Technological innovation and the development of managerial competencies

Technovo~jon, 1I:7 (1991) 419-428

Technological innovation and the development of managerial competencies Henrik

H. Larsen

Copenhagen

School of Economics

Michael

P. O’Driscoll

Uni~e~~it~ of

Wa~kaio(New

and Social Science ~~en~ark~

and Maria

Humphries

Zealand)

Abstract

The rapid pace of technological change over the last decade has made a substantial impact on individuals, organizations and society as a whole. In particular, the management of organizations has been transformed by the availability of powerful, yet practical and convenient, micro-computers. Frequently, however, the fun-te~hn~ca[ ramifications of imp~emeniin~ new technologies have been overlooked or underestimated, In contrast, the socio-technical systems perspective incorporates technology, structure and social dynamics as interdependent components of any organization. Consideration of interrelationships between these elements is essential for successful implementation of te~hno~ogicai change. In ~artic~iar, human resource management wifi be critical for the integration of technology with other facets of future organizational systems. This paper examines some of the human resource issues which will be critical for tomorrow’s managers and dismisses research findings from a study of the development of managerial skills. management training must focus more attention on both formal and informal learning experiences, while organizations need to expend more energy creating cultures and climates which promote learning and skill acquisition.

1.

l~trod~cti~n

In recent years social scientists have given increasing attention to the impact of advanced technologies in numerous spheres, including the quality of life experienced by individuals, the structure and dynamics of the labour process, organizational productivity and effec-

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tiveness, as well as national economies* and political and social values within societies. Scholars from a variety of disciplines have directed their attention to the interrelationships between technology and these diverse issues. One domain of special interest has been the influence of new technology on organizations and their members, and the

0166-4972/91/$03.50 0 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd

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H. H. Larsen, M. P. O’Driscoll

and M. Humphries

implications of rapid technological change within industry for the management of organizations, today and in the future. The present paper examines some key issues for the development of skills in this era of emergent new technologies. Our point of departure is the socio-technical systems perspective on organizational functioning [ 11, which views technology as one of several interrelated components of an organization, linked with its structure, the people who operate within it and with the tasks which they perform. The systems model recognizes the interdependence between these elements, as well as their relationship with the political, social and economic environment external to the organization. We begin by examining the general impact of change, especially computerization, on people within organizations. Social scientific research on the human aspects of technological innovation will be summarized. Second, we will discuss some strategies which may be critical in the management of change. This leads, thirdly, to a consideration of the roles which managers of the future will fulfill and the skills they will need to display in those roles. Finally, findings from a recent research project on managerial learning processes will be outlined, to illustrate methods by which managers can enhance their skills and competencies and organizations can optimize managerial development. Suggestions for education and training in human resource management will be presented.

2. Technological tional functioning

change

and organiza-

There has been widespread debate over the effects of advanced technology on the management of organizations. For example, the new information technologies (IT), characterized by increased reliance on computer systems for the transmission, storage and analysis of information within (and’ between) organizations, 420

raise serious questions for management of the labour process. Earl [2] has suggested that the influence of IT is pervasive and its rate of change is accelerating. Long-term prognoses about the effects of computerization on redundancies and employment prospects are unclear, but are less optimistic than earlier views [3]. In addition to the implications for downsizing, redundancy and redeployment of staff [3], the availability of small size, large capacity computers, coupled with the burgeoning software industry, has markedly altered the internal functioning of organizations, including work processes and procedures. Social research has indicated that the introduction of new technology (i) has a marked effect on individuals as well as the organization as a whole, and (ii) is itself contingent upon the social the workplace. dynamics of Recent developments in technology, particularly in micro-electronics and computer systems, have heightened awareness of technological impact and led to a reconsideration of the links between technological change (which has been both rapid and spectacular) and other dimensions of organizational life. The introduction of computer-assisted design (CAD) systems, robotics and centralized computer systems provides a good illustration of the relationship between new technologies and an important organizational process-control over work outputs and procedures [4]. There are two dimensions to this debate. From a labour perspective, deskilling of personnel has been raised as a major source of concern, ultimately reducing the degree of psychological involvement which people experience in their jobs and increasing feelings of alienation. In contrast, organizational management interests have focussed on implementing more effective control mechanisms, leading to increased productivity and reduced wastage. Conflict between these perspectives can be seen in areas such as computer monitoring of employee performance (e.g. supermarket checkout operators). Whereas management Technovation

