Coastal zone management, generally, is weakened by multiple governance frameworks (Bruns 2013)

328

due to ‘conflicting authorities, unclear or lack of responsibilities allocation, poor stakeholder

329

involvement/ commitment and lack of scientific knowledge’. To overcome this uncertainty in the

330

waters of New South Wales, the state Government established The Marine Estate Management

331

Authority (MEMA) under the Marine Estate Management Act 2014. The role of the Authority is to

332

advise the NSW Government on how to have ‘a healthy coast and sea, managed for the greatest

333

wellbeing of the community, now and into the future’ (p.3, MEMA 2013). Recently, MEMA initiated a

334

Sydney Harbour project to promote and facilitate information sharing and collaboration to support a

335

scientifically sound approach to management (http://www.marine.nsw.gov.au/key-initiatives/sydney-

336

harbour).

337

The MEMA currently has a toolbox of state and federal legislation such as the NSW Protection of the

338

Environment Operations Act 1997, the NSW Coastal Protection Act 1979 and the Environment

339

Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Hedge et al. 2014a). Further, a new Marine Estate

340

Expert Knowledge Panel (MEEKP) provides MEMA with scientific advice. The main goal is to implement

341

an overarching plan for the management of the NSW marine estate, including Sydney Harbour, to

342

overcome the problems inherent in multiple agencies (Banks et al. in review). In 2015, MEMA

343

introduced a Threat and Risk Assessment Framework (TARA) for the NSW Marine Estate to manage

344

the confluence of intense human activity and natural biodiversity found in in the region (MEMA,

345

2015). The Framework will prioritise current threats, how they interact, whether they are cumulative

346

and prospects for remediation (NSW MEMA 2014).

347

The first step collates existing knowledge about the Harbour natural resources, in particular the

348

benefits provided to the community and the threats to those benefits. A series of reports and peer-

349

reviewed articles synthesised the current scientific knowledge. Secondly, MEMA sought to measure

350

community benefits by identifying the key economic, social and environmental benefits, and

351

perceived threats and opportunities derived from the estate via community consultation, expert input

352

and stakeholder surveys (MEMA, 2015). This work is on-going (MEMA 2014). The vision of MEMA for

353

Sydney Harbour and the NSW marine environment is ‘to have a healthy coast and sea, managed for

354

the greatest well-being of the community, now and into the future’ (www.marine.nsw.gov.au).

355

5.2

356

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people continue to reside in greater Sydney with 29 clan groups 12

Recognising traditional owners

357

collectively referred to as the Eora Nation (Figure 5, Heiss and Gibson 2015). For them, the Sydney

358

landscape holds significant spiritual and religious importance (Heiss and Gibson 2015).

359 360

Figure 5: Map of locations of Aboriginal groups in the Sydney area in (Heiss and Gibson 2015) reproduced from

361

(Mulvaney and White 1987)

362

Today the City of Sydney acknowledges the Gadigal clan as the traditional custodians (City of Sydney

363

Accessed 03/07/15). Sydney and the Harbour surrounds have many fine rock engraving sites (for

364

example see Figure 2 and http://www.thegreatnorthwalk.com/rockart) and ancient Aboriginal sites

365

containing relics such as stone tools, and midden deposits (Heiss and Gibson 2015). The National Parks

366

and Wildlife Act 1974 and Heritage Act 1977 protect Aboriginal relics and sites, and natural and

367

cultural heritage (Heiss and Gibson 2015).

