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Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies
Journal of Archaeological Science (2000) 27, 5–18 Article No. jasc.1999.0436, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies Judith Littleton Pacific Palaeoecology Research Laboratories, Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland, New Zealand Much has been written on the taphonomic processes affecting exposed animal and human remains, yet the exposure of deliberately buried bodies due to erosion is rarely mentioned. This study examines four burial sites in western New South Wales, Australia, where human burials have become exposed on the surface. Using criteria of stratigraphic location, mineralization, average fragment size, scattering and the degree of weathering, it is possible to demonstrate that wind and water erosion have very different effects on the burial which can create systematic biases in the recording of burials. In the case of wind erosion it is often possible to identify original location and context although the bone itself may be very poorly preserved. In contrast, water erosion causes the remains and the deposit to be lost at the same time. The human remains may be well preserved but once they are moved it is very difficult to reconstruct the original burial location. These differences plus the rate of change over time have a significant impact on the research potential of exposed burials. 2000 Academic Press Keywords: TAPHONOMY, SOUTH EAST AUSTRALIA, ABORIGINAL BURIALS, EROSION.
Introduction
raised relating both to archaeological interpretation and cultural heritage management are then discussed.
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orensic scientists have extensively analysed decay immediately following death in both buried and unburied bodies (Mant, 1987; Rodriguez & Bass, 1983, 1985; Haglund, 1991). Their focus has been on the decomposition, mechanical and chemical action upon bone and scattering by scavengers. Numerous archaeological and palaeontological studies have dealt with the taphonomic processes following death without burial (Behrensmeyer & Hill, 1980; Shipman, 1981; Weigelt, 1989). These are not directly applicable to deliberately buried bodies since they focus more upon scavenging of remains and weathering without mineralization. Secondary exposure of human burials has not been a focus of research by mainstream archaeologists. Increasingly in Australia and potentially elsewhere, however, excavation is not part of the process of recording human burials. The burial is recorded because it has become exposed on the ground’s surface. This exposure occurs long after burial and is a stage often not accounted for in traditional models of burial archaeology (e.g. Waldron, 1987). Yet it is apparent that there are characteristic patterns of burials according to how they are exposed and that the mechanism of exposure severely affects the nature of the data collected. In this paper four case studies are described from western New South Wales, which are pertinent to the effects and erosion, and some of the issues
Background The study area lies within the Murray Basin which extends over 300,000 km2 of inland southeast Australia (Figure 1; Brown & Stephenson, 1991). Within the basin, the Murray River and tributaries drain from the Great Dividing Range, through the plains of central and western New South Wales and northern Victoria, into South Australia and out into the Southern Ocean. The area which these rivers traverse is largely semi-arid with evaporation exceeding rainfall and there are frequent droughts interspersed with less frequent floods. Currently this area is used for rural purposes and only sparsely populated. In the past, however, the rivers were an abundant source of food and it was probably the most densely occupied area of Australia prior to European colonization (Brown, 1918; Birdsell, 1953). People living within the basin shared some cultural practices while maintaining regional and local variability (Peterson, 1986; Pardoe, 1988). One of the shared cultural practices is the predominance of primary inhumation as a form of burial (Meehan, 1971). In this semi-arid region burials most often occurred in sandy deposits such as lunettes, levees and sourcebordering dunes (Bonhomme, 1990). This is often interpreted as a matter of convenience: digging into the hard clays of the riverine plain with only a digging stick would be an extremely difficult job. Choice of a particular sand body for burial, however, was not necessarily a random process nor simply a matter of
*Please address correspondence to: J. Littleton, Pacific Palaeoecology Research Laboratories, Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand. fax:+64 9 373 7441; Email: J. [email protected]
5 0305–4403/00/010005+14 $35.00/0
2000 Academic Press
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Figure 1. The Murray Basin, Australia, showing site locations. Both East Moon 2 and Gecko Island are located at Lake Victoria.
convenience. Recording of sites along the Murray River makes it clear that some areas were reserved and maintained as formal burial grounds (Pardoe, 1988). In other areas burials occur as isolated interments or as accumulations of disassociated burials at low density. Preferential burial in sandy rather than heavier soils and the relative shallowness of burials (less than 2 m; Beveridge, 1883) means that these sites are readily affected by wind erosion. Overstocking of land, clearing of vegetation and feral animals have all contributed to the rate of wind erosion which is now a major problem in western New South Wales. Water erosion is less of a widespread problem but artificial regulation of the rivers and lakes has meant that areas previously above water are now subject to cyclical regimes of flooding and drying. In sum, it is an area where high populations in the past ensured that there are large numbers of burial sites and where degradation of the landscape also means that many of these burials are now, as in the past, coming to the surface. Of 134 burial sites recorded in the Murray– Murrumbidgee area (up to 1996) nearly half were exposed through erosion, the remainder by sand mining, roadworks and other development (based on
New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Sites Register).
Methods The four burial grounds to be discussed were recorded by the author and a field assistant during 1993–1996 for heritage assessment. Human remains were recorded in terms of size of the scatter (measured as diameter in m); stratigraphic position (determined by theodolite where possible); the degree of mineralization; the average fragment size (taken over the area of greatest density); staining; and the degree of weathering (adapted from Behrensmeyer, 1978). The number of categories used was kept small given the relatively small number of burials at each site. These characteristics were recorded in order to determine erosion history and current site impacts. The criteria used for the recording are presented in Table 1. In order to maintain consistency all determinations were made by the author and a series of photographs taken of each burial for later comparison. One major aim of recording was to see whether the current position of the body
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies Table 1. Categories of bone description Mineralization (based on total exposed surface) 1. None: bone unmineralized, cell structure visible 2. Partly: bone partly mineralized, cell structure only partly visible 3. Yes: bone mineralized, clinking sound when tapped, cell structure not visible Weathering (based on total exposed surface) 1. None: bone surface smooth, no cracking or flaking of surface (Behrensmeyer Stage 0*) 2. Part: bone surface cracked but still intact (Behrensmeyer Stage 1–3) 3. Yes: bone surface not intact, flaking off, cortical surface lost (Behrensmeyer Stage 4–5) Fragmentation (average size of fragments within 50 cm2) <1 cm 1–5 cm 5–10 cm 10+cm Complete Staining (based on total exposed surface) 1. Present (including a note of the colour) 2. Absent *Based on Behrensmeyer (1978).
in the dune has chronological significance or whether displacement of the skeleton was so great that its present position was meaningless. Where possible, given the constraints of sample size, chi-squared tests of statistical significance were applied using Excel for Windows Version 5·0.
The Four Sites Sturts Billabong is located approximately 30 km north of the Murray–Darling junction on the Darling River (Figure 1). The site lies on the meander plain and consists of an eroded source-bordering dune, 550 m north–south and 200 m at its greatest width (Figure 2). The dune is largely composed of loose mobile quartz sand and consists of four main levels visible through erosion. The core of the dune (Level 4), exposed in the centre, consists of compacted red-brown sand overlain at the edges of the exposure by a thin and intermittent darker humic layer (Level 3). This humic level is covered by lighter brown finer sand over a metre in depth (Level 2) and capped by a mobile sandsheet of loose reddish quartz sand (Level 1). At its highest point the dune is approximately 2 m high on the south-eastern side. The dune consists of a series of irregular crests separated by areas of deflation and scalding. There are numerous blowouts on the western edge and in the central area. The most severe wind erosion has occurred in the central area where the core of the dune is exposed. Overgrazing by sheep and rabbits is the main cause of the extensive wind erosion. At the time of recording in 1993, Aboriginal burials were found scattered along the dune (Figure 2). A total
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of 36 burials have been identified (Littleton & Blair, 1993). These include four semi-intact burials, two cremations, two possible cremations and 28 scatters of human bone fragments. Thirty-four of the burials occur within the lighter brown sandy level (Level 2) generally upslope of the area of maximum erosion (Figure 2). It is estimated that 89% of burials originally occurred 50–100 cm below the top of the sand dune. There are, however, some exceptions to this. Burial 1, a cremation, is located within the lowest section of Level 2. Burials 13, 15 and 16 are located within the mobile reddish sandsheet covering the top of the dune. Nap Nap is a similar site located near the Murrumbidgee River (Figure 1). It is a high source bordering dune, 500250 m, rising approximately 4 m above the surrounding floodplain. The western end of the dune and an area on the southern side have been subject to extensive wind erosion and the dune is still highly mobile. In cross-section the dune has three main levels. The uppermost layer, Level 1, is visible only on the highest and northeastern sections of the dune and consists of a mobile red sandsheet. The main part of the dune, Level 2, is comprised of buff/orange fine sand. Visible only on the western end in the most severe area of erosion are the cemented coarse white quartz sands which form the core of the dune, Level 3. These are capped by an irregular horizon of calcium carbonate precipitation which separates Levels 2 and 3. At the time of recording three areas of exposed burials were recorded in places of maximum erosion (Figure 3). On the western end lies an extensive scatter of extremely fragmentary bone covering an area of 6025 m (Areas A and B). In the southern area of the dune (Area C) is a second scatter of human remains (3020 m). Outside of these areas four discrete burials were visible while recording. Twenty-five individuals come from Level 2 of the dune but Burials 1 and 3 lie within the core of the dune (Level 3) and Burial 4 is within the upper sandsheet (Level 1). The other two sites are in the Lake Victoria region. The lake is 11 km in diameter and is located north of the Murray River (Figure 1). It fills from the river via Frenchman’s Creek and drains back to the river via the Rufus River. In a natural flow system it was probably between one-third to two-thirds full except during periods of severe flood. Like several other lakes on the Murray–Darling system, water levels are kept artificially high (27 m Aust Ht Datum). This has been achieved by the construction of a series of levees and the regulation of both the inlet and outlet channels. As a result, a series of foredunes containing Aboriginal cemeteries (including the two discussed here) are flooded for at least 9 months every year. This constant flooding, along with some early road building, has killed the timber (Wylie & Allsop, 1994). Currently the only stands of living vegetation on the lakeshore are colonies of Eucalyptus camaldulensis on the crests of the dunes and reed banks behind.
