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Tectonics and sedimentation in convergent margin basins: an example from the Tertiary Elazığ basin, Eastern Turkey
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 459–472 www.elsevier.com/locate/jaes
Tectonics and sedimentation in convergent margin basins: an example from the Tertiary Elazıg˘ basin, Eastern Turkey E. Aksoya,*, ˙I. Tu¨rkmena, M. Turanb a ¨ niversitesi, Jeoloji Mu¨hendislig˘i Bo¨lu¨mu¨, Elazıg˘, Turkey Fırat U ¨ niversitesi, Jeoloji Mu¨hendislig˘i Bo¨lu¨mu¨, Trabzon, Turkey Karadeniz Teknik U
b
Received 4 June 2003; revised 23 February 2004; accepted 29 April 2004
Abstract The Tertiary units of the Elazıg˘ basin consist of Lower Paleocene continental deposits, Upper Paleocene–Lower Miocene marine deposits and Pliocene–Quaternary continental deposits. In the Early Paleocene, alluvial fan deposits developed at the front of a thrust related to southward emplacement of Permo-Triassic metamorphic rocks onto Upper Cretaceous magmatic rocks. Marine conditions developed in the basin as a result of an extensional regime that started during the Late Paleocene and continued until Early Miocene time. In the Elazıg˘ basin, Late Paleocene–Early Eocene time is represented by shallow-marine limestones while the Middle–Late Eocene sequence includes clastic and calcareous rocks of shelf, slope, slope apron and basin plain environments. The Tethys sea became shallower and retreated to the north during the Oligocene. Shallow-marine carbonate and clastics were deposited in the basin from Oligocene to Early Miocene time. Fluvial and lacustrine deposits accompanied by Early Pliocene volcanism filled E–W trending intermontane basins related to N–S tension beginning in the Early Pliocene. Alluvial fan and fluvial deposits accumulated during the Plio-Quaternary and were related to ENE–WSW aligned folds and thrusts. q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Pliocene; Eocene; Miocene
1. Introduction The Elazıg˘ basin is one of several basins in Turkey developed during closure of the southern branch of Neotethys during Tertiary time (Fig. 1a and b). The modern NE–SW trending Elazıg˘ basin, located in the eastern Taurides (Fig. 2a), is defined by Palu in the east, by the Peri Creek and the named Keban dam lake in the north, by the Euphrates River in the west and southwest, and by the Karga Dag˘ı and Mastar Dag˘ in the south and southeast (Fig. 2b). Metamorphic, magmatic and sedimentary units, ranging from Permo-Triassic to Plio-Quaternary in age, crop out beneath and within the basin (Fig. 2b). Several investigations have been conducted on the geological and geodynamical evolution of the Eastern Taurus (Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1984; Yazgan, 1984; Hempton, 1985, 1987; Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1990; Yazgan * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Aksoy). 1367-9120/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2004.04.009
and Chessex, 1991; Robertson, 2000). Yazgan (1984) concluded that the Middle Eocene sediments around Elazıg˘ were deposited in a back-arc basin (Fig. 3). Aktas¸ and Robertson (1984) describe the borderline of an active plate margin of the Southern Neotethys south of Elazıg˘. The stratigraphic, sedimentological and tectonic characteristics of the Elazıg˘ area have been studied by several workers (Perinc¸ek, 1979; Bingo¨l, 1984; Turan, 1984, 1993; ¨ zkul, Sungurlu, 1985; Tatar, 1987; Akpınar, 1988; O 1988; Tu¨rkmen, 1991; Kerey and Tu¨rkmen, 1991; Aksoy, 1993; I˙nceo¨z, 1994; Turan et al., 1995; Aksoy et al., 1996; ¨ zkul and Kerey, 1996; Turan and Tu¨rkmen, 1996; O Tu¨rkmen et al., 1999, 2001). However, there is no study in which these features were combined and explained in terms of the geodynamic evolution of the area. In this paper, we describe the history of the Tertiary Elazıg˘ basin, a long-lived marine to non-marine basin that evolved from a Late Paleocene–Early Miocene back arc basin to post collisional stages. Our database includes measured sections and field maps.
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3.1. Pre-Tertiary rocks The basement of the Tertiary basin consists of the PermoTriassic Keban metamorphic complex and the Upper Cretaceous Elazıg˘ magmatic complex (Fig. 2b). The Permo-Triassic Keban metamorphic complex consists of marbles, calc-phyllites, calc-schists and metaconglomerates, which have undergone amphibolite-greenschist facies metamorphism (Akgu¨l, 1987; Turan and Bingo¨l, 1991). The Upper Cretaceous magmatic complex consists of basalts, andesites, pillow lavas, dacites, agglomerates, and subvolcanic rocks such as aplites, microdiorites and dolerites, as well as plutonic rocks (Akgu¨l, 1993; Perinc¸ek, 1979; Bingo¨l and Beyarslan, 1996). The magmatic rocks are overlain by carbonate build-ups of the Upper Campanian– Maastrichtian Harami Formation (Aksoy et al., 1999). 3.2. Lower Paleocene deposits
Fig. 1. (a) Location of Turkey in the Eastern Mediterranean region, and (b) position of the Elazıg˘ basin within the Neo-Tethys realm (after S¸engo¨r and Yılmaz, 1983).