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may perceive the implementation of this technology as enhancing its control over productivity and costs, employees may feel threatened by the loss of autonomy and discretionary control over their work environment Dl. Role relationships between managers and employees are often affected by new technologies. This has been especially noticeable for computer software specialists within firms and companies. Managers and other staff rely heavily upon the resources and skills of these specialists to provide necessary information for their own role performance. Such reliance on one group enhances the ‘reward power’ of that group within the organization and enables it to exercise considerable authority over other personnel. Rapid changes in programming technology ensure that only the specialists are able to keep abreast of new developments, which further cements their power within the organization. Technological advances have not only altered the nature of work performed within organizations, but have also contributed to a blurring of the boundaries between people’s jobs and their lives off the job. Concerns have been expressed about the encroachment of the job into people’s off-job lives and the longterm effects on individual well-being and organizational effectiveness [6,7]. The availability of portable lap-top computers, for example, has increased the overflow of work into home life and leisure time for many professional and managerial personnel. IIuman resource management must consider the implications of this overlap, which technology not only facilitates, but may even enforce! The above illustrations highlight some of the issues which technological innovation raises for the design of jobs, for the management of role relations within organizations, and for career planning and development in an era of rapid change. While the implications of new technologies are clearly not confined to the management of human resources, focussing on Technovation Volume 11 No 7

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and managerial

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this aspect of management is important because it has been recognized as a key element in organizational success [8]. In firms and companies of the future, more individuals will perform managerial activities, “because nonmanagement jobs increasingly call for managerial skills” [9]. 3.

Management

of change

Organizational management in the current technological environment requires an acute awareness of external changes, along with the capacity to facilitate change internally. Planners and decision makers cannot assume that the context in which they operate will remain stable, but must anticipate and respond to innovations, as well as develop internal processes to implement appropriate new technologies. As has been cogently argued in recent literature on organizational m~agement [lo], integration of business strategy and planning with human resource management is essential for maintaining effectiveness. Technological change depends critically upon several ‘non-technological’ factors; as shown by the socio-technical systems model of organizations, the structura1 design and human components of an organization must be taken into consideration before changes are introduced. Research on organizational interventions highlights employee resistance as a ‘barrier’ to successful change efforts [l 1, 121. Organizational restructuring, mergers, takeovers and other major changes within organizations in the last decade have created a climate of uncertainty, generating realistic concerns about redundancy and significant job change for staff at all levels. While there are many ways of combating the problems which can arise from such uncertainty, managers often focus predominantly on the relevance of change for the organization as a whole, rather than examining its implications for individu~s and their possible reactions to it. Rarely do non-managerial 421

H. H. Larsen, M. P. O’Driscoll

and M. Humphries

personnel contribute to decisions about technological innovations [ 131. In contrast to this prevailing situation, research suggests that involvement of staff in the change process reduces ‘resistance’ and increases the likelihood of successful implementation. While traditional approaches emphasized centralized managerial control over processes and procedures, more recent views favour greater employee participation [14] and more flexibility [8]. Employee participation in change decisions increases information sharing between managerial and other levels, which reduces uncertainty about the nature of the intervention and its potential consequences. Furthermore, although the involvement of employees in the development and introduction of new technology may increase planning time (and possibly costs), their heightened interest and commitment-and therefore contributionimproves both the quality of decisions reached and the implementation of those decisions [ 151. Introduction of advanced technologies requires the effective management of uncertainty, awareness of the strain it may induce, and confronting the ‘resistance’ which employees may experience if they are not involved in and committed to the change process. The experience of uncertainty by personnel is highly disruptive, not just to their own performances and well-being, but also for overall organizational effectiveness. Meaningful participation serves to alleviate some of the adverse effects of uncertainty in the work setting and can foster the development of a high-trust climate, which in itself increases greater employee commitment new to the implementation of technologies [ 161. A purely technical approach to change is inconsistent with the socio-technical systems perspective, which emphasizes that choice and utilization of new technologies must be linked with processes for selecting and training individuals, developing effective work groups and enhancing the attainment of organizational goals. Just as recent articles have 422