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Figure 2. Top plan of Sturts Billabong showing location of the burials.
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies
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Figure 3. One area of exposed burials (Areas A–B), Nap Nap. Exposed burials have been covered with branches as a protective measure.
This loss of vegetation has certainly increased the degree of erosion, resulting in the destabilization of surface soils. Particularly in areas where the water is actively moving, the soil has gradually been removed from the surface. Over most of the area planar erosion has taken place. This has resulted in the horizontal or sub-horizontal slow lowering of the ground surface (Wylie & Allsop, 1994) combined with wind erosion at times when water levels are lower. Such processes are demonstrated at the East Moon 2 site. East Moon is part of the barrier island system at the southern part of the lake. It is a low and unvegetated ridge of compacted sand. At its highest point (25·75+m) the ridge is approximately 300 m long and 60 m wide. The ridge is completely submerged when the water level is at its highest. Two sites were identified on the ridge: East Moon 1 on the highest part of the ridge and East Moon 2 on the north-eastern edge. East Moon 2 lies 100 m west of an artificial inlet channel. It is a small area of in situ burials, scattered human bone fragments, and stone artefacts covering approximately 4200 m2 (Figure 4). The area has been scoured through water action and the majority of the surface consists of dark grey clayey sand with obvious cracking and carbonate formations. A mobile sandsheet partially covers the surface, particularly to the south. Apart from one area of mobile sand, the surface visibility was 100% during recording. There is no vegetation and recent winds prior to recording meant that much of the
surface was free of loose sand. The dune has been severely affected by erosion and approximately 60 cm of soil has been removed by water close to Burial 37. Seven in situ burials as well as nine scatters of human bone fragments were found (Figure 4). Only one of the scatters (No. 45) can be identified as a discrete individual. The remaining fragments may have been washed away from the in situ burials. The burials are laid into dark grey sand and only in one instance is a burial pit visible. Gecko Island (Figure 5) is also part of the foredune system consisting of three main stratigraphic units. The western end of the island is a broad wind and water scoured platform of grey sandy clay with some carbonate, minor pedal formation and numerous burials. Drifts of aeolian sand cover parts of this platform particularly to the south (Level 1). A minimum of 30–50 cm of soil has been lost over the site, primarily affecting the area below the 26·25 m contour. The grey sandy clay (Level 2) is the principal unit in which burials and artefacts are located. Burials were generally dug through the upper windblown sand and into this dark organic layer. Graves are clearly recognizable by the outline of this dark organic shelly layer cutting into the hard packed surface of clayey sand and calcrete (Level 3). A total of 43 in situ burials, 59 burial pits (with or without visible remains), and 38 scatters were recorded (Littleton, Johnson & Pardoe, 1994; Figure 5). Nine of the scatters were identified as individuals. This
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Figure 4. Top plan of East Moon 2, Lake Victoria.
results in a total of 111 individual burials on the island and is clearly a minimum number.
Results Weathering Weathering of the bone’s outer surface does not systematically vary between sites affected by wind or by water erosion. While the majority of burials at Sturts Billabong are weathered (Table 2), so too are the majority of burials at East Moon 2. At Nap Nap and Gecko Island weathering is less. Observations tended to suggest that the degree of weathering is related to the length of exposure and that more mineralized remains weather more slowly. While the degree of weathering does not vary according to exposure type, the nature of the damage does. At Sturts Billabong, for instance, exposed bone tends to be highly polished but in only a few cases is there actual loss of the cortical surface (Table 2). In contrast, in areas affected by wave action at Lake Victoria the bone surface is gouged and eroded, at times resembling pathological lesions. In this environment the bones have cracked along the long axis of the bone and there has been loss of trabecular bone as well as the outer surface. Even within the same individual,
weathering differs markedly on exposed and unexposed surfaces. Fragmentation Only four of the 36 burials at Sturts Billabong are intact. The remainder are highly fragmented, the majority of fragments being less than 5 cm in length (Table 2). There is no statistical relationship between the degree of fragmentation and the presence or absence of weathering on this site (chi-squared test, P>0·05). The same appears to be true at Nap Nap although on this site all remains are more highly fragmented and numbers too small to test statistically. At the Lake Victoria sites there is a greater degree of completeness of visible burials with, at both sites, approximately half of the visible remains being complete or near complete. Frequently, particularly in heavier deposits, the compaction of the deposit by drying and wave action has created fragmentation. These fragments, however, tend to be only gradually removed so that epiphyses could be missing but the shafts of the long bones still intact. Staining Mineral staining, particularly by manganese, is commonly used as an indicator of antiquity of skeletal
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies
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Figure 5. Top plan of Gecko Island, Lake Victoria. Table 2. Condition of the human remains
Weathering No Partly Yes Fragmentation <1 cm 1–5 cm 5–10 cm 10+ cm Complete Mineralization None Partly Complete
Sturts Billabong (N=35)
Nap Nap (N=28)*
East Moon 2 (N=16)
Gecko (N=121)
8 8 18
4 21 3
3 11 3
75 20 26
16 11 3 1 4
3 13 4
0 0 5 5 6
1 14 45 28 38
8 25
2 24 2
14 1 1
91 27 3
*Based on minimum number of individuals.
remains (Webb, 1989). At Sturts Billabong skeletons were recorded as to whether they were stained or not. A high proportion (58%) show some form of black spotting. This, however, bears no relationship to the
degree of mineralization (chi-square test, P>0·05). In contrast at Nap Nap none of the remains have signs of staining excepting Burial 1 located within the core of the dune and presumed to be the oldest burial on
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mineralized. Similarly at East Moon 2 there is very little mineralization of bone. The pace of mineralization is affected by the surrounding environment and it appears that this general process is slower in moist deposits (Henderson, 1987; Von Endt & Ortner, 1984). At Lake Victoria, however, flooding has only been regular within the last 100 years. The lesser mineralization at these sites may be because these are more recent burials on the whole than either Sturts Billabong or Nap Nap.
(a) 100
Percentage
80 60 40 20 0
<1
10 + 1–5 5–10 Fragment size (cm)
Intact
<1
10 + 1–5 5–10 Fragment size (cm)
Intact
Percentage
(b) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Figure 6. Frequency of fragmentation with (a) mineralization [( ), mineralized; ( ), partly mineralized; ( ), unmineralized] and (b) size of scatter [( ), 6–10 m; ( ), 3–5 m; ( ), 1–3 m; ( ), <1 m] at Sturts Billabong.