2. Tectonic setting A zone of uplift resulting from the emplacement of the Permo-Triassic Keban metamorphic rocks to the south over the Upper Cretaceous Elazıg˘ magmatic rocks (along the Pertek thrust fault), borders the Elazıg˘ basin in the north (Fig. 3). This thrust fault is covered by Middle Eocene sedimentary unit. The southern edge of the basin is bordered by the Uluova fault forming the Kargadag˘-Mastar mountains uplift (Figs. 2b and 3). Paleogene sedimentary and volcanic rocks occurring to the south of this zone of uplift have the characteristics of an intra-arc basin (Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1984). During the neotectonic period, ENE–WSW orientated folds and thrusts developed as a result of a NNW–SSE compressional regime (Fig. 2b). Pliocene–Pleistocene alluvial fan, fluvial and lacustrine sediments were deposited as a result of tectonism affecting the Paleocene–Lower Miocene sediments in the Elazıg˘ basin (Fig. 2b).
3. Stratigraphy and sedimentology The lithostratigraphy of the Elazıg˘ basin is shown in Fig. 4.
Conglomerates of mass flow type dominate to the north of Baskil town (Fig. 2b). The thickness of this conglomeratic unit reaches 200 m and oversized blocks up to 1 m in diameter are common within the conglomerate. Massive conglomerate grades into bedded conglomerate and sandstone south of Baskil. Clasts within the conglomerates can reach up to boulder size in some places, but generally they are well-rounded and poorly sorted pebbles and cobbles. The conglomerates are made up of Permo-Triassic Keban metamorphics and Upper Cretaceous magmatic rock pebbles. A megasequence up to 500 m in thickness is composed of cyclic coarsening upward sequences consisting of interbedded mudstone and sandstone in the lower part and mainly bedded conglomerate in the upper part (Fig. 5). Bedded conglomerates have pebbles aligned parallel to their long axis and are intercalated with well-bedded sandstone. These sediments pass into bedded red sandstone and mudstone of floodplain type towards the south. Gypsum layers consisting of mudstone-bearing gypsum concretions and bedded gypsum have been observed in the basal part of the sequence in the south (Fig. 5). The desiccation crack fills within the red green mudstone contain scattered sandstone and mudstone clasts and the red-green mudstone units generally overlie banded nodular secondary gypsum. An alabastrine texture predominates. Lower Paleocene deposits characteristic of mass-flow fluvial and flood plain environments all point to an alluvial fan (Heward, 1978; Nilsen, 1982). Mudstone bearing gypsum concretions and bedded gypsum facies are interpreted as mud flat-playa deposits (Hardie et al., 1978). The source area of alluvial fan deposits was uplifted as a result of southward thrusting of Permo-Triassic Keban metamorphics to the north of the study area onto the Upper Cretaceous Elazıg˘ magmatics along the Pertek thrust fault. An alluvial fan originating from this source area prograded over playa deposits to the south and led to the formation of coarsening upward conglomeratic sequences (Figs. 5 and 6).
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Fig. 2. Location (a) and geological (b) map of the Elazıg˘ basin (modified from Turan, 1993).
3.3. Upper Paleocene–Lower Eocene deposits These are limestones, representing the first products of a transgression during the Tertiary and are widespread around Baskil (Figs. 2b and 7). This limestone has a sharp boundary
Fig. 3. Cartoon of the paleogeography of the Elazıg˘ basin (modified after ¨ zkul, 1988; Cronin et al., 2000). Yazgan, 1984; O
Fig. 4. The stratigraphic section of Elazıg˘ Tertiary units (no scale).
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Fig. 5. Facies relations of Lower Paleocene deposits. See Fig. 2 for locations of measured sections.
Fig. 6. Paleogeographical map of the Early Paleocene.
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Fig. 7. Paleogeographical map of the Late Paleocene–Early Eocene period.
with Lower Paleocene conglomerate and is underlain by Middle Eocene–Oligocene deposits in most places. This succession starts with sandy limestone at the base and grades upwards into pure limestone. The thickness of these deposits is about 200 m but is not uniform. Limestone is mainly composed of algae and benthic foraminifera and includes a large proportion of micritic matrix mixed with bioclasts and numerous fragments of red algae. Branching corals are locally common and characterize reef deposits. The reefs developed on topographic highs where the bedded limestone accumulated in areas protected by reefs in a shallow, turbulent warm sea open to the south and southwest. The reefs are well developed and thickest on the south margin of these deposits. To the south of Elazıg˘ basin (Hazar Lake area in Fig. 2b and Hazar Basin in Fig. 3), transgression resumed in the Late Paleocene, possibly influenced by a eustatic sea level rise (Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1990). 3.4. Middle–Upper Eocene deposits Middle–Upper Eocene deposits are widespread in the Elazıg˘ basin (Fig. 2b) and are represented by shallow to deep-marine sediments. They are characterized, from north to south, by carbonate and terrigenous shelf, continental slope, slope apron and basin plain environments (Figs. 8 and 9). These deposits accumulated when the basin subsided rapidly during the Middle Eocene by block faulting within a backarc setting (Yazgan, 1984; Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1984; ¨ zkul and Kerey, 1996). O Shelf carbonates exhibiting approximately ENE–WSW elongated outcrops north of the basin range from massive to wavy bedded in various places and generally contain Alveolina elongata d’orbigny, Chapmanina gassinensis