368

Tourism is identified as a way for indigenous groups to maintain their cultural values and for traditions

369

to be perpetuated (Sweeney Research 2014). Programs and initiatives aimed at supporting Aboriginal

370

tourism in the Harbour include the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) Aboriginal

371

Discovery Program and the Indigenous Tourism Champions Program instigated by Tourism Australia

372

and Indigenous Business Australia. An example of a successful tourism company is the non-profit

373

Tribal Warrior (http://tribalwarrior.org/) that offers tourist charters on Sydney Harbour. Initiated and

374

directed by Aboriginal people, Aboriginal Elders work to empower young people by offering training

375

aboard the Tribal Warrior and the Mari Nawi vessels. 13

376

Indigenous people are critical stakeholders in coastal research with legally recognized ownership,

377

management, and cultural rights to the coastal zone (Bayliss 2015). The importance of increasing the

378

involvement of indigenous Australians in marine research and monitoring was highlighted in the 2016

379

National Marine Science Plan (National Marine Science Committee 2015). The Plan notes that

380

indigenous cultural connection to and knowledge of the ocean must be valued and used in strategies

381

to use and manage marine resources, including those of Sydney Harbour (National Marine Science

382

Committee 2015).

383

5.1

384

Many government organisations are increasingly reliant on community organisations to an

385

understanding of the marine environment and to help promote stewardship of local community

386

towards their environment (ABS 2010). In NSW, there are currently 4 local volunteer groups that focus

387

on monitoring the marine environment in Sydney Harbour (Dalton and Smith 2009) and 2 Australia

388

wide groups that include monitoring of this area.

389

Local groups:

Community involvement – citizen science

390



Underwater Research Group of NSW: http://www.urgdiveclub.org.au/

391



Underwater Sydney: http://www.underwatersydney.org/Activities.aspx

392



Eco divers: http://www.manlyaustralia.com.au/11366/eco-divers/

393



Harbour and coast keepers: http://www.landcareonline.com.au/?page_id=44

394

Australia wide groups:

395



Reef Life Survey: http://reeflifesurvey.com/

396



Red map: http://www.redmap.org.au/region/nsw/

397

These groups quantify marine biodiversity, identify threatened and introduced species, quantify and

398

remove marine debris, and identify changes in species ranges (Dalton and Smith 2009). The joint

399

benefits include, increased spatial and temporal coverage of data collection (e.g. Stuart-Smith et al.

400

2015) and increased personal satisfaction for volunteers through their contributions, feelings of

401

enjoyment and socialising (Koss and Kingsley 2010). Successful groups ensure regular training of

402

volunteers, data management, and online availability, social media exposure and funding. There is

403

considerable scope to expand and consulate the data collected by these groups for management and

404

monitoring purposes.

405

5.2

406

Sydney Harbour has been the focus of extensive research. The five major universities in the area all 14

Scientific research

407

have a strong interest understanding the threats and pressures to the marine environment. The

408

collaboration between University of Macquarie, University of New South Wales, University of Sydney,

409

and University of Technology lead to the formation of the Sydney Institute of Marine Science in 2009

410

and its associated Marine Discovery centre in 2015 (http://sims.org.au/).

411

There is a growing scientific interest in the Harbour and approximately 65% of the current research on

412

the harbour was published in the last 10 years (www.webofknowledge.com). The recent focus of

413

these publications has turned from understanding the effects of historical uses and impacts to

414

assessing solutions for these complex harbour problems such as use of green engineering techniques

415

(Chapman and Underwood 2009, Browne et al. 2015, Dafforn et al. 2015b) and implementation of

416

marine protected areas (Edgar and Stuart-Smith 2009). This research has sparked public interest

417

(Morris et al. 2016). Current research efforts are focused on developing management and policy

418

efforts targeted at addressing point pollution sources (Davies and Wright 2014)

419

(http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/beach/ar1415/FB5-sydney.pdf) and addressing the

420

multiple anthropogenic and climatic stressors (Mayer-Pinto et al. 2015) to improve the biodiversity of

421

this highly urbanised estuary .

422

6

423

Harbours are subject to sustained anthropogenic pressure that threatens their ecological, social and

424

economic value, as are many international harbours (for examples see Lin et al. 2004, Wang et al.

425

2007, Lepland et al. 2010, Taylor 2010, Xu et al. 2011, Hamzeh et al. 2013, Hamdoun et al. 2015,

426

Valdor et al. 2015). Sydney Harbour is no exception. Fortunately there is growing political and public

427

recognition of the unique value of the Harbour environment (Banks et al. in review) and an increased

428

desire to understand and protect its natural assets.