highlighted the close link between business strategy and human resource management [lo], the management of technological innovations in organizations of the future will require greater attention to the needs and values of organizational members, as well as the social context into which new technology is being introduced.

4.

Changing

managerial

roles

It is clear that technological innovation affects all members of an organization, but may have special relevance for managerial personnel, who carry particular responsibility for introducing and implementing new technological developments. Technical expertise alone is insufficient to manage the rapidity of change and interdependence between the increasing technology and other aspects of organizational functioning. Instead, managers need to exercise leadership, which is intimately linked to manager-subordinate interaction and influence processes. Rather than exerting direct control over work processes and outcomes, managers will function as facilitators, taking a broader integrating and coordinating role within the organization. Essentially, managerial responsibilities will centre around the creation and maintenance of a culture and climate which values excellence through individual and organizational goal attainment. Taking these issues into account, we suggest the following as primary directions in which managerial roles will shift: toward creating and enhancing a climate which enables other personnel to make decisions and to take responsibility for them; toward setting objectives (mutual goal setting) and assisting other staff to set up and strive for standards of excellence; toward greater integration of individual expectations and organizational goals; Technovation

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l

toward the creation and diffusion of an identifiable culture within the organization.

The promotion of cultural values (such as innovation and achievement) will be a primary focus for future human resource management. Successful organizations are those which develop and foster the best ‘mix’ of values and can translate those values into performance [ 171. Depending on the environmental conditions in which they operate, some organizations require managerial skills which promote continuity and stability, whereas others need managers who can respond to external changes and cope with uncertainty. In a recent study of managerial styles, Foxall and Payne [18] found that: “many organizations, perhaps a majority, require only comparatively occasional innovative inputs and rely on sustained continuous adaptive contributions in order to main lain current operating systems’ ’ (Pm647). Their findings highlight the importance of balancing tensions which may exist between stability and innovation. Furthermore, as noted in this journal by Whiston [19], new technologies demand the harnessing of organizational resources to ensure an integrated, functional system. One implication for managers is the need to unlock the creative potential of employees and to facilitate their participation in change, without jeopardizing feelings of security (through, for instance, fear of redundancy). Managers’ analytic skills will be expanded to encompass not just technical and economic analysis, but an understanding of the social and political dynamics of organizational change. Attention to employee needs and interests, anticipation of the social and political outcomes of implementing new technology, and the ability to communicate effectively with all those who Technovation

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innovation

and managerial

competencies

may be affected by change will become increasingly important skills for the management of innovation.

5. Development competencies

of managerial

In view of the issues raised above concerning the link between technological change and managerial roles and competencies, it is important to examine mechanisms by which managers can develop their skills, both technical and ‘non-technical’. Despite a growing awareness of the importance of managerial learning, there has been a predominant concentration on formal education and training [20]. Much research has been conducted to assess the viability of tertiary education, formalized internal training programs and off-site management development workshops. Less attention has been accorded to other methods of skill acquisition, particularly those which entail ongoing, informal or experiential learning [21]. As a first step toward the construction of a broader approach to managerial learning, we interviewed 96 managers in a variety of both public and private sector organizations in New Zealand, to explore their perceptions of how they had developed their managerial skills [22]. An assumption underlying this study was that learning processes encompass a variety of both work-related and off-the-job events which managers encounter and that it is important to explore the range of these experiences. Formal training represents just one element of a developmental process which is pervasive and on-going. Using a typology of managerial activities formulated by Luthans et al. [23], we asked managers to describe critical incidents or events which they believed had contributed (either positively or negatively) to the performance of their managerial responsibilities. They also indicated the percentage of learning which they 423