(Silvestri) Linderina brugesi Schulumberger Asterigerina rotula (Kaufmann), Gyrodinella magna (Le Calvez), Nummulites perforatus (Monfort), Nummulites striatus (Bruguire), Preabullalveolina afyonica Sirel and Acar, Halkyardia minima (Liebus), Praerhapydionina huberi Henson, milioid and algae (Avs¸ar, 1996). Echonoid fossils have been observed in some levels. Terrigenous shelf deposits have outcrops aligned ENE– WSW, parallel to the distribution of the Eocene deposits in the Elazıg˘ basin. These deposits are mainly represented by trough and hummocky cross-bedded calcarenite, in some places alternating with beds of sandstone and mudstone. Calcarenite generally contains reworked Nummulites. Terrigenous shelf deposits prograde toward the south over slope deposits and interfinger with shelf carbonates toward the north (Fig. 9). Slope deposits consist of slumped sandstone-mudstone, thick bedded, coarse grained, fossillifereous calcarenite-carbonate mudstones and shallow conglomeratic channel fills. Mud intraclasts, macrofossils and benthic foraminifera (up to 5 cm in length) have been observed in the lower part of the channeled calcarenite layers. Trace fossils include Zoophycos, Chondrites, Neonereites, Sabularia, Scolicia, Subphyllochorda, Taphrhelminthopsis, Glockeria, Spiroraphe, ¨ zkul, Belorhaphe, Paleodictyon, Gordia and Asterichnus (O 1993a, 1993b). Palaeocurrent directions and the slump structure show that the slope dipped to the south. Channel deposits are common in the slope facies around Hasret Mountain and Aydınlar (Cronin et al., 2000; Fig. 10). Channels in the lower part of the slope deposits were mostly filled by grain and/or matrix-supported conglomerates (Fig. 8). However, channels in the upper part of the succession are mainly filled by bedded conglomerates. Most of these channels developed simultaneously, but some formed at different times and are located at different levels. Slope apron
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Fig. 8. Stratigraphic correlation of Middle–Upper Eocene deposits (after Cronin et al., 2000).
deposits crop out in the western part of the basin (W of Baskil) and are represented by conglomerate (Fig. 8). Basin-plain deposits, comprising hemipelagic mudstone-bearing sandstone interbeds, were observed south
¨ zkul and Kerey, 1996). Around Salus¸ag˘ı of the basin (O village, west of Baskil, marble olistoliths related to block faulting of the basement are scattered throughout these deposits.
Fig. 9. Paleogeographical map of the Middle–Late Eocene period.
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¨ zkul, 1988; Cronin et al., 2000). Fig. 10. Deep water channels and paleocurrent directions of Middle–Late Eocene deposits exposed in the Elazıg˘ basin (after O
A similar transtensional and/or extensional tectonic regime affected the Hazar Lake area during this period (Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1990).
3.5. Oligocene–Lower Miocene deposits Oligocene–Lower Miocene deposits outcrop in a restricted area west–northwest of the Elazıg˘ basin and are represented by shallow-marine carbonates (Figs. 2b and 11).
These limestones contain large benthic foraminifera, coralline algae, bryozoa and coral and were deposited as a massive bank carbonate on topographic highs on the shelf. Bedded limestone formed as a result of reworking of organic material in the shoal and protected areas within the shelf. Shelf-edge carbonates are exposured on hills west of Baskil (Fig. 2b). Their lateral relationship with other facies has not been determined because of tectonism and erosion. These are composed of alternating brecciated limestone and mudstone beds.
Fig. 11. Paleogeographical map of the Oligocene–Early Miocene period.
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Benthic foraminifera such as Nummulites sp. and Discocyclina sp., and fragments of corals and algae are mixed with pelagic foraminifera such as Globigerina sp. and Globorotalia sp. The mixture of fragmented benthic forams of differing size and the unfragmented pelagic forams is a distinct criteria for shelf edge carbonates. Lower Miocene carbonates have wide outcrops NW of Baskil and N and NW of Keban. These carbonates, aligned E–W as a narrow belt, are massive, yellowish cream in color, and contain coral and algal fragments, bivalves, echinoids and Miogypsina sp., Miogypsinoides sp., Lepidocyclina sp., Amphistegina sp., Globigerina immaturus (Turan, 1993). This facies association can be considered as having accumulated on a narrow shelf edge around the northern edge of the basin, based on depositional features and setting. The Middle Eocene–Lower Miocene deposits as a whole are considered to be the products of a deep marine-shelf
environment and were deposited in a back-arc basin ¨ zkul, 1988). Coarse-grained developed on continental crust (O slope and slope apron sediments were deposited in the lower part of the sequence as a result of tectonic instability and deep marine conditions active in Middle Eocene time. Clastic sedimentation ceased towards the end of Eocene time in the Elazıg˘ basin, but carbonate deposition continued at an increasing rate until the end of the Early Miocene.
Fig. 12. Facies relations of Lower Pliocene deposits in the C ¸ aybag˘ı area.
Fig. 13. Facies relations of Lower Pliocene deposits in the Hankendi area.
3.6. Lower Pliocene deposits Sedimentary rocks of this period were observed in three local outcrops in the Elazıg˘ basin (Fig. 2b).