429

Environmental systems are not only a function of their biophysical dynamics, but are also strongly

430

influenced by social dynamics and this creates a coupled socio-ecological system (Young et al. 2006).

431

The resilience of a city through time depends on its ability to simultaneously maintain both its

432

ecosystem and its human functions (Alberti et al. 2003). It seems likely that the resilience of harbours

433

and their adjoining urban environments will similarly rely on managing both their natural and socio-

434

economic characteristics. Sydney Harbour shares many of the challenges related to urbanisation and

435

economic development faced by other international harbours featured in this Special Issue: multiple

436

users place demands on finite natural resources, managers, and policy architects struggle to

437

incorporate ecological, social, and economic demands into a coherent management package. One size

438

does not fit all when managing such complex systems, but the comparison of the challenges and

439

solutions in world harbours in this issue offers an important knowledge source and guidance in 15

Conclusion

440

achieving sustainable and resilient harbours.

441

Here we detail a first estimation of the values of Sydney Harbour (we have been unable to find any

442

other attempt at listing economic values of Sydney Harbour, and comparable international attempts

443

seem to be very few in number to date). Hoisington (2015) offers a framework for valuing a harbour

444

that residents and visitors use it in a variety of ways and on which the community places high social

445

and cultural value. The Marine Estate Management Authority will facilitate information sharing and

446

collaboration to support a scientifically sound approach to management within the Harbour. Their

447

ongoing Threat and Risk Assessment Framework project will greatly assist in the management of the

448

particular problems arising from the confluence of intense human activity and incredible natural

449

biodiversity. Importantly, the involvement of the community and indigenous groups will be vital to

450

ensure the equitable development and ongoing management of the iconic Sydney Harbour.

451

7

452

ABS. 2010. 4441.0 - Voluntary Work, Australia, 2010 in Australian Bureau of Statistics, editor.

453 454

ABS. 2013-14. Regional Population Growth, Australia. Cat. No. 3218.0. Australian Bureau of Statistics, http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/3218.0/.

455 456

AEC Group Ltd. 2013 Economic Impact Assessment of the Cruise Shipping Industry in Australia (201213).

457 458

Airoldi, L., and M. W. Beck. 2007. Loss, status and trends for coastal marine habitats of Europe. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. An Annu. Rev. 45:345-405.

459 460 461

Alberti, M., J. M. Marzluff, E. Shulenberger, G. Bradley, C. Ryan, and C. Zumbrunnen. 2003. Integrating Humans into Ecology: Opportunities and Challenges for Studying Urban Ecosystems. BioScience 53:1169-1179.

462 463 464

AMBS. 2002. Port Surveys For Introduced Marine Species Sydney Harbour Final Report. Australian Museum Business Services http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/54203/200511170000/portsurvey1.pdf.

465 466 467

Atkins, J. P., D. Burdon, M. Elliott, and A. J. Gregory. 2011. Management of the marine environment: Integrating ecosystem services and societal benefits with the DPSIR framework in a systems approach. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62:215-226.

468 469 470 471

Balmford, A., A. Bruner, P. Cooper, R. Costanza, S. Farber, R. E. Green, M. Jenkins, P. Jefferiss, V. Jessamy, J. Madden, K. Munro, N. Myers, S. Naeem, J. Paavola, M. Rayment, S. Rosendo, J. Roughgarden, K. Trumper, and R. K. Turner. 2002. Economic Reasons for Conserving Wild Nature. Science 297:950-953.

472 473

Banks, J., P. Hutchings, B. Curley, L. Hedge, B. Creese, and E. Johnston. in review. Biodiversity conservation in Sydney Harbour Pacific Conservation Biology.

474 475

Barragán, J. M., and M. de Andrés. 2015. Analysis and trends of the world's coastal cities and agglomerations. Ocean & Coastal Management 114:11-20. 16

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