H. H. Larsen, M. P. O’Driscoll

and M. Humphries

felt had occurred through (i) formal training and education, (ii) on-the-job experience, and (iii) experiences outside of their jobs. These reponses were analysed to provide an index of the perceived contribution of each sphere to their overall managerial development. Almost all (approximately 95%) of the managers in our sample had received formal management training and over half (59%) had attended tertiary institutions (such as university). However, the major proportion of learning (65~0) was attributed to job-related experiences, such as ‘trial and error’, observation of role models and (to quote one participant in the study) “learning by doing”. Formal education and training were seen to account for just 17% of managerial skill development, with off-the-job experiences explaining about the same proportion (18%). The picture emerging from these responses is that most respondents learned their managerial skills through ongoing events and experiences which they encountered while performing their tasks, rather than by exposure to formalized management development programmes. This pattern was particularly evident in the development of ‘people management’ skills. Whereas formal training was seen to contribute toward the acquisition of technical expertise, informal learning experiences were frequently linked with managers’ perceptions of their performance of human resource management activities, which were rated as being very important for effective management. Most respondents (and their subordinates) indicated the need to develop information sharing, communication and other interpersonal skills, to enable them to deal more effectively with human resource management concerns. One message from our data was that, while technical skills, can be refined through formal training, human relations skills may often be simply absorbed on the job, rather than being integrated into management training programmes. Although our study was not designed specifically to focus on the management of techno424

logical change, the findings do have implications for managerial roles and skills in organizations adopting and developing new technologies. In this sample, which included many managers who were facing considerable change, an issue which often arose was the extent of uncertainty staff were experiencing about these changes and their consequences. While managers were expected to understand and alleviate these uncertainties, they had received no formal training or preparation for these kinds of problems. Expertise in dealing with employee uncertainty, conflict and related issues (such as job insecurity) had been obtained predominantly through haphazard and often unplanned experiences associated with their managerial functions. Several respondents commented on the benefits which would accrue from a more systematic approach to the development of these skills. One theme which emerges from this research, therefore, is that management development programmes must do more to incorporate the on-going learning experiences which managers confront while fulfilling their roles. As noted by Kolb [24], learning occurs most effectively when individuals reflect on their experiences and, based on these reflections, modify their behaviour. Organizations can facilitate this process by developing climates which foster the utilization of critical day-to-day experiences. Previous research has illustrated that supportive efforts from management will be instrumental in the emergence of a climate for lea&ng within the organization 1251. Innovation, adaptation and acceptance of change (technological or otherwise) hinge upon the promotion of an organizational culture and climate which encourage and reward creativity and risk-taking, as well as the capacity to assimilate new processes and procedures. In many organizations, the balance between bureaucracy and innovation is heavily weighted toward the former. Carnevale [9] has observed that learning and development apply as directly to managers as Technovation Volume 11 No 7

Technological innovation and managerial competencies

to other personnel. The capacity to learn from experience and to utilize this learning constructively is a responsibility which lies with both the organization and the individu~. Many of the skills and competencies which managers require to fulfill their roles in a changing technological context are currently not encompassed within formal training programs. This would appear, from our findings and those of other studies examining learning processes within organizations, to be especially relevant for the development of human resource management expertise. A major challenge for organizations of the future is to generate constructive learning environments and to remove barriers to effective learning and performance. Finally, the results of our study provide two agenda points for the education of tomorrow’s managers. First, tertiary institutions which offer management education need to be more cognizant of the human relations skills required for effective management and to incorporate these skills into the curricula of their MBAs and other business courses. In discussing the implications of technological trends within society, Naisbitt [26] has commented that “we are moving from the specialist who is soon obsolete to the generalist who can adapt” (p. 37) and that “the human side of high technology” (p. 35) is becoming increasingly important. Respondents in the present research illustrated that their own formal training had not prepared them sufficiently for the human side of management, Secondly, educational institutions must build experiential learning into their training programmes so that their students will develop a capacity for ‘learning how to learn’ [24]. Greater awareness and understanding of the range of experiences which promote learning and development will increase the relevance of formal management education, enabling individuals to more effectively utilize the experiences (both positive and negative) they encounter in their work environments and to view them as learning opportunities. Technovation Volume 11 No 7

