Technological features of Apulian red figured pottery

Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1533e1541 http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Technological features of Apulian red figured pottery A. Mangone a, L.C. Giannossa a, A. Ciancio c, R. Laviano b, A. Traini a,* b

a Dipartimento di Chimica, Universita` di Bari, via Orabona 4, 70126 Bari, Italy Dipartimento Geomineralogico, Universita` di Bari, via Orabona 4, 70126 Bari, Italy c Soprintendenza Archeologica della Puglia, 70122 Bari, Italy

Received 13 November 2006; received in revised form 6 October 2007; accepted 26 October 2007

Abstract Apulian red figured pottery samples, dating back to the 5th and 4th centuries BC, from the archaeological site of Monte Sannace (Gioia del Colle, Bari, Italy) have been characterized from the physicalechemical, mineralogical and morphological points of view. Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and atomic spectroscopy investigations have been carried out on the ceramic body, red decorated area and black gloss of the fragments, with the aim of outlining the technological features and of defining the nature of coatings and decorations. All 5th century fragments show the same features: fine texture of the ceramic body, red figures saved from the ceramic paste and black gloss painted directly on the ceramic body. The statistical treatment of compositional data of ceramic bodies excludes the local production of these objects. As regards the 4th century fragments, some show similar features to the 5th century ones; however others are characterized by the coarse texture of their ceramic body and an intermediate red layer of finer clay between the black gloss and the ceramic body. The analytical results make it possible to distinguish two different production technologies of red figured Apulian vases in Monte Sannace during the 4th century BC. Certain vases were produced using the ‘‘classic’’ Attic technology and others with a different technique, not previously known, which involved the application of a red engobe layer on the clay paste, before the black gloss painting. Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Apulian red figured pottery; Scanning electron microscopy; Atomic spectroscopy; Ceramic; Black gloss and red decoration; Production technology

1. Introduction From the 3rd quarter of the 5th century BC to the end of the next century, there was intense production of red figured ceramic items in Apulia (South Italy). Known as ‘‘Apulian red figured pottery’’, it is characterized by excellent drawing ability and by remarkable quality. Between 450 and 300 BC, Apulian red figured pottery was the most important quantitative handcraft production group of figured pottery in Magna Grecia, the most widespread and commercialized both within and outside the region. The traditionally accepted start date for this manufacture is 440 BC, with the so called proto-Apulian production. Three phases of truly Apulian production followd Ancient, Middle and Late (Robinson, 1990; Trendall, 1989; Trendall and Cambitoglou, 1978, 1982)dthroughout the * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ39 080 544 2021; fax: þ39 080 544 2129. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Traini). 0305-4403/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.10.020

4th century, during which an increase in production was observed. The increasing trend was quite gradual during the Ancient and the Middle phases and became clearly sharper in the Late period, when iconographically and formally excellent handcraft pieces, such as huge monumental vases with detailed drawings from mythology and theatre plays, and low quality mass production pieces are found together. From the proto-Apulian period, the production management in the workshops was complex and well structured. Two different craftsmen could work on a single vase, apprentices could co-work with the main painter for easy tasks and minor details, the production could be diversified depending on the final use of the item (e.g., for daily use, for a burial, etc.) and on the customer target. This production management persisted throughout the next century, but in the Late period, the relevant production increase and the sharper separation between low-quality mass production and the excellent artistic items by the most famous artists, offer us many questions still to