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3.6.1. C ¸ aybag˘ı area This area is bordered by a fault to the south and has about 750 m of red-gray conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, peat, marl and limestone characteristic of fluvial, palustrine and lacustrine environments (Fig. 12). Fluvial deposits mainly form cyclic fining-upward sequences. Conglomerate and trough-planar cross-stratified sandstone occur in the lower part of the fining-upward sequences and siltstone–mudstone in the upper part. Conglomerates in the basal part of the cyclic sequences have an erosional bases and lenticular shapes. The sandstone is red, has erosional base epsilon and trough cross bedding and climbing ripples. Fresh water fossils such as Potamidae and Unio were observed in the sandstones (Tu¨rkmen, 1991). Red mudstone about 15 m thick and coal layers occur at the uppermost part of the sequences and are present in places. These mudstones contain micromammalia fossils such as Promimomys moldavicus, Apodemus cf. dominans, Castoridae gen. et ¨ nay and De Bruijn, 1998). There are sp. indet (large form) (U also well-preserved leaves, bivalves and gastropoda in mudstone. The sequence is interpreted as representing meandering river deposits. Palustrine deposits are characterized by siltstone, brown-gray mudstone, claystone and peat, interbedded with both fluvial deposits and lacustrine deposits. Claystones are massive, gray to green in color and commonly contain macrophytic debris. Peat facies pass vertically into both claystone and brown-gray mudstone. Lacustrine deposits are found west of the basin were the characteristic lithologies are stratified limestone, brecciated limestone and laminated marl. The stratified limestones consisting of bioturbation structures are usually micritic mudstone–wackestone with gastropod and ostracod fossils that form beds ranging between 20 and 40 cm in thickness. These limestones are interbedded with
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brecciated limestones. Laminated marl contains Ostracoda, Gastropoda, Pelecypoda and Annelida. Pisoliths (radius ! 5–6 cm) are common in limestone. Pyroclastics and basalt flows occur at the uppermost part of the Lower Pliocene deposits. In the C ¸ aybag˘ı area, frequent alternating beds of fluvial and lacustrine deposits suggest that the basin was tectonically active during Early Pliocene time. Volcanic activity towards the end of the Early Pliocene was interrupted from time to time by sedimentation in a lake. Plateau basalts erupted over Pre-Lower Pliocene rocks. 3.6.2. Elazıg˘-Hankendi area This area is located to the southwest, close to Elazıg˘, and dominated by clayey limestone interfingering with basalt and pyroclastics (Figs. 13 and 14). The limestone is micritic and contains Gastropoda and reworked plant debris. Ooids and pisoids are locally common. The limestones alternate with conglomerate and mudstone. The conglomerates are generally red, poorly consolidated, poorly sorted, normal to inversely graded, and matrix-supported. The mudstone is red, and has paleosols level with caliche (Fig. 13). These conglomerates and mudstones are characteristic of alluvial fan deposits (Heward, 1978; Nilsen, 1982). The limestones are interpreted as shallow-water deposits (Anadon et al., 1991). Mimomys occitanus, Occitanomys brailloni, Apodemus dominans, Cricetidae gen. et sp. indet (Mesocricetus ?), Spalacidae gen. et sp. indet, Ochotonides sp., Soricidae gen. et sp. indet and Mesocricetus aff. primitivus have been ¨ nay and De Bruijn, 1998) in the sequence. identified (U 3.6.3. Baskil area There are difficulties in reconstructing the geometry of the basin in this area due to erosion. Facies characteristics
Fig. 14. Paleogeographical map of the Early Pliocene period.
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resemble those in the C ¸ aybag˘ı area. However, this area has more organic rich levels but fewer conglomerates and sandstones relative to C¸aybag˘ı. As a result swamp and lacustrine facies are more common in this area. All of these areas are bordered by ENE–WSW aligned faults and the depressions related to these faults were filled by fluvial and lacustrine deposits. 3.7. Plio-Quaternary deposits These deposits were investigated in two areas. 3.7.1. C¸aybag˘ı area Plio-Quaternary deposits crop out parallel to the Euphrates River (Fig. 2b). Sediments in this area are up to 250 m thick and, comprise cyclic fining-upward sequences of well-organized conglomerate and cross-bedded sandstone (Fig. 15). Stratified conglomerate is clast-supported
Fig. 15. Facies relations of Plio-Quaternary deposits.