6.

Conclusion

In this paper we have explored some of the implications of technological innovation for the management of organizations in the future. An essential starting point in this endeavour is an understanding of managerial roles and the mechanisms by which managers learn the skills demanded by those roles. Our managerial interviews highlighted human resource management skills as key areas for development and the need for greater integration of formal and informal learning experiences. Particular responsibility lies with organizations to provide positive climates which will enhance, rather than ignore or prevent, learning opportunities. Management education institutions must extend their training philosophy to give more focus to human relations skills and to inculcate experiential learning in prospective managers as a strategy for continuing personal development. The findings from our research contain important implications for the management of technological change. As the rate of change accelerates and as new technologies become more sophisticated, increasing numbers of organizations will find themselves in rapidly shifting environments which demand a capacity for both innovation and adaptation. Managers within these firms and companies will carry the primary responsibility for ensuring organizational survival and competitiveness, by generating cultural values and creating climates which enable the organization to achieve its goals. They will navigate progress through the uncharted waters, at the same time coordinating the activities of employees into a unified crew and ensuring that appropriate technology is utilized to its full potential. To realize these objectives, however, organizations must pay substanti~ly greater attention to the development of their managerial potential. While emphasis is given to technical skills, comparatively less attention is given to interpersonal and team development skills, 425

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and M. Humphries

which are essential for matching individual and group performance with organizational goals. Frequently these areas are diverted to the personnel or human resource division of an organization, rather than being integrated with strategic management planning and decision making. In summary, the systems perspective on organizations outlined earlier suggests that technology is an integral component of organizational functioning, which must be considered in relation to other key elements. Consideration of each facet separately and lack of attention to inter-relationships between them has typically led to failure. The management of technological change only requires not technical knowledge and capability, but a clear understanding of the interdependence of technology, people and organizational structures.

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Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the Electricity Corporation of New Zealand for its financial support of the research discussed in this paper. Comments from Elizabeth Brady, John Jensen and Paul Taylor on an earlier draft are very much appreciated. We are also grateful for suggestions from an anonymous reviewer. Correspondence should be addressed to Michael P. O’Driscoll, Dep~tment of Psychology, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand.

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References 1 C. Hulin and M. Roznowski. Organizational technologies: Effects on organizations’ characteristics and individuals’ responses. Researrh in Organizational Rehavior, 7 (1985) 39-86. 2 M. Earl, Emerging trends in managing new information technotogies. In N. Piercy (ed.), The Management Implications of New Information Technology. Croom-Helm, London, 1984.