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be answered on the system of production of Apulian red figured pottery. The most interesting problem to be solved deals with the identification of the workshops, especially for the Middle and Late periods, when production increased. The most likely theory accepted so far hypothesizes that a temporary transfer of expert craftsmen and artists occurred from Taras (Taranto) to the wealthiest Apulian villages, the most interested in gaining such expertise, at least for the most valuable pottery pieces. Then these became branch centres of production outside the main polis (city). However, the production of items of minor importance for local use was organized locally. The problem of solving the complex questions raised by the stylistic investigations on Apulian red figured pottery opened this field to archaeometric research. The goal is to clarify, on the basis of unambiguous elements, the technological processes characterizing this particular kind of pottery and, most of all, to identify possible differences between objects that could help to distinguish between the different production processes and workshops. Archaeometric investigations on red figured pottery have so far mainly dealt with Attic production, and were aimed at understanding the specific characteristics of each step in the overall production cycle, with particular attention devoted to the technique utilized to realize the black gloss (Canosa et al., 1996; Ingo et al., 2000; Jones, 1986; Kingery, 1991; Maniatis et al., 1993; Mirti, 2000; Mirti et al., 1996, 2004, 2006; Noble, 1960; Tang et al., 2001; Tite et al., 1982). There is as yet a lack of data about red figured vase production from Magna Grecia (Canosa et al., 1996; Grave et al., 1997; Mirti, 2000; Mirti et al., 1996, 2004, 2006); only approximately ten fragments of Apulian red figured pottery have been analysed (Canosa et al., 1996; Grave et al., 1997), a small number and from different sites, so the results cannot be considered representative of such complex, structured and assorted production. This investigation concerned Apulian red figured pottery production coming from Monte Sannace (Gioia del Colle, Bari, Italy), a site among the most relevant of ancient Peucetia (corresponding to central Apulia). 2. Experimental 2.1. Samples The collection of the examined samples consists of 37 items, codified in Table 1, either fragments or unbroken and reassembled objects differing in shape and dimension, recovered during archaeological excavations carried out in the last century at the site of Monte Sannace. Only the pelike (sample 15, inv. no. 61262) came from another site of archaeological interest in the same area, the archaic-classical necropolis of Santo Mola. Monte Sannace, one of the most important cities of ancient Peucetia, underwent particularly significant economic and cultural growth in the 4th and 5th centuries BC. In that period, in that centre, the red figure ceramics, mainly from tomb

Table 1 Analysed samples Code 1 2 3 4 5 6e14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23e38

Inventory numbera 505 504 339 343 333 61262 3862 871 20054 20055 892

Typology

Dating (century BC)

Bell crater Skyphos High-footed bowl High-footed bowl Vase wall Fragments Pelike Oinochoe Bell crater Crater border Mask volute crater Pelike Bell crater Fragments

Mid 4th Beginning of 4th First half of 4th First half of 4th End of 5th Mid 4th 4th Mid 4th 2nd half of 4th End of 4th 2nd Half of 4th Mid 4th

a Unbroken and reassembled items, as well as fragments kept at National Archaeological Museum of Gioia del Colle (Bari).

contexts, constitute a well represented class, with both intact examples in various forms (craters, oinochoi, amphoras, plates, bowls, skyphoi), as well as fragmentary material. Some of the findings sampled can be classified stylistically and chronologically on the basis of comparison with other ceramics and thanks to discovery data (the context which they belong). Sample 5 comes from a fragment of the wall of a closed vase (inv. no. 333), which conserves a part of the accessory decoration (palms and scrolls), as well as the traces of Greek letters over-painted in white. The stylistic examination indicates an attic or colonial product (from Metapontum or Taras) from the end of the 5th century BC. Samples 3 and 4 (inv. nos. 339 and 343 respectively) come from two rounded bowls turned back at the rim, resting on a high circular base, both fragmentary and incomplete. The external decoration consists of two male cloaked figures walking towards a small square column. The inside shows a naked athlete, with a strigil in his hand and boots on his feet. The bowls belong to Apulian production in the decade between 380 and 360 BC, which recall those of an artist, the so-called Pittore di Tarporley, who operated in the early 4th century BC under the influx of coeval production from the neighbouring region (Lucania). This latter recalls sample 2, a skyphos (inv. no. 504) with two female figures with mirrors in their hands, one on each side of the vase, reconstructed from a number of fragments and filled in some parts, while the oinochoe (sample 16, inv. no. 3862), very fragmentary and incomplete, with decorative motifs not clearly identifiable, can only be generically collocated chronologically around the 4th century BC. The three vases (samples 1, 17 and 21, inv. nos. 505, 871 and 892 respectively) belonging to the production of the Middle period, bell craters with a rather common scene (maenads and satyrs, cloaked male figures) and the pelike, sample 15, are datable to the mid 4th century BC. Finally, the large mask crater (sample 19, inv. no. 20054), is noteworthy, with a representation of the deceased eroticised inside the funerary temple, an example belonging to the highly valued Apulian production of the late phase. Stylistically the vase belongs to a group of products realised by artists,