and matrix filled. Stratification is commonly defined by alternating pebble/cobble sized and granule/pebble sized clasts. Clasts of stratified conglomerates are subrounded to well rounded. Gravels show a well-developed b-axis upstream imbrication pattern. Normally graded conglomerates are poorly sorted, clast-supported, and matrix-filled gravels. Crude normal grading is also present. Beds extend laterally and their bases are flat to slightly scoured. Clasts are subrounded to well rounded. Cross-bedded conglomerates pass into cross-bedded pebbly sandstone. Although cross bedding is defined by concav-up crossbeds, which have tangentially based lower set contacts. Clasts are subrounded to well rounded. Planar cross-bedded conglomerate is rare. The sandstone is coarse grained, well rounded and sorted. Silt and clay sized sediments have not been observed. These sediments characterizing Donject-type and Scott-type facies transitions suggest strong tectonic activity in the area during Plio-Quaternary time (Steel and Aasheim, 1978). Paleocurrent analysis of braided river facies shows that paleocurrents were from NE to SW and W, parallel to the present trend of the Euphrates River (Kerey and Tu¨rkmen, 1991). Sediments located in the northern part of this area have E–W aligned outcrops parallel to the Palu anticline (Fig. 16) and are mainly composed of red conglomerate and mudstone. The conglomerate is poorly sorted, mudsupported, and shows normal and reverse grading. Paleosol-bearing caliche is present in the uppermost part of the red mudstone. The mudstone also includes conglomerate and sandstone lenses 4–10 m thick. The non-organized, poorly sorted conglomerates and mudstones characterize alluvial fan deposits (Nilsen, 1982). These fans expand onto the fluvial plain of the Euphrates River from a mountain apron to the north (Fig. 16). 3.7.2. Baskil area Sediments in this area are 30–50 m of and extensively outcrop to the northeast and southwest of Baskil town (Fig. 16). They are mainly red, crude bedded, poorly sorted and poorly consolidated conglomerates with angular and subangular grains. These conglomerates are normal to reverse graded, matrix-supported, poorly sorted, red in color and contain large blocks typical of alluvial fans (Rust, 1979). In this area, Plio-Quaternary deposits extend parallel to the axis of the Baskil Anticline (Fig. 16). Part of the PlioQuaternary outcrop, parallel to the Euphrates River, developed under the control of a thrust fault while other parts formed as terraces of the Euphrates River similar to the Palu area (Fig. 16). Toward the end of the Pliocene, the Elazıg˘ basin was subjected to N–S compressional tectonics resulting in E–W folding and thrusting. Sedimentation during the PlioQuaternary was controlled by these structures so that the deposits lie parallel to folds and thrusts (Fig. 16).
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Fig. 16. Paleogeographical map of the Plio-Quaternary period.
4. Tectonic features and paleogeographic evolution of the Elazıg˘ basin The Elazıg˘ basin was affected by extensional and compressional tectonics beginning towards the end of the Late Cretaceous. The Permo-Triassic Keban metamorphic rocks and the Upper Cretaceous Elazıg˘ magmatic rocks form the basement of the basin (Fig. 4). Following the closure of the Inner Tauride Ocean from the end of the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene time, arccontinent collision caused metamorphic rocks to be thrusted over the Upper Cretaceous magmatic arc (Bingo¨l, 1984; Hempton, 1985; Yazgan and Chessex, 1991; Turan et al., 1995). Continental environments then developed due to regional uplift (Pertek thrust fault) (Fig. 17a). Deposition of Lower Paleocene sediments were controlled by the Pertek fault (Bingo¨l, 1984; Tatar, 1987; Turan, 1993; Aksoy, 1994; Figs. 2b and 5). In this tectonically controlled basin, clastic and evaporitic alluvial fan and playa sediments deposited during Early Paleocene time (Fig. 17a). A transgressive sea developed in an extensional regime from Late Paleocene onward. Lower Paleocene continental deposits along the edge of a shallow sea were reworked, and reefal limestone was deposited above the sediment until Early Eocene time (Fig. 17b). In the Middle Eocene, a sea was located to the south of the study area (Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1984; Yazgan and Chessex, 1991; Turan et al., 1995; Yig˘itbas¸ et al., 1993). In the Elazıg˘ basin, the sea progradated northward, influenced by block faulting in an extensional back-arc setting, from Late Paleocene–Early Eocene time.
Due to uplift of a footwall block (Uluova normal fault), the sea could not inundate the area south of this fault (Fig. 17c). Irregularities in the basement resulting from block faulting affected the type of sediment deposited. Facies characterizing differing depths interacted laterally and vertically (Fig. 17c). Deposits of carbonate shelf, slope and basin plain types accumulated from north to south in a progressively shallowing basin. The shelf facies onlapped slope facies throughout the basin. Olistoliths, originating from block faulting of the basement, were locally deposited within the basin plain facies. Paleocurrent analysis on sole marks in the basin plain sediment, (frequently cut by channel-fill conglomerates), ¨ zkul, indicate that mass flows were from the north (O 1988). Measurements of the slope channels on Hasret Mountain and Aydınlar indicate a paleocurrent direction from NE to SW (Fig. 10). The lithofacies distribution in the basin shows that the sea deepened towards the south during this period. During the Oligocene–Miocene, after reaching its maximum extend during the Middle–Late Eocene, the sea retreated to the N–NW and became progressively shallower. Reefal limestones of Oligocene age indicate this shallowing. At the end of the Oligocene, a large part of the basin was subaerially exposed (Fig. 17d). Marine Miocene deposits only crop out in a small area west of Baskil but have extensive outcrops north of the basin. These features indicate an overall marine regression. Retreate of the sea during the Tertiary was related to regional uplift following the closure of Neotethys and regional continent–continent collision in the Middle
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Fig. 17. Geotectonic evolution model of the Elazıg˘ basin in the Tertiary.
Miocene, marking the beginning of the Neotectonic period (S¸engo¨r, 1980; Jackson and McKenzie, 1984; S¸engo¨r and Yılmaz, 1983; Dewey et al., 1986; Hempton, 1987). Strong compressional tectonics effecting Eastern Anatolia during the Neotectonic period was also active in the Elazıg˘ basin. E–W aligned folding and thrust faulting of Tertiary units in the basin occurred as a result of the generally N–S compression (Fig. 2b). Lower Pliocene deposits are mostly fine to coarse grained clastics, limestone, tuff and in some places coal intercalation, deposited in a tectonically controlled shallow, turbulent lake (Fig. 17e). Fluvial deposits are also observed east of Elazıg˘ and cover the Early Miocene deposits in some places (Fig. 2b).