site. At Lake Victoria, no mineral staining was encountered. Mineralization Most of the remains from Sturts Billabong have some degree of mineralization (Table 2) although none are completely mineralized. Mineralization and fragmentation are positively related at this site: 82% of fragmented remains (<10 cm) are mineralized compared to only 40% of intact remains [Figure 6(a) chi-square test: P=0·036]. More mineralized fragments are smaller, despite their greater density, which suggests that both characteristics may be a factor of age. In no case is mineralization complete, probably reflecting a relatively young age of the deposits. At Nap Nap this relationship could not be observed: all remains are highly fragmented. The relationship could not be tested statistically owing to small sample size; however, observations suggest that mineralized bones were less susceptible to loss by weathering. Older remains were probably lost through progressive fragmentation rather than dissolution through weathering. Mineralization is not as frequently observed at Lake Victoria (Table 2). On Gecko Island 25% of the burials had a carbonate wash over the outer surface of the bone but only three could be termed
Scattering At Sturts Billabong, Gecko Island, and East Moon 2 the degree of scattering could be observed. At Nap Nap 86% of all burials are totally scattered and co-mingled. The size of the scatter is not related to fragmentation except among intact or nearly intact burials at Sturts Billabong where the majority of fragments are more than 10 cm in length [Figure 6(b)]. The movement of bone fragments beyond one metre appears to be irrespective of size, an observation also made by Hill (1979). As was noted for weathering, the size of scatter has much more to do with the period of exposure than with the original age of the burial. Even at Nap Nap, where most remains appear totally co-mingled, recording the site by grids revealed discrete clusters identifiable as separate individuals: 14 of the 28 minimum individual burials can be given an approximate location, although not necessarily a stratigraphic position (Figure 7). At the same time these clusters are on the basis of small groups of diagnostic bone, other fragments are broadly dispersed across the site apparently by animals (up to 60 m in one case). Scattering takes on a rather different pattern in sites that have been affected by water erosion. At both East Moon 2 and Gecko Island the remains have a characteristic appearance: most of the skeleton is completely exposed but entire bones may be missing. For example, only the torso and the base of the cranium of Burial 37 (East Moon 2) could be identified; the remainder has washed away. Extensive water erosion makes it difficult to determine whether the fragments farther south came from these burials or from others not currently visible. Fragments that have been moved from burials become lost in a general beach wash of highly fragmented remains and cannot be used for calculation of minimum numbers of individuals (MNI). This situation may be different when only single burials are recorded as opposed to cemeteries. It may take a longer period for dispersal to create loss of context since when there is only one burial it may be assumed that fragments within the vicinity come from that burial. In a cemetery where there are numerous burials fragments they are more difficult to relate to individual burials and all estimates of numbers are based on MNI calculations. Cremations When bone is cremated, it is liable to shrinkage and fragmentation which increases with any subsequent
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies
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15 m to adult mandible
Nap Nap Grid C (South-side)
4
N Mandible Malar
Femur
3
Ulna
Very sparse scatter 1–2 cm 2 flakes
Core
2 shell fragments 4 flakes
3 flakes 1 cm bone fragments
< 20 bone fragments
3 flakes
Arm bones 2 cm Mastoids Tibia
Fragments 1–2 cm
Femur
2
4 flakes Scapula Sparse fragments 1–2 cm
Sparse scatter
Flake
Orbit
Metatarsal
Flake R. Occipital
2 femur fragments
Long bones 2–3 cm
1 Child skull
2–3 cm fragment
Hearth material
Maxilla
1 flake
3 flakes 1 cm bone fragments
Tooth
Orbitcranial Clavicle fragments Clavicle
5 flakes Adult fermur
4 humerus fragments
*
2–5 cm fragments
Adult cranial fragment Child cranial fragment
A
Cranial fragments
1–2 cm fragments
B
C
3 subadult teeth
Phalange Cranial fragment
Long bone
Cranium 2 cm fragments
D
E
F
Hearth material eroding out of upper surface Orbits 2 ribs 1 cranial fragment
0
m
5
Long bone femur fragments 2 cm
Figure 7. Distribution of skeletal elements in Grid C, Nap Nap.
handling (McKinley, 1994). The process of burning, however, speeds up mineralization by destroying the organic fraction of the bone (Brothwell, 1981; McKinley, 1994). This faster mineralization means that cremated remains may tend to appear older relative to non-cremated remains. If cremated fragments are left exposed they would be more likely to be destroyed due to their brittleness (McKinley, 1994; Halshe, 1987). The burial of cremated bones, although resulting in smaller fragment size, appears to enhance preservation in contrast to the poorer preservation found in burials of unburnt remains. At all recorded sites buried cremations differ from interments. Cremated remains are less weathered, more mineralized and better preserved, despite smaller average fragment size. Stratigraphic level At Sturts Billabong and Nap Nap burials can be identified as to their current stratigraphic level
although since some of these are lag deposits there is a potential for confusion. Size of fragments is related to their position in the dune at Sturts Billabong [Figure 8(a)] The most fragmentary remains are in the lower layers (Level 2-Low). This could just be the result of deflation and the probability that smaller fragments move further. The relationship, however, with mineralization suggests that there may be a more direct chronological relationship between position in the dune and fragmentation. Therefore, position in the dune is tabulated against mineralization [Figure 8(b)]. A directional relationship exists: the lower bone is more mineralized although numbers are too small to test this statistically. This is even clearer at Nap Nap where two of the lowest burials lay within a zone of carbonate precipitation in the core of the dune. One of these burials is thoroughly mineralized, stained on the outside and completely enclosed within carbonate. It appears to
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Burial pits below this level represent the lowest level of burials with upper layers probably already lost through erosion. Thus in this case, while stratigraphic position could not point to broad differences in relative age (ie. youngest/oldest), it is a useful key to the assessment of site completeness and the total number of burials it still contained.
Percentage
(a) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
2-Low
2-Mid 2-Upper Dune level
1
2-Low
2-Mid 2-Upper Dune level
1
Percentage
(b) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Figure 8. Assocation between stratigraphic position of burials at Sturts Billabong: (a) with fragmentation [( ), intact; ( ), 10+ cm; ( ), 5–10 cm; ( ), 1–5 cm; ( ), <1 cm]; (b) with mineralization [( ), yes; ( ), partly; ( ), none].
have been buried in this layer either prior to or during precipitation. The other fragment is also mineralized but less obviously and appears intrusive into this layer since it is not so thoroughly encased in carbonate. Within a single landform it appears that mineralization combined with stratigraphic position may be a good guide to relative age of remains. The two sites described above, however, have much greater vertical displacement than at Lake Victoria. At East Moon 2 there is very little change in height above sea level. At Gecko Island the burial area is contained between 25·25 m and 26 m above sea level. Even so there are clear vertical distinctions. Burials were mapped according to whether they were represented by an in situ burial, pit or scatter (Figure 5). Below the 25·75 m contour line burial pits predominate, while above this contour intact burials are proportionally more common. Scatters and fragments are most commonly found on the southern side of the area within windblown sand. Examining this in more detail, above the 25·75 m contour line single and multiple burials with intact skeletal material are visible. In some cases a second body is just becoming visible below the first. There is clearly a potential for more in situ deposits. At lower levels fewer skeletal remains are visible and there is significantly less visible depth to exposed remains. Around and below the 25·75 m contour line only the very bases of pits or surface scatters are identifiable.
Number in situ The above comparisons begin to point to the differing patterns of wind and water erosion on burials. In areas of wind erosion the original context of the burial may be reconstructed, even when the condition of the remains may be extremely poor. In water erosion, as at East Moon 2, an exposed body appears to remain intact for a longer period of time, but once sufficient soil is removed there is a rapid loss of information. This can be illustrated by comparing Sturts Billabong to East Moon 2. At Sturt’s Billabong 36 observations of human bone (in situ, scatter or fragment) were recorded. Only two of these are in situ burials but the majority of all recordings can be identified as single burials (97%). While the remains are heavily fragmented they have not been so displaced as to be completely without context and there is clearly a relationship between the fragments within the same location. This can be demonstrated in one case of a cremated burial: all cremated fragments are within a 4 m radius. Even at Nap Nap, which is much more highly fragmented, 50% of burials (based on MNI) can be given a discrete location. At East Moon 2, on the other hand, the recording included a higher proportion of in situ burials initially (43%) but among all the recordings there is a proportionately lower number of identifiable individuals (50%). This is because in the generalized scatter of water-rolled material it is impossible to determine whether particular scatters of fragments might relate to already recorded in situ burials. In this flooded environment bone does not remain as a lag deposit and the dispersal is much broader. Hence a higher proportion of identifiable individuals could be recorded for attributes such as height because remains are better preserved, but a lower proportion of recordings could be identified as individuals because the archaeological record is less preserved. Change over time In this semi-arid environment erosion may alter a site very quickly. At Nap Nap in 1975 photographs of the site show five distinct burials (Moffatt, 1975). By 1987 these burials were not visible but a new burial areas had been exposed on the eastern part of the dune (Webster, 1987). In 1993, the burials on the eastern part of the dune (Grid C) were not visible but the central area (Grids A and B) was covered with bone fragments. Three months later, the eastern part was re-exposed.
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies
More precise information comes from Gecko Island where the burials were recorded and mapped at two different times (Figure 9). The first recording occurred in April, 1994; the second was 6 weeks later after the site had been visited many times and after severe windstorms. At both times visibility over scoured areas was 100%. Within areas of drift sand, visibility of intact deposits is near zero although lag and windblown deposits are clearly evident. In the second survey 26% of April recordings could not be relocated. These were not simply fragments but included 12 in situ burials, seven visible burial pits and six scatters. The remains were lost in a band across the centre of the site and the loss appears to have been a result of visitor traffic and movement of windblown sand on the eastern part of the site [Figure 9(a)]. At the same time, however, 34 discrete and previously unrecorded burials and 16 new isolated bones were identified (42%). The majority of the new recordings were made on the southern side of the site in the area of a mobile sandsheet although several new burials were found in the middle of the site [Figure 9(b)]. The burial of a single adult (No. 13) identified in April was cleared by wind of approximately 5 more cm of sand revealing the burial of five interwoven bodies. Several processes are clearly in operation: wind erosion and the removal of sand; the obscuring of material by drifts of windblown sand; and the decay of poorly preserved burials, both by exposure to the elements and damage by human traffic. While the pattern of burials exposed is similar, during the second recording the sheer density of burials is significantly greater.