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followers of an important maestro of the period (the so-called Pittore di Dario), which have been found in various archaeological sites of Peucetia and Daunia. The characteristics of the collection of samples strongly influenced the analyses and forced some limits. For example black gloss and red decorations were only analysed on the fragments, while chemical composition of ceramic bulks was carried out both on fragments and on items in museum exhibitions. The visual examination of objects revealed that the ceramic body colour of some fragments differs from that of the red decorations, the ceramic bulk being light brown / greyish and the decorations purplish red. 2.2. Techniques The fragments were examined with different complementary techniques, namely: polarized-light optical microscopy (OM); scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS); X-ray diffraction (XRD); atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Multivariate statistical techniques were used for treating the compositional data. Orthoscopic observations of the mineralogical textures were performed by means of optical microscope (Carl Zeiss) on polished thin sections, whereas SEM investigations were carried out on untreated samples and on polished thin sections, after graphite sputter-coating of the samples. Two SEM instruments, a S360 (Cambridge Instruments) and a EVO-50XVP (LEO) were used. Microanalyses were conducted using an Oxford-Link EDS instrument equipped with a Ge detector and with a 0.4-mm-thick Super Atmosphere Thin Window (SATW). X-ray diffraction analysis was performed by using a Philips X’Pert Pro X-Ray diffractometer, with the following working conditions: CuKa Ni-filtered radiation, 40 kV, 40 mA, divergence slit 1 , anti-scatter slit 0.5 , receiving slit 0.2 mm, speed 0.5 in 2q per minute. The analyses were carried out with the specimen directly inserted into the sample-rack of the instrument, with the X-ray beam pointing directly on the specimen surface, as described by Tang et al. (2001). Powder samples were not used, due to the impossibility of: (1) removing matter exclusively from the surface decorations without contaminating it with bulk material; (2) obtaining enough powdered material to perform XRD investigation within the detection limits of the technique. XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) analyses were performed using a Kratos Axis ULTRA ‘DLD’ X-ray photoelectron spectrometer upgraded with a ‘Delay Line Detector’. Data were acquired using monochromated Al Ka X-rays. All analyses were performed on the samples ‘as received’ and after a 120 s ion gun sputter-etching with Arþ ions at 2.0 KeV. The automatic charge neutralizer system of the instrument was used since the samples are insulators, and the C 1 s photoelectron peak (Binding Energy calibrated at 285.0 eV) was used.

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The elemental chemical composition of the ceramic body of the samples was investigated; bulk ceramic matter was scraped off fractures already existing on the fragments and small visible points of the object, inside or under the base, on the items in museum exhibitions, after removing the outermost external contaminated layer. Aliquots of about 30 mg of bulk ceramics (Hatcher et al., 1980), a good agreement between archaeological microdestructivity and analytical data quality, were dissolved by acid attack with a solution of 37% HCl, 70% HNO3 and 40% HF (Fluka trace selected for trace analysis reagents), in a 2:1:1 (v/v/v) ratio (Bruno et al., 2000). Ten elements were quantified by atomic absorption spectrometry (Shimadzu AA-6701 spectrometer): Na, K, Fe, Ca, Mg, using an airacetylene flame, Cr, Sr and Ni by the graphite furnace method. Al and Ti were determined by inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry (Varian Liberty 110 sequential plasma emission spectrometer). External calibration with matrix matching standards was employed for quantification and five replicate readings were performed on both standards and samples. The entire analytical procedure was tested on standard clay material (‘‘Brick clay’’ SRM 679 (National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA)) and the results of ten replicates are reported in Table 2.

