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Teacher questioning
Evaluation
in Education.
1980, Vol. 4. pp. 51-52.
Pergamon
Press Ltd. Printed in Great Britain.
TEACHER
Elaine W. Rousseau
QUESTIONING
and Doris L. Redfield
College of Education University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona
85721,
USA
From early Greek philosophy, as formulated by Socrates and recorded by Plato, questioning has been considered important in learning. Indeed, the professional consensus today is that teacher questioning behaviour is an important variable in stuThis consensus implies that research findings conclusively docudent achievement. ment the superiority of particular types of questioning strategies for promoting student achievement. This paper uses the meta-analytic technique to synthesise experimental findings on the relationship between level of teacher questioning and student,achievement. An initial pool of 18 studies was originally generated and reviewed by Winne (1979). Each of these studies examined teachers' instructional use of relatively more versus relatively fewer 'higher' or 'lower' cognitive questions. Higher cognitive questions are defined as those that require the student to manipulate information in creating and logically supporting a response while lower cognitive questions In his critical call for verbatim recall or recognition of factual information. review of these studies, Winne used a modified voting method, in which the number of positive findings are compared to the number of negative findings, to determine that student achivement is not affected by level of teacher questioning. Two additional studies were reviewed by the present investigators making a total pool of 20 studies. From this data base, 14 studies were selected for inclusion in this meta-analysis because they were experimental or quasi-experimental in research design, included data necessary for COIIIpUtdtiOn of effect sizes and included standardised or researcher-developed measures of achievement as a dependent variable. Because five of the 14 studies used comparison groups (i.e. groups in which lower but no control groups (i.e. groups in which no level questions were emphasised), questions were asked), the square root of the combined variance was used in the computation of effect sizes to provide a consistent denominator term across all studies. Using the control group standard deviation rather than the square root of the combined variance as the denominator term should yield a larger mean effect size because greater standard deviations are to be expected in combined treatment groups. Some studies used more than one measure of achievement; therefore, an effect size was computed for each finding and then an average effect size was computed for the study. Kean effect sizes were computed to investigate the impact of programme monitoring, experimental validity, and level of teacher questioning. Studies judged to be well monitored reported on-site classroom visits to ensure that the frequency and level
51
52
E. W. Rousseau
and D. L. Redfield
of questioning prescribed by the experimenter were followed. Findings show that studies designed to provide monitoring of programme implementation are positive in effect (mean effect size equals +.66) while studies with no monitoring are negative (mean effect size equals -.lO). Each study was evaluated for experimental validity using the criteria established by Campbell and Stanley (1966) for controlling such threats as history, maturation, etc. Studies judged to be sufficiently valid yield a positive mean effect size (+.72); studies judged insufficiently valid yield a negative mean effect size (-.05). Examination of teachers' use of higher versus lower cognitive questions show that predominant use of higher cognitive questions promotes student achievement (mean effect size equals t.34). This finding contradicts Winne's (1979) conclusion that level of teacher questioning does not affect student achievement. Results from this meta-analysis reveal that gains in achievement over a control group may be expected for groups of children who participate in programmes where teachers are trained in questioning skills and in which the validity of programme implementation is carefully monitored. These gains are greatest when more higher cognitive questions are used during instruction.
in Education.
1980, Vol. 4. pp. 51-52.
Pergamon
Press Ltd. Printed in Great Britain.
TEACHER
Elaine W. Rousseau
QUESTIONING
and Doris L. Redfield
College of Education University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona
85721,
USA
From early Greek philosophy, as formulated by Socrates and recorded by Plato, questioning has been considered important in learning. Indeed, the professional consensus today is that teacher questioning behaviour is an important variable in stuThis consensus implies that research findings conclusively docudent achievement. ment the superiority of particular types of questioning strategies for promoting student achievement. This paper uses the meta-analytic technique to synthesise experimental findings on the relationship between level of teacher questioning and student,achievement. An initial pool of 18 studies was originally generated and reviewed by Winne (1979). Each of these studies examined teachers' instructional use of relatively more versus relatively fewer 'higher' or 'lower' cognitive questions. Higher cognitive questions are defined as those that require the student to manipulate information in creating and logically supporting a response while lower cognitive questions In his critical call for verbatim recall or recognition of factual information. review of these studies, Winne used a modified voting method, in which the number of positive findings are compared to the number of negative findings, to determine that student achivement is not affected by level of teacher questioning. Two additional studies were reviewed by the present investigators making a total pool of 20 studies. From this data base, 14 studies were selected for inclusion in this meta-analysis because they were experimental or quasi-experimental in research design, included data necessary for COIIIpUtdtiOn of effect sizes and included standardised or researcher-developed measures of achievement as a dependent variable. Because five of the 14 studies used comparison groups (i.e. groups in which lower but no control groups (i.e. groups in which no level questions were emphasised), questions were asked), the square root of the combined variance was used in the computation of effect sizes to provide a consistent denominator term across all studies. Using the control group standard deviation rather than the square root of the combined variance as the denominator term should yield a larger mean effect size because greater standard deviations are to be expected in combined treatment groups. Some studies used more than one measure of achievement; therefore, an effect size was computed for each finding and then an average effect size was computed for the study. Kean effect sizes were computed to investigate the impact of programme monitoring, experimental validity, and level of teacher questioning. Studies judged to be well monitored reported on-site classroom visits to ensure that the frequency and level
51
52
E. W. Rousseau
and D. L. Redfield
of questioning prescribed by the experimenter were followed. Findings show that studies designed to provide monitoring of programme implementation are positive in effect (mean effect size equals +.66) while studies with no monitoring are negative (mean effect size equals -.lO). Each study was evaluated for experimental validity using the criteria established by Campbell and Stanley (1966) for controlling such threats as history, maturation, etc. Studies judged to be sufficiently valid yield a positive mean effect size (+.72); studies judged insufficiently valid yield a negative mean effect size (-.05). Examination of teachers' use of higher versus lower cognitive questions show that predominant use of higher cognitive questions promotes student achievement (mean effect size equals t.34). This finding contradicts Winne's (1979) conclusion that level of teacher questioning does not affect student achievement. Results from this meta-analysis reveal that gains in achievement over a control group may be expected for groups of children who participate in programmes where teachers are trained in questioning skills and in which the validity of programme implementation is carefully monitored. These gains are greatest when more higher cognitive questions are used during instruction.