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J. Algera and P. Koopman, Coping with new technology: Central issues in perspective. Applied ~syc~u~ogy, 38 (1989) I-13. P. Thompson, The Nature of Work, 2nd edn. MacMillan, London, 1989. B, Probert and J. Wajcman, T~hno~ogic~ change and the future of work. Journal of Industrial Relations, 30 (1988). 432-448. D. Hall and J. Richter, Balancing work and home life: What can organizations do to help?? Academy of Management Executive, 2 (1988) 213-224. M. O’Driscoil, Over-commitment to the job and the organization: Implications of excessive job involvement and organisationai attachment. New Zealand Journal o_fZndustrial Relat~ans, 14 (1989) 169-177. S. Carroll, Managerial work in the future. In J. Wage (ed.), Futures of Organizations: Innovating to Adapt and Human Resources to Rapid Strategy Technological Change. Lexington Books, Lexington, MA, 1988. A. Carnavale, Management training: Today and tomorrow. Training & Development Journaf, 42 (1988) 19-29. C. Lengnick-Hal1 and M. Lengnick-Hall, Strategic human resources management: A review of the literature and a proposed typology. Academy of Management Review, 13 (1988) 454-470. J-L Karp, Working with resistance. Training & Development Journal, 38(3) (1984) 69-75 _ J. Stanislao and B. Stanislao, Dealing with resistance to change. Business Horizons, 26(4) (1983) 74-78. F. Blackler and C. Brown, Evaluation and the impact of information technologies on people in organizations. Human Relations, 38 (1985) 213-231. J. Cotton, D. Vollrath, K. Froggatt, M. LengnickHall and K. Jennings, Employee participation: Diverse forms and different outcomes. Academy of Management Review, 13 (1988) 8-22. S. Hart, Managing technological change. Management, February (1983) 25-36. A. Mowshowitz, On managing technological change. Technovation, 9 (1989) 623-633. E. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership. Jossey Bass, San Francisco, 1985. G. Foxali and A. Payne, Adaptors and innovators in organizations: A cross-cultural study of the cognitive styles of managerial functions and subfunctions. Human Relations, 42 (1989) 639-648. T. Whiston, Managerial and organizational integration needs arising out of technical change and U.K.

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commercial structures. Part IV: Remaining policy issues and organizational questions. Technovation, 20 21 22

10 (1990) 143-161. K. Wexley and T. Baidwin, Management deveiopn-rent. Journal of management, 12 ( 1986) 277-294. A. Mumford, Helping managers to learn. Journal of General Management, 6 (1987) 49-60. M. O’Driscoll, M. Humphries and H. Larsen, Managerial Learning and Performance: Perceptions of Managers’ Skill Development. Departments of

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University of Psychology and Management, Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand. F. Luthans, D. Welsh and L. Taylor, A descriptive Group & model of managerial effectiveness. Organization Studies, 13 (1988) 148-162. Kolb, Experiential Learning: Learning Discovery. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1984.

D.

by

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S. Kozlowski and B. H&s, An exploration of climates for technical updating and performance.

26

J.

Personnel Psychology, 40 (1987) 539-564. Naisbitt, Megatrends: Ten New Directions Transforming our Lives. Macdonald & Co., London,

1984. Henrik Holt Larsen is associate professor at The Institute of Organization and Industrial Sociology, The Copenhagen Business School. He is doing research in the field of Human Resources Management and has published extensively within the areas of management development, training and organizational culture. He has been a visiting professor at The University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, and The University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand.

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research interests and publications in recent years have focussed on employee work attitudes, such as job satisfaction, job involvement and commitment to the organization, as well as the link between job stress and organizational culture and climates. He has carried out consultation work for a variety of organizations, including personnel selection, performance appraisal, communication and conflict management, and organizational development. Current research has examined managerial learning and development and the activities of organizational consultants. Maria Humphries is a lecturer at the University of Waikato in Hamilton, New Zealand. She teaches courses in Organization Behaviour, Women and Management and Career Development. Further teaching and research interests include racism in managerial organizations, learning processes and the career development of managerial women.

L’innovation technologique et le dbeloppement des competances directoriales RI%JM~~

La vive allure des changements technologiques dans les dix annees dernieres a eu un effet important sur des individus, des organisations et l’ensemble de la societe. En particulier, la gestion des organisations a kte transform&e par la disponibilite des micro-ordinateurs, pratiques et convenables au m@me temps que puissants. Neanmoins, les ramifications nontechniques de l’execution des nouvelles technologies ont ete fr~quemment negligees ou sousestimees. Par contraste, la perspective des systemes socio-techniques rejoint la technologie, la structure et la dynamique sociale comme parties interdependantes de n’importe quelle organisation. Pour reussir a l’execution du changement technique il est essentiel de considerer les rapports reciproques entre ces Ia gestion des Cfements. En particulier, resources humaines sera cruciale pour l’intigration de la technologie avec d’autres aspects des systemes organisationels A l’avenir. Cet article 427