Toward the end of the Pliocene, lacustrine basins closed as a result of uplift caused by the approximate N–S extension. At this time, activation of the East Anatolian fault belt caused strong folding of lacustrine deposits around C ¸ aybag˘ı, close to the fault zone (Tu¨rkmen, 1991; Turan, 1993). The area achieved its present structural setting in the Plio-Quaternary due to formation of the NE–SW trending Elazıg˘ anticliniorium that extends across the basin (Tatar, 1987; Turan, 1993), combined with E–W thrusting. Plio-Quaternary coarse-grained sediments were deposited in depressions related to the above-mentioned structure and as terraces of the Euphrates River basin. Depressions like the Uluova, Kuzova, Kovancılar plains and Euphrates River valley are the present areas of deposition.
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5. Conclusions 1. The Tertiary units of the Elazıg˘ basin include Lower Paleocene continental deposits, Upper Paleocene–Lower Miocene marine deposits and Pliocene-Quaternary continental deposits. The basin was affected by extensional and compressional tectonics, starting at the end of Late Cretaceous time. 2. In the Early Paleocene, alluvial fan and playa deposits developed along the front of a thrust fault. 3. Marine conditions developed in the basin as a result of an extensional regime beginning in the Late Paleocene and continued until Early Miocene time. Shallow-deep marine carbonates and clastics were deposited in a back-arc basin that developed on continental crust from Late Paleocene to Early Miocene time. 4. ENE–WSW orientated folds and thrusts developed as a result of a NNW–SSE compressional regime during the Neotectonic period. Pliocene–Pleistocene alluvial and lacustrine sediments were deposited as a result of tectonism affecting the Paleocene–Lower Miocene sediments in the Elazıg˘ basin.
Acknowledgements We thank Alastair H.F. Robertson (University of Edinburgh) and Hu¨kmu¨ Orhan (University of Selc¸uk) for reading and constructive comments of early version of the manuscript.
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Nilsen, T.H., 1982. Alluvial fan deposits, in: Scholle, P.A., Spearing, D. (Eds.), Sandstone Depositional Environments. American Association of Petroleum Geologist Publication, , pp. 49–86. ¨ zkul, M., 1988. Sedimentological investigations on the Kırkgec¸it O Formation in the western Elazıg˘. Fırat University Graduate School of Science and Technology, Elazıg˘–Turkey, Ph.D. Thesis, p. 186 (in Turkish with English abstract). ¨ zkul, M., 1993a. Paleocurrent directions in the deep marine facieses of O Kırkgec¸it Formation (Eocene) in the western Elazıg˘ (Elazıg˘ batısı). Journal of the Engineering and Architecture Faculty of Selcuk University 8 (2), 30–41 (in Turkish with English abstract). ¨ zkul, M., 1993b. Trace fossils and their environmental distribution on the O flysch facies of Kırkgec¸it Formation (Eocene) in the Elazıg˘ area. Journal of the Isparta Engineering Faculty of Akdeniz University 7, 15–30 (in Turkish with English abstract). ¨ zkul, M., Kerey, I˙.E., 1996. Facies analysis on deep sea, shelf complex: O Kırkgec¸it Formation (Middle Eocene–Oligocene), Baskil-Elazıg˘. Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences 5, 57–70 (in Turkish with English abstract). Perinc¸ek, D., 1979. Geology and petroleum potential of the PaluKarabegan-Elazıg˘-Sivrice-Malatya area. Turkish Petroleum Corparation report no 1361 (in Turkish, unpublished). Robertson, A.H.F., 2000. Mesozoic-Tertiary tectonic-sedimentary evolution of a south Tethyan oceanic basin and its margins in southern Turkey, in: Bozkurt, E., Winchester, J.A., Piper, J.D.A. (Eds.), Tectonics and Magmatism in Turkey and the Surrounding Area, 173. Geological Society, London, pp. 97–138 (Special publications). Rust, B.R., 1979. Coarse alluvial deposits, in: Walker, R.G. (Ed.), Facies Models Geoscience Canada Reprint Series, 1, pp. 9–21. Steel, R.J., Aasheim, S.M., 1978. Alluvial sand deposition in a rapidly subsiding basin (Devonian, Norway), in: Miall, A.D. (Ed.), Fluvial Sedimentology Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, 5, pp. 385–412. Sungurlu, O., Perinc¸ek, D., Kurt, G., Tuna, E., Du¨lger, S., C ¸ elikdemir, E., Naz, H., 1985. Geology of the Elazıg˘-Hazar-Palu area. The Bulletin of Turkish Association of Petroleum Geologists 29, 83–191. S¸engo¨r, A.M.C., 1980. Principles of the neotectonics of Turkey. Turkish Geological Society Publication, p. 40 (in Turkish). S¸engo¨r, A.M.C., Yılmaz, Y., 1983. Evolution of Neo-Tethyan in Turkey. Turkish Geological Society Special Publication p. 75 (in Turkish). Tatar, Y., 1987. Tectonic structure of the Elazıg˘ area and some observations on Landsat images. Bulletin of Earth Sciences Application and Research Centre of Hacettepe University 14, 295–308 (in Turkish with English abstract). Turan, M., 1984. The stratigraphy and tectonics of Baskil-Aydınlar (west of Elazıg˘, E. Turkey) area. Fırat University Graduate School of Science and Technology, Elazıg˘–Turkey, Ph.D. Thesis, p. 180 (in Turkish with English abstract).