3. Results 3.1. Black gloss The SEM analysis of the ‘‘black gloss’’ on all samples revealed an average thickness of about 20 mm; a very compact structure with no voids and a large degree of sintering with no clay structure evident, as shown in Fig. 1. These data clearly indicate that a finer clay was used in the production of the black gloss than that utilized for the ceramic body, probably with a granulometry lower than 2 mm. ED spectra of the black gloss layer revealed a homogeneous composition through all samples, as well as larger quantities of Al, Fe, K and sometimes also of Ti, and lower quantities of Ca, with respect to the ceramic body. As reported by Kingery (1991), the black gloss could have been obtained in three ways: by selecting a specific clay; by using the finer fraction, richer in iron and potassium oxides of a decanted claydthe coarser fraction, rich in calcium oxide, could be used for the ceramic bodydor by adjusting the composition of the clay with specific compounds. In our case, the high Al/Si (y1) ratio measured and the negligible amount of Ca suggest that two different clays were used for the ‘‘black gloss’’ and ceramic body. The use of the so-called terre rosse is compatible with our data. Terre rosse, very common all over Apulia, are continental sedimentary layers characterized by a silty-clay granulometry. Their mineralogical composition includes mainly partially crystalline Fe and Al oxides and hydroxides, clay minerals (illite and kaolinite) and traces of quartz, feldspars, micas, pyroxenes and other minerals (Dell’Anna, 1967; Dell’Anna and Laviano, 1987, 1991). The finest fraction

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Table 2 Determined element concentrations by Atomic Spectrometry of ten replicates of SRM 679 Replicate

Content, mg/g

Content, wt% Al

Fe

K

Mg

Ti

Na

Ca

Cr

Sr

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

10.25 10.35 10.15 10.26 10.41 10.82 10.26 10.47 10.38 10.30

8.92 8.93 8.76 9.04 9.04 9.25 9.02 9.19 8.97 8.90

2.38 2.36 2.28 2.24 2.13 2.35 2.14 2.25 2.20 2.28

0.73 0.73 0.72 0.69 0.72 0.76 0.71 0.74 0.73 0.72

0.58 0.59 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.61 0.58 0.59 0.59 0.58

0.13 0.13 0.12 0.14 0.11 0.13 0.10 0.13 0.13 0.13

0.141 0.188 0.128 0.149 0.201 0.153 0.169 0.133 0.173 0.180

87.3 91.9 91.1 103.3 87.8 87.0 88.9 89.4 86.3 87.6

68.6 70.4 70.3 73.1 73.5 71.1 70.7 71.3 69.1 69.2

Mean SD Reference value

10.37 0.18 11.010.34

9.00 0.14 9.050.21

2.26 0.09 2.4330.047

0.73 0.02 0.75520.0088

0.59 0.01 0.5770.033

0.13 0.01 0.13040.0038

0.161 0.024 0.16280.0013

90.1 5.0 109.74.9

70.7 1.6 73.42.6

of such terre rosse, easily separated by decantation, could have been used to realize these black glosses. In fact, this fraction, richer in kaolinite and illite as well as in Fe and Al oxides, could give the gloss investigated its technological and chemical properties. The mineralogical phases of black gloss, obtained from XRD spectra, include hercynite, magnetite, haematite, quartz and feldspar. The coexistence of Fe-spinels, i.e., hercynite and magnetite, allows us to hypothesize that the reducing phase of the firing took place at a temperature not higher than 900e950  C (Maggetti et al., 1981). The presence of haematite could be due to incomplete reduction of Fe(III) compounds during the reducing phase of firing. The black gloss of sample 13 is different from the others. It is much thicker, about 50 mm, with a large amount of inclusions as well as voids, craters and channels (Fig. 2). Nevertheless, no evident compositional difference was shown between this black gloss and the others by EDS analysis. These peculiar morphological features allowed us to infer gas leakage during firing and led to further surface analysis by XPS. XPS spectra of the black gloss surface before and after Arþ etching were compared and a larger amount of carbon was found after etching (about 20%, atom content), far too much to be explained only by the surface contamination due to the soil during burial; in fact, other samples, and the same sample 13 in the red area, exhibited a carbon content between 5% and 8% after Arþ etching under the same conditions. Unless the presence of carbon was caused by the decomposition of carbonates present in the clay body, these results support the hypothesis that a significant amount of some kind of organic matter could have been added to the clay used for the black gloss. The thicker layer of this sample would have led to some sort of enhanced segregation of carbon at the uppermost layer, originated by carbon oxides diffusing from the deeper layers of the glaze. This would also explain the craters on the surface and the channels seen in cross section, opened by the leakage of carbon oxides during firing. Organic matter was probably also added to the clay of the other black gloss