Discussion The different erosion regimes described have significantly affected the manner in which burials are exposed. Of the characteristics recorded, staining was the most problemmatic and least helpful since it appears very dependent upon the local environment. Additionally, in the field it is difficult to determine organic from inorganic stains. The lack of any relationship between staining and mineralization at Sturts Billabong may simply be because genuine manganese staining takes much longer to develop than mineralization of human bone. Between the uncertainty of field identification and this potentially longer time frame, staining does not appear to be a particularly useful indicator of age in Holocene sites. On the other hand, mineralization did seem to relate to age but comparisons between sites are not necessarily valid given the lack of mineralization in the two Lake Victoria sites. It may be, of course, that the burials at the sites were uniformly recent; however, variable bone conditions in the Nap Nap dune and work from other cemeteries in the area (Pardoe, 1991) suggests that many of these burial grounds span
15
thousands of years. It is more likely that the clay content of sand at Lake Victoria and proximity to running water mean that this was a generally moister environment than either Sturts Billabong or Nap Nap even before flooding. In this flooded environment submerged bone is less mineralized and more inherently fragile than bone found above the water line. Alternate wetting and drying also causes bone to fragment more easily (Brothwell, 1981; Von Endt & Ortner, 1984). The difference between mineralization in dry and wet environments is reflected in other features of exposed burials such as dispersal and means that the data that can be recorded vary significantly between the two regimes. Wind erosion In the case of wind erosion the matrix is lost first and the burial last since it deflates onto a lower level. At Sturts Billabong and Nap Nap this means that, despite extensive scattering and fragmentation of remains, the original horizontal location of a burial may still be identifiable. Stratigraphically the situation may be more difficult to assess. In sites where the sand body was probably still gradually accumulating during its time of use for burial there does appear to be a relationship between stratigraphic position and age of the original burial. There are, however, many cautionary tales in Australian archaeology. At one site, for instance, two parallel burials in exactly the same orientation, less than 1 m apart, differ by more than 3000 years in date (Dowling, 1990). Mineralization in these cases appears to be a key indicator but the degree of mineralization cannot be compared between sites. In some environments mineralization occurs very quickly, in others very slowly if at all and within one site buried cremated bone may be more mineralized though not necessarily older. Observations made at Sturts Billabong and confirmed at Nap Nap indicate that in wind eroded sites: (1) degree of mineralization may be a useful chronological indicator within a site, however, in young sites the degree of staining will not be particularly useful; (2) in no case will the degree of weathering be a useful clue to age since it is dependent on exposure with mineralization as an intervening factor (see also Tappen, 1994); and (3) the size of a burial scatter is not necessarily related to the fragmentation of a burial but smaller denser scatters may tend to be more recently exposed burials. Careful recording of these characteristics, however, can be used to reconstruct both recent erosion on the site and potentially some of the original context of the burial. In the case of wind erosion sites may change dramatically within a short period of time. Hence,
16
J. Littleton
(a)
0
20 m
N
50
26. 5m
m
2
26.
m
00 26. m 5 7 25. 0m 5 . 5
2
25.25 m
Scatter
.5
m
25
5
.7
25
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0
ln situ burial
m
(b)
0
20 m
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26. m 5
2
26. 00 26. m 75 25. m 0 5.5
m
2
5 .7
0
.5
m
25 m
25.25 m
25
Burial pit
Figure 9. The two recordings at Gecko Island: (a) April 1994; (b) June 1994.
Scatter ln situ burial
m
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies
monitoring of these sites at short intervals may be necessary, particularly if estimates are to be made of the original size and extent of the site. Even so, on burial sites exposed by wind erosion it may be possible to reconstruct the original context of the burials. Yet the extensive fragmentation and decay of exposed burials may mean that few biological data, such as age, sex or linear measurements, can be recovered. Water erosion In contrast, water erosion removes the burial simultaneously with the deposit. The long term removal of soil by water means that when the burial is initially exposed on the surface it is often lying within a fairly solid layer of soil and the remains are only gradually removed from their original position. Water moving above such skeletons, however, can remove individual bones entirely. As a result, there may be a well-preserved body lying on the surface but only half of it still present; the other half has been moved by water. The pattern of which elements have been removed is the same as that found for fresh bodies (Hill, 1979; Haglund, 1991): the extremities are removed as articulated or semi-articulated units while the thorax may remain intact. The remains that are removed may then be washed onto higher ground and exposed to sunlight and wind erosion or may be water-rolled and gradually fragmented. Water erosion is much more intractable than wind erosion. Firstly, its impact may be slow. Monitoring of the effects of erosion, therefore, needs to take place over a much longer period of time. In addition, the damage done by water means that it can be more difficult in these sites to make any estimate of the original size and extent of burial grounds. In the case of Gecko Island the estimate could only be made through analysis of the remaining stratigraphy. In the case of East Moon 2 the estimates can only be made by extrapolation from other areas. Ultimately, in cases of water erosion, it may be possible to record more biological data upon individual bones but identifying individuals and original context may be much more difficult. The end result for heritage managers and researchers is that sites affected by water erosion are more difficult to assess both in terms of significance and potential further damage. They are also more difficult to manage. Much of the damage occurs while sites are submerged and without long-term monitoring the impact can be difficult to prove.
Conclusion Different erosion regimes significantly affect the manner in which burials are exposed. Some of these processes confirm work conducted on unburied bodies (e.g. Hill, 1979), yet characteristics such as weathering appear to be much less informative in secondary
17
exposure than in paleobiological reconstruction. The difference in manner of exposure has significant research and management implications, particularly regarding estimates of burial ground size and the need for monitoring. Surveying the exposed burials in the Murray Basin has greatly broadened knowledge of burial practices and generated hypotheses about population size, distribution, cultural links and territorial behaviour. Clearly, these burials are a tremendous archaeological resource. However, these sites are constantly changing. Even with monitoring, each recording is only a slice of time as clearly demonstrated at both Nap Nap and Gecko Island. Trying to assess representativeness will always be a difficult issue in this most ephemeral archaeology.
Acknowledgements This research has been supported by an Australian Research Council Post-Doctoral Fellowship and the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. Grateful acknowledgements are made to the Aboriginal communities of Dareton and Hay for both permitting and participating in this work. I also thank Dr Doreen Bowdery and the reviewers for their comments on this manuscript.
References Behrensmeyer, A. (1978). Taphonomic and ecologic information from bone weathering. Paleobiology 4, 150–62. Behrensmeyer, A. & Hill, A. (1980). Fossils in the Making: Vertebrate Taphonomy and palaeoecology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Beveridge, P. (1883). On the Aborigines inhabiting the great lacustrine and riverine depression of the lower Murray, lower Murrumbidgee, lower Lachlan and lower Darling. Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales 17, 19–74. Birdsell, J. B. (1953). Some environmental and cultural factors influencing the structuring of Australian Aboriginal populations. American Naturalist 87, 171–207. Bonhomme, T. (1990). Aboriginal Burials and Sand Mining on the Riverine Plain of New South Wales. Report to New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney. Brothwell, D. (1981). Digging Up Bones. London: British Museum of Natural History. Brown, A. R. (1918). Notes on the social organization of Australian Tribes. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 48, 222–253. Brown, C. & Stephenson, A. (1991). Geology of the Murray Basin, Southeastern Australia. Bureau of Mineral Resources Bulletin 235. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. Dowling, P. (1990). Violent epidemics. Disease, conflict and aboriginal population collapse as the result of contact with Europeans in the riverland of South Australia. MA Thesis, Australian National University. Gerstaecher, F. (1853). Narrative of a Journey Round the World. New York: Harper and Brothers. Haglund, W. (1991). Applications of taphonomic models to forensic investigations. Ph. D. thesis, University of Washington. Henderson, J. (1987). Factors determining the state of preservation of human remains. In (Boddington A., Gardland A. & Janaway R., Eds) Death, Decay and Reconstruction: Approaches to Archaeology and Forensic Science. Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 43–54.
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Hill, A. (1979). Disarticulation and scattering of mammal skeletons. Paleobiology 5, 261–274. Littleton, J. & Blair, R. (1993). The Burialground at Sturts Billabong, Wentworth: A Preliminary Description. Report for New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney. Littleton, J., Johnston, H. & Pardoe, C. (1994). Lake Victoria Lakebed Archaeological Survey. Report for New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney. Mant, A. (1987). Knowledge acquired from post-War exhumations. In (Boddington, A., Gardland A. & Janaway R., Eds) Death, Decay and Reconstruction: Approaches to Archaeology and Forensic Science. Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 65–78. McKinley, J. (1994). Bone fragment size in British cremation burials and its implications for pyre technology and ritual. Journal of Archaeological Science 21, 339–342. Meehan, B. (1971). The form, distribution and antiquity of Australian Aboriginal mortuary practices. MA thesis, University of Sydney. Moffatt, R. (1975). Correspondence relating to Nap Nap Site. On file, New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, Griffith. Pardoe, C. (1988). The cemetery as symbol. The distribution of prehistoric Aboriginal burial grounds in southeastern Australia. Archaeology in Oceania 16, 173–178. Pardoe, C. (1994). Wamba Yadu, a later Holocene cemetery of the central River Murray. Archaeology in Oceania 28, 77–84. Peterson, N. (1986). Australian Territorial Organisation. Sydney: University of Sydney. Oceania Monograph. 30. Rodriguez, W. & Bass, W. (1983). Insect activity and its relationship to decay rates of human cadavers in East Tennessee. Journal of Forensic Sciences 28, 423–33.