Turan, M., 1991. Some important tectonic structures in the surroundings of Elazıg˘ and their meaning in the geological evolution in the region, in: Kazancı, N. (Ed.), Proceedings of Suat Erk Symposium, Ankara University, Ankara–Turkey, pp. 193–204 (in Turkish with English abstract). Turan, M., Bingo¨l, A.F., 1991. Tectono-stratigrahic characteristics of the region between Kovancılar–Baskil (east of Elazıg˘, E. Turkey), in: Yetis¸, C. (Ed.), Proceedings of Ahmet Acar Symposium, C ¸ ukurova University, Adana–Turkey, pp. 193–204 (in Turkish with English abstract). Turan, M., Tu¨rkmen, I˙., 1996. Stratigraphy and sedimentological features of Kus¸c¸ular Formation (Lower Paleocene). Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences 5, 109–121 (in Turkish with English abstract). Turan, M., Aksoy, E., Bingo¨l, A.F., 1995. Characteristics of the geodynamic evolution of Eastern Taurus in the Elazıg˘ region. Journal of Fırat University, Science and Technology 7 (2), 177–199 (in Turkish with English abstract). Tu¨rkmen, I˙., 1991. Stratigraphy and sedimentological features of C¸aybag˘ı Formation (Upper Miocene-Pliocene) in the eastern Elazıg˘. Bulletin of Turkish Geological Society 34 (1), 45–53 (in Turkish with English abstract). Tu¨rkmen, I˙., I˙nceo¨z, M., Kerey, I˙.E., 1999. Kırkgec¸it Formation (Middle Eocene-Oligocene): an example of tidal flat and stormy shelf complex (NNW of Elazıg˘). Bulletin of Earth Sciences Application and Research Centre of Hacettepe University 21, 125–142 (in Turkish with English abstract). Tu¨rkmen, I˙., I˙nceo¨z, M., Aksoy, E., Kaya, M., 2001. New findings on Eocene stratigraphy and paleogeography of Elazıg˘ area. Bulletin of Earth Sciences Application and Research Centre of Hacettepe University 24, 81–95 (in Turkish with English abstract). ¨ nay, E., De Bruijn, H., 1997. Plio-Pleistocene rodents and lagomorhs from U Anatolia. Mededelingen Nederlands Instituut voor Toegepaste Geowetenschappen TNO 60. ¨ nay, E., De Bruijn, H., 1998. Plio-Pleistocene rodents and lagomorphs U from Anatolia. Mededelingen Nederlands Instituut voor Toegepaste Geowetenschappen TNO 60, 431–465. Yazgan, E., 1984. Geodynamic evolution of the eastern Taurus region, in: Tekeli, O., Go¨ncu¨og˘lu, C. (Eds.), Geology of the Taurus Belt. Proceedings of International Tauride Symposium Mineral Research and Exploration Institute of Turkey Publications, pp. 199–208 (in Turkish with English abstract). Yazgan, E., Chessex, R., 1991. Geology and tectonic evolution of the Southeastern Taurides in the region of Malatya. The Bulletin of Turkish Association of Petroleum Geologists 3 (1), 1–42. Yig˘itbas¸, E., Genc¸, S¸.C., Yılmaz, Y., 1993. Tectonic position and geological importance of Maden group in the southeastern Anatolia orogenic belt, in: Kazancı, N. (Ed.), Proceedings of Suat Erk Symposium, Ankara University, Ankara–Turkey, pp. 251–264 (in Turkish with English abstract).
Tectonics and sedimentation in convergent margin basins: an example from the Tertiary Elazıg˘ basin, Eastern Turkey E. Aksoya,*, ˙I. Tu¨rkmena, M. Turanb a ¨ niversitesi, Jeoloji Mu¨hendislig˘i Bo¨lu¨mu¨, Elazıg˘, Turkey Fırat U ¨ niversitesi, Jeoloji Mu¨hendislig˘i Bo¨lu¨mu¨, Trabzon, Turkey Karadeniz Teknik U
b
Received 4 June 2003; revised 23 February 2004; accepted 29 April 2004
Abstract The Tertiary units of the Elazıg˘ basin consist of Lower Paleocene continental deposits, Upper Paleocene–Lower Miocene marine deposits and Pliocene–Quaternary continental deposits. In the Early Paleocene, alluvial fan deposits developed at the front of a thrust related to southward emplacement of Permo-Triassic metamorphic rocks onto Upper Cretaceous magmatic rocks. Marine conditions developed in the basin as a result of an extensional regime that started during the Late Paleocene and continued until Early Miocene time. In the Elazıg˘ basin, Late Paleocene–Early Eocene time is represented by shallow-marine limestones while the Middle–Late Eocene sequence includes clastic and calcareous rocks of shelf, slope, slope apron and basin plain environments. The Tethys sea became shallower and retreated to the north during the Oligocene. Shallow-marine carbonate and clastics were deposited in the basin from Oligocene to Early Miocene time. Fluvial and lacustrine deposits accompanied by Early Pliocene volcanism filled E–W trending intermontane basins related to N–S tension beginning in the Early Pliocene. Alluvial fan and fluvial deposits accumulated during the Plio-Quaternary and were related to ENE–WSW aligned folds and thrusts. q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Pliocene; Eocene; Miocene