H. H. Larsen, M. P. O’Driscoll

and M. Humphries

examine quelques unes des questions des resources humaines qui seront critiques pour le responsables dans l’avenir et discute les resultats de recherche d’une etude sur le developpement des capacites directoriales. La formation dans la direction devra se concentrer de plus sur des experiences d’apprentissage formelles et informelles, tandis que les organisations doivent consacrer plus d’energie a la creation des cultures et des conditions qui encouragent l’acquisition de connaissance et de savior-faire. Technologische Innovation und die Entwicklung von Kompetenz vom Management

ABRISS Das Tempo der technologischen Veranderungen in den letzten zehn Jahren hat einen betrachtlichen Einflurj auf den Einzelnen, auf Organisationen und auf die ganze Gesellschaft gehabt. Insbesondere hat sich das Management von Organisationen durch das Vorhandensein von starken aber praktischen und handlichen Micro-Computern verandert. Oft aber sind die Auswirkungen von nicht technischer Art bei der Einftihrung neuer Technologie iibersehen und unterschatzt. Im Gegensatz dazu beinhaltet die soziotechnische Perspektive Technologie, Struktur und soziale Dynamik als unabhangige Komponenten in einer jeden Organisation. Die Berticksichtigung der Beziehungen zwischen diesen Elementen ist fur die erfolgreiche Durchftihrung technologischer Veranderungen ausschlaggebend. Insbesondere ist das Managementpersonal als Faktor kritisch fur die Integration der Technologie mit anderen Aspekten zuktinftiger organisatorischer Systeme. Dieser Artikel untersucht einige der Fragen das Personal betreffend welche fur zuktinftige Manager kritisch sind und diskutiert wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse einer Untersuchung die sich mit der Entwicklung Management-Fahigkeiten von befaI3t. Dem Management Training mul3 mehr 428

Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt werden, durch formelle als such informelle Lernerfahrungen, und Organisationen mtissen mehr Energie in die Schaffung eines Arbeitsklimas und einer Arbeitskultur aufwenden, die die Aneignung von Wissen und Konnen fordert. La innovation tecnica y el desarollo las competencias de la direction

de

RESUMEN La velocidad de1 cambio tecnologico que ha tenido lugar en 10s ultimos 10 aiios ha marcado tanto a las personas particulares corn0 a las organizaciones y a la sociedad en general. Sobre todo, la administration de las organizaciones se ha visto transformada por 10s micro-ordenadores potenciadores y a la vez practices y convenientes. Sin embargo, o no se ha prestado atencion o bien se han subestimado a las implicaciones no-tecnicas de la implementacion de las nuevas tecnologias. La perspectiva de 10s sistemas socio-tecnicos, en cambio, incorpora a la vez a la tecnologia, la estructura y a la dinimica social, considerandolos coma componentes interdependientes en si de cualquier organization. Es imprescindible tomar en cuenta la interrelation entre estos elementos distintos para asegurar el Cxito de la implementacion de1 cambio tecnologico. Los temas de 10s recursos humanos, sobre todo, seran de suma importancia para poder integrar la tecnologia con las otras facetas de 10s sistemas organizativos de1 futuro. Este articulo examina algunos de 10s temas de recursos humanos que seran de inter& especial para 10s directives de maiiana y expone 10s resultados de investigacion conseguidos de un estudio de1 desarollo de abilidades administrativas. La formacibn de 10s altos directives debe hater mh hincapii? en la experiencia de1 aprendizaje, tanto formal corn0 informal, mientras que las organizaciones debian realmente emplear mas esfuerzo en crear culturas y ambientes favorables para el aprendizaje y la formation especial. Technovation

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