Rodriguez, W. & Bass, W. (1985). Decomposition of buried bodies and methods that may aid in their location. Journal of Forensic Sciences 30, 836. Shipman, P. (1981). The Life History of a Fossil. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Tappen, M. (1994). Bone weathering in the tropical rain forest. Journal of Archaeological Science 21, 667–673. Von Endt, D. & Ortner, D. (1984). Experimental effects of bone size on bone diagenesis. Journal of Archaeological Science 11, 247. Waldron, T. (1987). The relative survival of the human skeleton: implications for palaeopathology. In (Boddington A., Garland, A. & Janaway R., Eds. Death, Decay and Reconstruction: Approaches to Archaeology and Forensic Science. Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 55–64. Walshe, K. (1987). The burnt bone from Murramurang midden. Honours project, Archaeology & Anthropology, Australian National University. Webster, J. (1987). The Aboriginal Cemetery at Nap Nap. Report to New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney. Webb, S. (1989). The Willandra Lakes Hominids. Canberra: Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies. Weigelt, J. (1989). Recent Vertebrate Carcasses and their Palaeobiological Implications. Trans. J. Schafer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Wylie, S. & Allsop, D. (1994). Engineers report on the southern end of Lake Victoria. Report for Electricity and Water Supply, South Australia.
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies Judith Littleton Pacific Palaeoecology Research Laboratories, Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland, New Zealand Much has been written on the taphonomic processes affecting exposed animal and human remains, yet the exposure of deliberately buried bodies due to erosion is rarely mentioned. This study examines four burial sites in western New South Wales, Australia, where human burials have become exposed on the surface. Using criteria of stratigraphic location, mineralization, average fragment size, scattering and the degree of weathering, it is possible to demonstrate that wind and water erosion have very different effects on the burial which can create systematic biases in the recording of burials. In the case of wind erosion it is often possible to identify original location and context although the bone itself may be very poorly preserved. In contrast, water erosion causes the remains and the deposit to be lost at the same time. The human remains may be well preserved but once they are moved it is very difficult to reconstruct the original burial location. These differences plus the rate of change over time have a significant impact on the research potential of exposed burials. 2000 Academic Press Keywords: TAPHONOMY, SOUTH EAST AUSTRALIA, ABORIGINAL BURIALS, EROSION.
Introduction
raised relating both to archaeological interpretation and cultural heritage management are then discussed.
F
orensic scientists have extensively analysed decay immediately following death in both buried and unburied bodies (Mant, 1987; Rodriguez & Bass, 1983, 1985; Haglund, 1991). Their focus has been on the decomposition, mechanical and chemical action upon bone and scattering by scavengers. Numerous archaeological and palaeontological studies have dealt with the taphonomic processes following death without burial (Behrensmeyer & Hill, 1980; Shipman, 1981; Weigelt, 1989). These are not directly applicable to deliberately buried bodies since they focus more upon scavenging of remains and weathering without mineralization. Secondary exposure of human burials has not been a focus of research by mainstream archaeologists. Increasingly in Australia and potentially elsewhere, however, excavation is not part of the process of recording human burials. The burial is recorded because it has become exposed on the ground’s surface. This exposure occurs long after burial and is a stage often not accounted for in traditional models of burial archaeology (e.g. Waldron, 1987). Yet it is apparent that there are characteristic patterns of burials according to how they are exposed and that the mechanism of exposure severely affects the nature of the data collected. In this paper four case studies are described from western New South Wales, which are pertinent to the effects and erosion, and some of the issues
Background The study area lies within the Murray Basin which extends over 300,000 km2 of inland southeast Australia (Figure 1; Brown & Stephenson, 1991). Within the basin, the Murray River and tributaries drain from the Great Dividing Range, through the plains of central and western New South Wales and northern Victoria, into South Australia and out into the Southern Ocean. The area which these rivers traverse is largely semi-arid with evaporation exceeding rainfall and there are frequent droughts interspersed with less frequent floods. Currently this area is used for rural purposes and only sparsely populated. In the past, however, the rivers were an abundant source of food and it was probably the most densely occupied area of Australia prior to European colonization (Brown, 1918; Birdsell, 1953). People living within the basin shared some cultural practices while maintaining regional and local variability (Peterson, 1986; Pardoe, 1988). One of the shared cultural practices is the predominance of primary inhumation as a form of burial (Meehan, 1971). In this semi-arid region burials most often occurred in sandy deposits such as lunettes, levees and sourcebordering dunes (Bonhomme, 1990). This is often interpreted as a matter of convenience: digging into the hard clays of the riverine plain with only a digging stick would be an extremely difficult job. Choice of a particular sand body for burial, however, was not necessarily a random process nor simply a matter of
*Please address correspondence to: J. Littleton, Pacific Palaeoecology Research Laboratories, Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand. fax:+64 9 373 7441; Email: J. [email protected]
5 0305–4403/00/010005+14 $35.00/0
2000 Academic Press
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Figure 1. The Murray Basin, Australia, showing site locations. Both East Moon 2 and Gecko Island are located at Lake Victoria.
convenience. Recording of sites along the Murray River makes it clear that some areas were reserved and maintained as formal burial grounds (Pardoe, 1988). In other areas burials occur as isolated interments or as accumulations of disassociated burials at low density. Preferential burial in sandy rather than heavier soils and the relative shallowness of burials (less than 2 m; Beveridge, 1883) means that these sites are readily affected by wind erosion. Overstocking of land, clearing of vegetation and feral animals have all contributed to the rate of wind erosion which is now a major problem in western New South Wales. Water erosion is less of a widespread problem but artificial regulation of the rivers and lakes has meant that areas previously above water are now subject to cyclical regimes of flooding and drying. In sum, it is an area where high populations in the past ensured that there are large numbers of burial sites and where degradation of the landscape also means that many of these burials are now, as in the past, coming to the surface. Of 134 burial sites recorded in the Murray– Murrumbidgee area (up to 1996) nearly half were exposed through erosion, the remainder by sand mining, roadworks and other development (based on
New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Sites Register).
Methods The four burial grounds to be discussed were recorded by the author and a field assistant during 1993–1996 for heritage assessment. Human remains were recorded in terms of size of the scatter (measured as diameter in m); stratigraphic position (determined by theodolite where possible); the degree of mineralization; the average fragment size (taken over the area of greatest density); staining; and the degree of weathering (adapted from Behrensmeyer, 1978). The number of categories used was kept small given the relatively small number of burials at each site. These characteristics were recorded in order to determine erosion history and current site impacts. The criteria used for the recording are presented in Table 1. In order to maintain consistency all determinations were made by the author and a series of photographs taken of each burial for later comparison. One major aim of recording was to see whether the current position of the body
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies Table 1. Categories of bone description Mineralization (based on total exposed surface) 1. None: bone unmineralized, cell structure visible 2. Partly: bone partly mineralized, cell structure only partly visible 3. Yes: bone mineralized, clinking sound when tapped, cell structure not visible Weathering (based on total exposed surface) 1. None: bone surface smooth, no cracking or flaking of surface (Behrensmeyer Stage 0*) 2. Part: bone surface cracked but still intact (Behrensmeyer Stage 1–3) 3. Yes: bone surface not intact, flaking off, cortical surface lost (Behrensmeyer Stage 4–5) Fragmentation (average size of fragments within 50 cm2) <1 cm 1–5 cm 5–10 cm 10+cm Complete Staining (based on total exposed surface) 1. Present (including a note of the colour) 2. Absent *Based on Behrensmeyer (1978).
in the dune has chronological significance or whether displacement of the skeleton was so great that its present position was meaningless. Where possible, given the constraints of sample size, chi-squared tests of statistical significance were applied using Excel for Windows Version 5·0.
The Four Sites Sturts Billabong is located approximately 30 km north of the Murray–Darling junction on the Darling River (Figure 1). The site lies on the meander plain and consists of an eroded source-bordering dune, 550 m north–south and 200 m at its greatest width (Figure 2). The dune is largely composed of loose mobile quartz sand and consists of four main levels visible through erosion. The core of the dune (Level 4), exposed in the centre, consists of compacted red-brown sand overlain at the edges of the exposure by a thin and intermittent darker humic layer (Level 3). This humic level is covered by lighter brown finer sand over a metre in depth (Level 2) and capped by a mobile sandsheet of loose reddish quartz sand (Level 1). At its highest point the dune is approximately 2 m high on the south-eastern side. The dune consists of a series of irregular crests separated by areas of deflation and scalding. There are numerous blowouts on the western edge and in the central area. The most severe wind erosion has occurred in the central area where the core of the dune is exposed. Overgrazing by sheep and rabbits is the main cause of the extensive wind erosion. At the time of recording in 1993, Aboriginal burials were found scattered along the dune (Figure 2). A total
7
of 36 burials have been identified (Littleton & Blair, 1993). These include four semi-intact burials, two cremations, two possible cremations and 28 scatters of human bone fragments. Thirty-four of the burials occur within the lighter brown sandy level (Level 2) generally upslope of the area of maximum erosion (Figure 2). It is estimated that 89% of burials originally occurred 50–100 cm below the top of the sand dune. There are, however, some exceptions to this. Burial 1, a cremation, is located within the lowest section of Level 2. Burials 13, 15 and 16 are located within the mobile reddish sandsheet covering the top of the dune. Nap Nap is a similar site located near the Murrumbidgee River (Figure 1). It is a high source bordering dune, 500250 m, rising approximately 4 m above the surrounding floodplain. The western end of the dune and an area on the southern side have been subject to extensive wind erosion and the dune is still highly mobile. In cross-section the dune has three main levels. The uppermost layer, Level 1, is visible only on the highest and northeastern sections of the dune and consists of a mobile red sandsheet. The main part of the dune, Level 2, is comprised of buff/orange fine sand. Visible only on the western end in the most severe area of erosion are the cemented coarse white quartz sands which form the core of the dune, Level 3. These are capped by an irregular horizon of calcium carbonate precipitation which separates Levels 2 and 3. At the time of recording three areas of exposed burials were recorded in places of maximum erosion (Figure 3). On the western end lies an extensive scatter of extremely fragmentary bone covering an area of 6025 m (Areas A and B). In the southern area of the dune (Area C) is a second scatter of human remains (3020 m). Outside of these areas four discrete burials were visible while recording. Twenty-five individuals come from Level 2 of the dune but Burials 1 and 3 lie within the core of the dune (Level 3) and Burial 4 is within the upper sandsheet (Level 1). The other two sites are in the Lake Victoria region. The lake is 11 km in diameter and is located north of the Murray River (Figure 1). It fills from the river via Frenchman’s Creek and drains back to the river via the Rufus River. In a natural flow system it was probably between one-third to two-thirds full except during periods of severe flood. Like several other lakes on the Murray–Darling system, water levels are kept artificially high (27 m Aust Ht Datum). This has been achieved by the construction of a series of levees and the regulation of both the inlet and outlet channels. As a result, a series of foredunes containing Aboriginal cemeteries (including the two discussed here) are flooded for at least 9 months every year. This constant flooding, along with some early road building, has killed the timber (Wylie & Allsop, 1994). Currently the only stands of living vegetation on the lakeshore are colonies of Eucalyptus camaldulensis on the crests of the dunes and reed banks behind.