samples but their lower thickness allowed the complete removal of the gas developed during firing, so less carbon was found there.

3.2. Ceramic body and red decorated areas 3.2.1. Chemical analysis and statistical treatment of data The results of the chemical analysis by atomic spectroscopy of the ceramic bodies are reported in Table 3, expressed as percentage weight for major and minor element oxides in the solid samples, and as ppm (mg/g) for the trace elements. These compositional data were processed with Principal Components Analysis (PCA), using the SCAN software package (Minitab), with the main aim of identifying groups of objects distinguished on the basis of their compositional features. The results of the multivariate statistical treatment are shown in Fig. 3, illustrating the scores plotted on to the first three principal components subspace, which accounts for 65% of the total variance, and the loading plot of the different parameters. Three markedly distinct groups can be identified. The same figure shows the 95% isoprobability ellipsoids, whose surfaces define the boundary of three clusters, A, B and C. Clusters A and B differ from C along PC1 principally due to the loadings relative to the Ca, Al, Fe, Sr and Ni parameters. In particular, the A and B scores are characterized by negative values of PC1 due to higher amounts of Al, Fe, Sr and Ni, while C scores are spread along positive PC1 values due to the higher Ca and Na content. The widening of cluster B along negative PC3 is mainly due to the loadings of Mg, K and Cr. More ancient objects, dating from the late 5th century BC and the first half of 4th according to archaeological classification, are grouped inside cluster A, while clusters B and C include objects dating back to the 4th century BC. To identify the reasons that split the scores of 4th century fragments into the two different clusters - B and C -, the fragments were examined from the morpho-mineralogical point of view.

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Fig. 1. SEMeBSE photomicrograph of the thin sections of the fragment 23 with highlighted characteristic differences between the ‘‘black gloss’’ (upper brighter layer) and the ceramic body (lower layer). The ED spectra of the black gloss (upper) and of the ceramic body (lower) are shown on the right.

Fig. 2. SEMeBSE photomicrograph of the fragment 13. Left: black gloss surface, where a loose structure is evident, with many voids and inclusions. Right: thin section of the same fragment, with the black gloss layer (above, thickness 50 mm; evident gas channels), and the ceramic body (below).

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Table 3 Ceramic body composition by atomic spectroscopy Sample

Element or element oxide concentration a

Cluster

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 a

B A A A A C C C C A A A C C B B B B B B B B C C B C C C C B B B B B B B B

(% w/w)

(ppm)

CaO

MgO

Na2O

K2O

FeO

Al2O3

TiO2

Cr

Ni

Sr

8.25 8.94 8.51 8.27 7.60 11.22 8.80 14.47 13.93 9.53 8.55 9.92 13.78 10.97 7.39 7.33 12.02 9.83 10.81 8.74 8.20 8.56 14.10 8.72 8.00 8.98 8.65 14.47 14.73 5.78 8.11 7.32 8.16 8.72 8.52 9.23 9.39

2.29 2.06 2.09 2.14 1.97 1.31 1.59 1.16 1.49 2.37 2.29 2.30 1.39 1.51 1.49 2.24 3.65 3.98 3.75 3.42 3.68 1.81 1.46 1.18 1.69 1.19 0.80 1.49 1.19 2.47 2.37 2.34 2.50 2.57 2.54 2.70 2.64

0.48 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.39 0.50 0.96 0.66 0.92 0.40 0.43 0.43 0.48 0.44 0.78 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.71 0.63 0.66 0.77 0.70 0.84 0.84 0.79 0.82 0.67 0.65 0.62 0.98 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.94 1.06 1.23

3.72 1.43 2.45 2.23 2.19 2.36 2.57 2.37 2.14 2.75 2.76 2.43 2.10 2.37 2.54 2.59 2.59 2.39 2.90 2.30 2.28 2.58 2.25 2.42 2.77 2.31 2.46 2.28 2.00 3.00 2.24 2.01 2.95 2.82 2.77 2.99 2.89

5.25 6.01 6.39 6.76 6.06 5.48 5.08 5.89 5.18 7.10 6.82 6.62 4.72 5.62 8.58 4.63 4.84 4.49 4.45 3.64 3.64 4.57 3.18 3.33 4.49 3.05 3.29 1.95 2.15 2.64 7.07 6.65 6.82 6.61 6.10 6.37 5.70

10.32 13.96 12.77 12.91 12.13 11.03 10.17 12.11 10.96 16.34 15.42 15.23 10.88 11.26 8.75 9.69 13.57 12.30 13.91 11.87 11.41 13.98 10.13 9.83 12.70 10.68 10.51 8.94 7.92 12.36 15.29 14.51 14.36 15.46 13.87 13.74 12.60

0.90 1.02 1.05 1.08 0.91 0.79 0.75 0.76 0.76 1.24 1.20 1.15 0.75 0.81 0.96 1.23 1.48 1.30 1.60 0.88 1.33 1.83 0.89 0.83 1.54 1.19 0.89 1.01 0.99 1.34 1.20 1.15 1.21 1.20 1.04 0.88 0.96

108 200 149 159 137 103 117 128 107 125 134 118 97 102 165 111 114 112 140 118 121 130 111 99 153 100 89 110 96 130 120 108 105 133 101 116 126

60 757 516 652 640 407 355 213 178 468 1066 534 242 169 103 136 78 53 67 55 60 68 42 52 74 44 47 43 34 331 82 54 66 68 59 73 50

563 265 319 298 269 304 280 308 271 282 271 287 267 258 791 680 486 496 424 470 459 320 340 303 322 295 341 313 279 190 174 165 164 174 133 135 143

Cluster assignment of samples after multivariate statistical treatment of chemical data.

3.2.2. Morpho-mineralogical characterization by OM, SEM-EDS and XRD analysis All fragments from clusters A and B are characterized by fine texture paste with remarkable amounts of iron oxides (Fig. 4). The absence of large inclusions led us to assume that refined clay was employed in their fabrication. In addition, an evident morphological and compositional continuity between the red-coloured surface and the bulk was found and black gloss is layered directly on the ceramic body. The pastes of all fragments from cluster C, on the contrary, are characterized by coarse textures with flakes, mainly of muscovite, quartz, feldspar and pyroxene (Fig. 5). A complex coating structure was revealed for all fragments. The SEM images of thin sections of the fragments show a clay layer with a texture finer than that of the ceramic body below and comparable with that of the ceramic body of shards in clusters A and B (Fig. 6). Where the black gloss is present at the

surface of the fragment, three different layers are visible in section. The outermost layer exhibits the typical characteristics of the black gloss, including the thickness and the chemical composition. The intermediate layer shows transitional characteristics between black gloss and ceramic body (texture, sintering degree and chemistry), with a thickness of 40e 70 mm. The inner layer, corresponding to the ceramic body, shows a non homogeneous structure and coarse texture. ED spectra of the two layers (Fig. 7) show Al/Si and K/Ca atomic ratios as well as the quantity of Fe increasing from the ceramic body upward to the intermediate layer. The presence of this intermediate layer, which we define as ingobbio rosso, explains the differences in colours between the ceramic body and the red decoration, observed in the fragments belonging to cluster C. The ingobbio rosso is only found on the external side in the fragments of thinner wall objects, or on both sides in thicker