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Figure 2. Top plan of Sturts Billabong showing location of the burials.
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies
9
Figure 3. One area of exposed burials (Areas A–B), Nap Nap. Exposed burials have been covered with branches as a protective measure.
This loss of vegetation has certainly increased the degree of erosion, resulting in the destabilization of surface soils. Particularly in areas where the water is actively moving, the soil has gradually been removed from the surface. Over most of the area planar erosion has taken place. This has resulted in the horizontal or sub-horizontal slow lowering of the ground surface (Wylie & Allsop, 1994) combined with wind erosion at times when water levels are lower. Such processes are demonstrated at the East Moon 2 site. East Moon is part of the barrier island system at the southern part of the lake. It is a low and unvegetated ridge of compacted sand. At its highest point (25·75+m) the ridge is approximately 300 m long and 60 m wide. The ridge is completely submerged when the water level is at its highest. Two sites were identified on the ridge: East Moon 1 on the highest part of the ridge and East Moon 2 on the north-eastern edge. East Moon 2 lies 100 m west of an artificial inlet channel. It is a small area of in situ burials, scattered human bone fragments, and stone artefacts covering approximately 4200 m2 (Figure 4). The area has been scoured through water action and the majority of the surface consists of dark grey clayey sand with obvious cracking and carbonate formations. A mobile sandsheet partially covers the surface, particularly to the south. Apart from one area of mobile sand, the surface visibility was 100% during recording. There is no vegetation and recent winds prior to recording meant that much of the
surface was free of loose sand. The dune has been severely affected by erosion and approximately 60 cm of soil has been removed by water close to Burial 37. Seven in situ burials as well as nine scatters of human bone fragments were found (Figure 4). Only one of the scatters (No. 45) can be identified as a discrete individual. The remaining fragments may have been washed away from the in situ burials. The burials are laid into dark grey sand and only in one instance is a burial pit visible. Gecko Island (Figure 5) is also part of the foredune system consisting of three main stratigraphic units. The western end of the island is a broad wind and water scoured platform of grey sandy clay with some carbonate, minor pedal formation and numerous burials. Drifts of aeolian sand cover parts of this platform particularly to the south (Level 1). A minimum of 30–50 cm of soil has been lost over the site, primarily affecting the area below the 26·25 m contour. The grey sandy clay (Level 2) is the principal unit in which burials and artefacts are located. Burials were generally dug through the upper windblown sand and into this dark organic layer. Graves are clearly recognizable by the outline of this dark organic shelly layer cutting into the hard packed surface of clayey sand and calcrete (Level 3). A total of 43 in situ burials, 59 burial pits (with or without visible remains), and 38 scatters were recorded (Littleton, Johnson & Pardoe, 1994; Figure 5). Nine of the scatters were identified as individuals. This
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Figure 4. Top plan of East Moon 2, Lake Victoria.
results in a total of 111 individual burials on the island and is clearly a minimum number.
Results Weathering Weathering of the bone’s outer surface does not systematically vary between sites affected by wind or by water erosion. While the majority of burials at Sturts Billabong are weathered (Table 2), so too are the majority of burials at East Moon 2. At Nap Nap and Gecko Island weathering is less. Observations tended to suggest that the degree of weathering is related to the length of exposure and that more mineralized remains weather more slowly. While the degree of weathering does not vary according to exposure type, the nature of the damage does. At Sturts Billabong, for instance, exposed bone tends to be highly polished but in only a few cases is there actual loss of the cortical surface (Table 2). In contrast, in areas affected by wave action at Lake Victoria the bone surface is gouged and eroded, at times resembling pathological lesions. In this environment the bones have cracked along the long axis of the bone and there has been loss of trabecular bone as well as the outer surface. Even within the same individual,
weathering differs markedly on exposed and unexposed surfaces. Fragmentation Only four of the 36 burials at Sturts Billabong are intact. The remainder are highly fragmented, the majority of fragments being less than 5 cm in length (Table 2). There is no statistical relationship between the degree of fragmentation and the presence or absence of weathering on this site (chi-squared test, P>0·05). The same appears to be true at Nap Nap although on this site all remains are more highly fragmented and numbers too small to test statistically. At the Lake Victoria sites there is a greater degree of completeness of visible burials with, at both sites, approximately half of the visible remains being complete or near complete. Frequently, particularly in heavier deposits, the compaction of the deposit by drying and wave action has created fragmentation. These fragments, however, tend to be only gradually removed so that epiphyses could be missing but the shafts of the long bones still intact. Staining Mineral staining, particularly by manganese, is commonly used as an indicator of antiquity of skeletal
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies
11
Figure 5. Top plan of Gecko Island, Lake Victoria. Table 2. Condition of the human remains
Weathering No Partly Yes Fragmentation <1 cm 1–5 cm 5–10 cm 10+ cm Complete Mineralization None Partly Complete
Sturts Billabong (N=35)
Nap Nap (N=28)*
East Moon 2 (N=16)
Gecko (N=121)
8 8 18
4 21 3
3 11 3
75 20 26
16 11 3 1 4
3 13 4
0 0 5 5 6
1 14 45 28 38
8 25
2 24 2
14 1 1
91 27 3
*Based on minimum number of individuals.
remains (Webb, 1989). At Sturts Billabong skeletons were recorded as to whether they were stained or not. A high proportion (58%) show some form of black spotting. This, however, bears no relationship to the
degree of mineralization (chi-square test, P>0·05). In contrast at Nap Nap none of the remains have signs of staining excepting Burial 1 located within the core of the dune and presumed to be the oldest burial on
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mineralized. Similarly at East Moon 2 there is very little mineralization of bone. The pace of mineralization is affected by the surrounding environment and it appears that this general process is slower in moist deposits (Henderson, 1987; Von Endt & Ortner, 1984). At Lake Victoria, however, flooding has only been regular within the last 100 years. The lesser mineralization at these sites may be because these are more recent burials on the whole than either Sturts Billabong or Nap Nap.
(a) 100
Percentage
80 60 40 20 0
<1
10 + 1–5 5–10 Fragment size (cm)
Intact
<1
10 + 1–5 5–10 Fragment size (cm)
Intact
Percentage
(b) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Figure 6. Frequency of fragmentation with (a) mineralization [( ), mineralized; ( ), partly mineralized; ( ), unmineralized] and (b) size of scatter [( ), 6–10 m; ( ), 3–5 m; ( ), 1–3 m; ( ), <1 m] at Sturts Billabong.