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Fig. 3. Scores and loadings diagram for the first three principal components related to the objects examined. The accounted variance is 65% of the total variance.

ones. The thickness and the texture of the ingobbio rosso also depend on the overall thickness of the walls, which are thinner and less refined in smaller vases. This is very probably correlated to the firing technology; large vases, in fact, require large furnaces where it is difficult to keep the temperature constant for the proper amount of time. This could lead to surface lightening of thick ceramic bodies rich in calcium. To avoid this, a thick, properly prepared engobe had to be utilized, to allow the surface to keep its deep red colour after firing. In smaller vases this problem is less evident, the quality of the engobe plays a minor role, so its preparation could be less accurate. As regards firing temperature, the presence of neo-formed phases, such as pyroxenes and gehlenite, suggests that ceramic bodies of all vases, irrespective of cluster, reached a temperature of about 950  C (Heimann and Maggetti, 1981). In addition, the presence of calcite in the ceramic body of the

monumental vases belonging to cluster C indicates either an uneven temperature reached during firing or too short a firing time.

Fig. 4. Crossed polars optical microscopy of the fabric of shard 10 showing fine textured clay body.

Fig. 5. Crossed polars optical microscopy of the fabric of shard 6 showing coarse textured clay body.

4. Conclusions The results obtained by the different techniques on red figured pottery from Monte Sannace provide detailed information about technological-productive aspects of Apulian red figured pottery and lead to interesting results from both the archaeometric and archaeological points of view. Our results show that the analysed findings differ in age (5th and 4th centuries BC) and the later items (4th century BC) differ in production technology. The marked compositional diversity of objects enclosed in cluster A, which justifies the formation of a sharply distinct cluster from the other ones,

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Fig. 6. SEMeBSE photomicrographs of thin sections of fragment 24 show overlapping areas characterised by different grey shades. Right: section corresponding to the surface of the fragment where the black gloss is present. Three different layers are visible: black gloss layer (brighter), intermediate layer (light grey) and ceramic body (dark grey). Left: section corresponding to red surface area. Two layers are visible: intermediate layer (light grey) and ceramic body (dark grey).

and furthermore the presence inside it of sample 5 led us to exclude the local production of cluster A objects. They could have been imported from Greek colonies on the coast of the region or directly from Greece as hypothesized in previous archaeological studies (Scarfı`, 1962). However, the comparison between chemical compositional data in the literature (Jones, 1986; Mirti et al., 2006) and ours does not support an Attic provenance. As regards clusters B and C, the objects, stylistically classified by the archaeologists as local production, are characterized by two different ceramic bodies. Some are defined by a fine texture, the same red colour as the figures with the black gloss painted directly on it, others by a coarse texture and a layer of ingobbio rosso, on the whole surface for large vases and only on the external surface for smaller ones. These results show that there were two different production technologies of red figured vases at the Monte Sannace site during the 4th century BC. Certain vases were produced with the ‘‘classic’’

Attic technology, other vases with a different technology, never previously reported in the literature, which used the application of the engobe layer. The ‘‘intentional red’’ Attic technique has been described (Farnsworth and Wisely, 1958; Mirti et al., 2006; Tite et al., 1982); however, our results (chemical composition, thickness, absence of birefringence) are not consistent with this technique. They are consistent with the use of fractions of the same clay for the ceramic body and for the ingobbio rosso but with different granulometry. The ceramic body was very probably made with the coarse clay fraction, usually discarded for Attic vases, while the ingobbio rosso was prepared with the finer fraction, typically used for the ceramic body of the Attic vases. Since the quality of the ceramic body is not visible from the outside, this use of the clay can be considered smart, in that it allowed the makers to obtain visual effects similar to those obtained with the traditional technology, while saving relevant quantities of raw materials. This production evolution was very

Fig. 7. ED spectra of the two layers shown in Fig. 6 (intermediate layer and ceramic body) relative to the thin section of fragment 24. Left: ceramic body, right: intermediate layer.

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