site. At Lake Victoria, no mineral staining was encountered. Mineralization Most of the remains from Sturts Billabong have some degree of mineralization (Table 2) although none are completely mineralized. Mineralization and fragmentation are positively related at this site: 82% of fragmented remains (<10 cm) are mineralized compared to only 40% of intact remains [Figure 6(a) chi-square test: P=0·036]. More mineralized fragments are smaller, despite their greater density, which suggests that both characteristics may be a factor of age. In no case is mineralization complete, probably reflecting a relatively young age of the deposits. At Nap Nap this relationship could not be observed: all remains are highly fragmented. The relationship could not be tested statistically owing to small sample size; however, observations suggest that mineralized bones were less susceptible to loss by weathering. Older remains were probably lost through progressive fragmentation rather than dissolution through weathering. Mineralization is not as frequently observed at Lake Victoria (Table 2). On Gecko Island 25% of the burials had a carbonate wash over the outer surface of the bone but only three could be termed
Scattering At Sturts Billabong, Gecko Island, and East Moon 2 the degree of scattering could be observed. At Nap Nap 86% of all burials are totally scattered and co-mingled. The size of the scatter is not related to fragmentation except among intact or nearly intact burials at Sturts Billabong where the majority of fragments are more than 10 cm in length [Figure 6(b)]. The movement of bone fragments beyond one metre appears to be irrespective of size, an observation also made by Hill (1979). As was noted for weathering, the size of scatter has much more to do with the period of exposure than with the original age of the burial. Even at Nap Nap, where most remains appear totally co-mingled, recording the site by grids revealed discrete clusters identifiable as separate individuals: 14 of the 28 minimum individual burials can be given an approximate location, although not necessarily a stratigraphic position (Figure 7). At the same time these clusters are on the basis of small groups of diagnostic bone, other fragments are broadly dispersed across the site apparently by animals (up to 60 m in one case). Scattering takes on a rather different pattern in sites that have been affected by water erosion. At both East Moon 2 and Gecko Island the remains have a characteristic appearance: most of the skeleton is completely exposed but entire bones may be missing. For example, only the torso and the base of the cranium of Burial 37 (East Moon 2) could be identified; the remainder has washed away. Extensive water erosion makes it difficult to determine whether the fragments farther south came from these burials or from others not currently visible. Fragments that have been moved from burials become lost in a general beach wash of highly fragmented remains and cannot be used for calculation of minimum numbers of individuals (MNI). This situation may be different when only single burials are recorded as opposed to cemeteries. It may take a longer period for dispersal to create loss of context since when there is only one burial it may be assumed that fragments within the vicinity come from that burial. In a cemetery where there are numerous burials fragments they are more difficult to relate to individual burials and all estimates of numbers are based on MNI calculations. Cremations When bone is cremated, it is liable to shrinkage and fragmentation which increases with any subsequent
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies
13
15 m to adult mandible
Nap Nap Grid C (South-side)
4
N Mandible Malar
Femur
3
Ulna
Very sparse scatter 1–2 cm 2 flakes
Core
2 shell fragments 4 flakes
3 flakes 1 cm bone fragments
< 20 bone fragments
3 flakes
Arm bones 2 cm Mastoids Tibia
Fragments 1–2 cm
Femur
2
4 flakes Scapula Sparse fragments 1–2 cm
Sparse scatter
Flake
Orbit
Metatarsal
Flake R. Occipital
2 femur fragments
Long bones 2–3 cm
1 Child skull
2–3 cm fragment
Hearth material
Maxilla
1 flake
3 flakes 1 cm bone fragments
Tooth
Orbitcranial Clavicle fragments Clavicle
5 flakes Adult fermur
4 humerus fragments
*
2–5 cm fragments
Adult cranial fragment Child cranial fragment
A
Cranial fragments
1–2 cm fragments
B
C
3 subadult teeth
Phalange Cranial fragment
Long bone
Cranium 2 cm fragments
D
E
F
Hearth material eroding out of upper surface Orbits 2 ribs 1 cranial fragment
0
m
5
Long bone femur fragments 2 cm
Figure 7. Distribution of skeletal elements in Grid C, Nap Nap.
handling (McKinley, 1994). The process of burning, however, speeds up mineralization by destroying the organic fraction of the bone (Brothwell, 1981; McKinley, 1994). This faster mineralization means that cremated remains may tend to appear older relative to non-cremated remains. If cremated fragments are left exposed they would be more likely to be destroyed due to their brittleness (McKinley, 1994; Halshe, 1987). The burial of cremated bones, although resulting in smaller fragment size, appears to enhance preservation in contrast to the poorer preservation found in burials of unburnt remains. At all recorded sites buried cremations differ from interments. Cremated remains are less weathered, more mineralized and better preserved, despite smaller average fragment size. Stratigraphic level At Sturts Billabong and Nap Nap burials can be identified as to their current stratigraphic level
although since some of these are lag deposits there is a potential for confusion. Size of fragments is related to their position in the dune at Sturts Billabong [Figure 8(a)] The most fragmentary remains are in the lower layers (Level 2-Low). This could just be the result of deflation and the probability that smaller fragments move further. The relationship, however, with mineralization suggests that there may be a more direct chronological relationship between position in the dune and fragmentation. Therefore, position in the dune is tabulated against mineralization [Figure 8(b)]. A directional relationship exists: the lower bone is more mineralized although numbers are too small to test this statistically. This is even clearer at Nap Nap where two of the lowest burials lay within a zone of carbonate precipitation in the core of the dune. One of these burials is thoroughly mineralized, stained on the outside and completely enclosed within carbonate. It appears to
14
J. Littleton
Burial pits below this level represent the lowest level of burials with upper layers probably already lost through erosion. Thus in this case, while stratigraphic position could not point to broad differences in relative age (ie. youngest/oldest), it is a useful key to the assessment of site completeness and the total number of burials it still contained.
Percentage
(a) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
2-Low
2-Mid 2-Upper Dune level
1
2-Low
2-Mid 2-Upper Dune level
1
Percentage
(b) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Figure 8. Assocation between stratigraphic position of burials at Sturts Billabong: (a) with fragmentation [( ), intact; ( ), 10+ cm; ( ), 5–10 cm; ( ), 1–5 cm; ( ), <1 cm]; (b) with mineralization [( ), yes; ( ), partly; ( ), none].
have been buried in this layer either prior to or during precipitation. The other fragment is also mineralized but less obviously and appears intrusive into this layer since it is not so thoroughly encased in carbonate. Within a single landform it appears that mineralization combined with stratigraphic position may be a good guide to relative age of remains. The two sites described above, however, have much greater vertical displacement than at Lake Victoria. At East Moon 2 there is very little change in height above sea level. At Gecko Island the burial area is contained between 25·25 m and 26 m above sea level. Even so there are clear vertical distinctions. Burials were mapped according to whether they were represented by an in situ burial, pit or scatter (Figure 5). Below the 25·75 m contour line burial pits predominate, while above this contour intact burials are proportionally more common. Scatters and fragments are most commonly found on the southern side of the area within windblown sand. Examining this in more detail, above the 25·75 m contour line single and multiple burials with intact skeletal material are visible. In some cases a second body is just becoming visible below the first. There is clearly a potential for more in situ deposits. At lower levels fewer skeletal remains are visible and there is significantly less visible depth to exposed remains. Around and below the 25·75 m contour line only the very bases of pits or surface scatters are identifiable.
Number in situ The above comparisons begin to point to the differing patterns of wind and water erosion on burials. In areas of wind erosion the original context of the burial may be reconstructed, even when the condition of the remains may be extremely poor. In water erosion, as at East Moon 2, an exposed body appears to remain intact for a longer period of time, but once sufficient soil is removed there is a rapid loss of information. This can be illustrated by comparing Sturts Billabong to East Moon 2. At Sturt’s Billabong 36 observations of human bone (in situ, scatter or fragment) were recorded. Only two of these are in situ burials but the majority of all recordings can be identified as single burials (97%). While the remains are heavily fragmented they have not been so displaced as to be completely without context and there is clearly a relationship between the fragments within the same location. This can be demonstrated in one case of a cremated burial: all cremated fragments are within a 4 m radius. Even at Nap Nap, which is much more highly fragmented, 50% of burials (based on MNI) can be given a discrete location. At East Moon 2, on the other hand, the recording included a higher proportion of in situ burials initially (43%) but among all the recordings there is a proportionately lower number of identifiable individuals (50%). This is because in the generalized scatter of water-rolled material it is impossible to determine whether particular scatters of fragments might relate to already recorded in situ burials. In this flooded environment bone does not remain as a lag deposit and the dispersal is much broader. Hence a higher proportion of identifiable individuals could be recorded for attributes such as height because remains are better preserved, but a lower proportion of recordings could be identified as individuals because the archaeological record is less preserved. Change over time In this semi-arid environment erosion may alter a site very quickly. At Nap Nap in 1975 photographs of the site show five distinct burials (Moffatt, 1975). By 1987 these burials were not visible but a new burial areas had been exposed on the eastern part of the dune (Webster, 1987). In 1993, the burials on the eastern part of the dune (Grid C) were not visible but the central area (Grids A and B) was covered with bone fragments. Three months later, the eastern part was re-exposed.
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies
More precise information comes from Gecko Island where the burials were recorded and mapped at two different times (Figure 9). The first recording occurred in April, 1994; the second was 6 weeks later after the site had been visited many times and after severe windstorms. At both times visibility over scoured areas was 100%. Within areas of drift sand, visibility of intact deposits is near zero although lag and windblown deposits are clearly evident. In the second survey 26% of April recordings could not be relocated. These were not simply fragments but included 12 in situ burials, seven visible burial pits and six scatters. The remains were lost in a band across the centre of the site and the loss appears to have been a result of visitor traffic and movement of windblown sand on the eastern part of the site [Figure 9(a)]. At the same time, however, 34 discrete and previously unrecorded burials and 16 new isolated bones were identified (42%). The majority of the new recordings were made on the southern side of the site in the area of a mobile sandsheet although several new burials were found in the middle of the site [Figure 9(b)]. The burial of a single adult (No. 13) identified in April was cleared by wind of approximately 5 more cm of sand revealing the burial of five interwoven bodies. Several processes are clearly in operation: wind erosion and the removal of sand; the obscuring of material by drifts of windblown sand; and the decay of poorly preserved burials, both by exposure to the elements and damage by human traffic. While the pattern of burials exposed is similar, during the second recording the sheer density of burials is significantly greater.
Discussion The different erosion regimes described have significantly affected the manner in which burials are exposed. Of the characteristics recorded, staining was the most problemmatic and least helpful since it appears very dependent upon the local environment. Additionally, in the field it is difficult to determine organic from inorganic stains. The lack of any relationship between staining and mineralization at Sturts Billabong may simply be because genuine manganese staining takes much longer to develop than mineralization of human bone. Between the uncertainty of field identification and this potentially longer time frame, staining does not appear to be a particularly useful indicator of age in Holocene sites. On the other hand, mineralization did seem to relate to age but comparisons between sites are not necessarily valid given the lack of mineralization in the two Lake Victoria sites. It may be, of course, that the burials at the sites were uniformly recent; however, variable bone conditions in the Nap Nap dune and work from other cemeteries in the area (Pardoe, 1991) suggests that many of these burial grounds span
15
thousands of years. It is more likely that the clay content of sand at Lake Victoria and proximity to running water mean that this was a generally moister environment than either Sturts Billabong or Nap Nap even before flooding. In this flooded environment submerged bone is less mineralized and more inherently fragile than bone found above the water line. Alternate wetting and drying also causes bone to fragment more easily (Brothwell, 1981; Von Endt & Ortner, 1984). The difference between mineralization in dry and wet environments is reflected in other features of exposed burials such as dispersal and means that the data that can be recorded vary significantly between the two regimes. Wind erosion In the case of wind erosion the matrix is lost first and the burial last since it deflates onto a lower level. At Sturts Billabong and Nap Nap this means that, despite extensive scattering and fragmentation of remains, the original horizontal location of a burial may still be identifiable. Stratigraphically the situation may be more difficult to assess. In sites where the sand body was probably still gradually accumulating during its time of use for burial there does appear to be a relationship between stratigraphic position and age of the original burial. There are, however, many cautionary tales in Australian archaeology. At one site, for instance, two parallel burials in exactly the same orientation, less than 1 m apart, differ by more than 3000 years in date (Dowling, 1990). Mineralization in these cases appears to be a key indicator but the degree of mineralization cannot be compared between sites. In some environments mineralization occurs very quickly, in others very slowly if at all and within one site buried cremated bone may be more mineralized though not necessarily older. Observations made at Sturts Billabong and confirmed at Nap Nap indicate that in wind eroded sites: (1) degree of mineralization may be a useful chronological indicator within a site, however, in young sites the degree of staining will not be particularly useful; (2) in no case will the degree of weathering be a useful clue to age since it is dependent on exposure with mineralization as an intervening factor (see also Tappen, 1994); and (3) the size of a burial scatter is not necessarily related to the fragmentation of a burial but smaller denser scatters may tend to be more recently exposed burials. Careful recording of these characteristics, however, can be used to reconstruct both recent erosion on the site and potentially some of the original context of the burial. In the case of wind erosion sites may change dramatically within a short period of time. Hence,
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J. Littleton
(a)
0
20 m
N
50
26. 5m
m
2
26.
m
00 26. m 5 7 25. 0m 5 . 5
2
25.25 m
Scatter
.5
m
25
5
.7
25
Burial pit
0
ln situ burial
m
(b)
0
20 m
N
50
26. m 5
2
26. 00 26. m 75 25. m 0 5.5
m
2
5 .7
0
.5
m
25 m
25.25 m
25
Burial pit
Figure 9. The two recordings at Gecko Island: (a) April 1994; (b) June 1994.
Scatter ln situ burial
m
Taphonomic Effects of Erosion on Deliberately Buried Bodies
monitoring of these sites at short intervals may be necessary, particularly if estimates are to be made of the original size and extent of the site. Even so, on burial sites exposed by wind erosion it may be possible to reconstruct the original context of the burials. Yet the extensive fragmentation and decay of exposed burials may mean that few biological data, such as age, sex or linear measurements, can be recovered. Water erosion In contrast, water erosion removes the burial simultaneously with the deposit. The long term removal of soil by water means that when the burial is initially exposed on the surface it is often lying within a fairly solid layer of soil and the remains are only gradually removed from their original position. Water moving above such skeletons, however, can remove individual bones entirely. As a result, there may be a well-preserved body lying on the surface but only half of it still present; the other half has been moved by water. The pattern of which elements have been removed is the same as that found for fresh bodies (Hill, 1979; Haglund, 1991): the extremities are removed as articulated or semi-articulated units while the thorax may remain intact. The remains that are removed may then be washed onto higher ground and exposed to sunlight and wind erosion or may be water-rolled and gradually fragmented. Water erosion is much more intractable than wind erosion. Firstly, its impact may be slow. Monitoring of the effects of erosion, therefore, needs to take place over a much longer period of time. In addition, the damage done by water means that it can be more difficult in these sites to make any estimate of the original size and extent of burial grounds. In the case of Gecko Island the estimate could only be made through analysis of the remaining stratigraphy. In the case of East Moon 2 the estimates can only be made by extrapolation from other areas. Ultimately, in cases of water erosion, it may be possible to record more biological data upon individual bones but identifying individuals and original context may be much more difficult. The end result for heritage managers and researchers is that sites affected by water erosion are more difficult to assess both in terms of significance and potential further damage. They are also more difficult to manage. Much of the damage occurs while sites are submerged and without long-term monitoring the impact can be difficult to prove.
Conclusion Different erosion regimes significantly affect the manner in which burials are exposed. Some of these processes confirm work conducted on unburied bodies (e.g. Hill, 1979), yet characteristics such as weathering appear to be much less informative in secondary
17
exposure than in paleobiological reconstruction. The difference in manner of exposure has significant research and management implications, particularly regarding estimates of burial ground size and the need for monitoring. Surveying the exposed burials in the Murray Basin has greatly broadened knowledge of burial practices and generated hypotheses about population size, distribution, cultural links and territorial behaviour. Clearly, these burials are a tremendous archaeological resource. However, these sites are constantly changing. Even with monitoring, each recording is only a slice of time as clearly demonstrated at both Nap Nap and Gecko Island. Trying to assess representativeness will always be a difficult issue in this most ephemeral archaeology.
Acknowledgements This research has been supported by an Australian Research Council Post-Doctoral Fellowship and the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. Grateful acknowledgements are made to the Aboriginal communities of Dareton and Hay for both permitting and participating in this work. I also thank Dr Doreen Bowdery and the reviewers for their comments on this manuscript.
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Hill, A. (1979). Disarticulation and scattering of mammal skeletons. Paleobiology 5, 261–274. Littleton, J. & Blair, R. (1993). The Burialground at Sturts Billabong, Wentworth: A Preliminary Description. Report for New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney. Littleton, J., Johnston, H. & Pardoe, C. (1994). Lake Victoria Lakebed Archaeological Survey. Report for New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney. Mant, A. (1987). Knowledge acquired from post-War exhumations. In (Boddington, A., Gardland A. & Janaway R., Eds) Death, Decay and Reconstruction: Approaches to Archaeology and Forensic Science. Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 65–78. McKinley, J. (1994). Bone fragment size in British cremation burials and its implications for pyre technology and ritual. Journal of Archaeological Science 21, 339–342. Meehan, B. (1971). The form, distribution and antiquity of Australian Aboriginal mortuary practices. MA thesis, University of Sydney. Moffatt, R. (1975). Correspondence relating to Nap Nap Site. On file, New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, Griffith. Pardoe, C. (1988). The cemetery as symbol. The distribution of prehistoric Aboriginal burial grounds in southeastern Australia. Archaeology in Oceania 16, 173–178. Pardoe, C. (1994). Wamba Yadu, a later Holocene cemetery of the central River Murray. Archaeology in Oceania 28, 77–84. Peterson, N. (1986). Australian Territorial Organisation. Sydney: University of Sydney. Oceania Monograph. 30. Rodriguez, W. & Bass, W. (1983). Insect activity and its relationship to decay rates of human cadavers in East Tennessee. Journal of Forensic Sciences 28, 423–33.
Rodriguez, W. & Bass, W. (1985). Decomposition of buried bodies and methods that may aid in their location. Journal of Forensic Sciences 30, 836. Shipman, P. (1981). The Life History of a Fossil. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Tappen, M. (1994). Bone weathering in the tropical rain forest. Journal of Archaeological Science 21, 667–673. Von Endt, D. & Ortner, D. (1984). Experimental effects of bone size on bone diagenesis. Journal of Archaeological Science 11, 247. Waldron, T. (1987). The relative survival of the human skeleton: implications for palaeopathology. In (Boddington A., Garland, A. & Janaway R., Eds. Death, Decay and Reconstruction: Approaches to Archaeology and Forensic Science. Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 55–64. Walshe, K. (1987). The burnt bone from Murramurang midden. Honours project, Archaeology & Anthropology, Australian National University. Webster, J. (1987). The Aboriginal Cemetery at Nap Nap. Report to New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney. Webb, S. (1989). The Willandra Lakes Hominids. Canberra: Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies. Weigelt, J. (1989). Recent Vertebrate Carcasses and their Palaeobiological Implications. Trans. J. Schafer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Wylie, S. & Allsop, D. (1994). Engineers report on the southern end of Lake Victoria. Report for Electricity and Water Supply, South Australia.