1. Introduction The Elazıg˘ basin is one of several basins in Turkey developed during closure of the southern branch of Neotethys during Tertiary time (Fig. 1a and b). The modern NE–SW trending Elazıg˘ basin, located in the eastern Taurides (Fig. 2a), is defined by Palu in the east, by the Peri Creek and the named Keban dam lake in the north, by the Euphrates River in the west and southwest, and by the Karga Dag˘ı and Mastar Dag˘ in the south and southeast (Fig. 2b). Metamorphic, magmatic and sedimentary units, ranging from Permo-Triassic to Plio-Quaternary in age, crop out beneath and within the basin (Fig. 2b). Several investigations have been conducted on the geological and geodynamical evolution of the Eastern Taurus (Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1984; Yazgan, 1984; Hempton, 1985, 1987; Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1990; Yazgan * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Aksoy). 1367-9120/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2004.04.009
and Chessex, 1991; Robertson, 2000). Yazgan (1984) concluded that the Middle Eocene sediments around Elazıg˘ were deposited in a back-arc basin (Fig. 3). Aktas¸ and Robertson (1984) describe the borderline of an active plate margin of the Southern Neotethys south of Elazıg˘. The stratigraphic, sedimentological and tectonic characteristics of the Elazıg˘ area have been studied by several workers (Perinc¸ek, 1979; Bingo¨l, 1984; Turan, 1984, 1993; ¨ zkul, Sungurlu, 1985; Tatar, 1987; Akpınar, 1988; O 1988; Tu¨rkmen, 1991; Kerey and Tu¨rkmen, 1991; Aksoy, 1993; I˙nceo¨z, 1994; Turan et al., 1995; Aksoy et al., 1996; ¨ zkul and Kerey, 1996; Turan and Tu¨rkmen, 1996; O Tu¨rkmen et al., 1999, 2001). However, there is no study in which these features were combined and explained in terms of the geodynamic evolution of the area. In this paper, we describe the history of the Tertiary Elazıg˘ basin, a long-lived marine to non-marine basin that evolved from a Late Paleocene–Early Miocene back arc basin to post collisional stages. Our database includes measured sections and field maps.
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3.1. Pre-Tertiary rocks The basement of the Tertiary basin consists of the PermoTriassic Keban metamorphic complex and the Upper Cretaceous Elazıg˘ magmatic complex (Fig. 2b). The Permo-Triassic Keban metamorphic complex consists of marbles, calc-phyllites, calc-schists and metaconglomerates, which have undergone amphibolite-greenschist facies metamorphism (Akgu¨l, 1987; Turan and Bingo¨l, 1991). The Upper Cretaceous magmatic complex consists of basalts, andesites, pillow lavas, dacites, agglomerates, and subvolcanic rocks such as aplites, microdiorites and dolerites, as well as plutonic rocks (Akgu¨l, 1993; Perinc¸ek, 1979; Bingo¨l and Beyarslan, 1996). The magmatic rocks are overlain by carbonate build-ups of the Upper Campanian– Maastrichtian Harami Formation (Aksoy et al., 1999). 3.2. Lower Paleocene deposits
Fig. 1. (a) Location of Turkey in the Eastern Mediterranean region, and (b) position of the Elazıg˘ basin within the Neo-Tethys realm (after S¸engo¨r and Yılmaz, 1983).
2. Tectonic setting A zone of uplift resulting from the emplacement of the Permo-Triassic Keban metamorphic rocks to the south over the Upper Cretaceous Elazıg˘ magmatic rocks (along the Pertek thrust fault), borders the Elazıg˘ basin in the north (Fig. 3). This thrust fault is covered by Middle Eocene sedimentary unit. The southern edge of the basin is bordered by the Uluova fault forming the Kargadag˘-Mastar mountains uplift (Figs. 2b and 3). Paleogene sedimentary and volcanic rocks occurring to the south of this zone of uplift have the characteristics of an intra-arc basin (Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1984). During the neotectonic period, ENE–WSW orientated folds and thrusts developed as a result of a NNW–SSE compressional regime (Fig. 2b). Pliocene–Pleistocene alluvial fan, fluvial and lacustrine sediments were deposited as a result of tectonism affecting the Paleocene–Lower Miocene sediments in the Elazıg˘ basin (Fig. 2b).
3. Stratigraphy and sedimentology The lithostratigraphy of the Elazıg˘ basin is shown in Fig. 4.
Conglomerates of mass flow type dominate to the north of Baskil town (Fig. 2b). The thickness of this conglomeratic unit reaches 200 m and oversized blocks up to 1 m in diameter are common within the conglomerate. Massive conglomerate grades into bedded conglomerate and sandstone south of Baskil. Clasts within the conglomerates can reach up to boulder size in some places, but generally they are well-rounded and poorly sorted pebbles and cobbles. The conglomerates are made up of Permo-Triassic Keban metamorphics and Upper Cretaceous magmatic rock pebbles. A megasequence up to 500 m in thickness is composed of cyclic coarsening upward sequences consisting of interbedded mudstone and sandstone in the lower part and mainly bedded conglomerate in the upper part (Fig. 5). Bedded conglomerates have pebbles aligned parallel to their long axis and are intercalated with well-bedded sandstone. These sediments pass into bedded red sandstone and mudstone of floodplain type towards the south. Gypsum layers consisting of mudstone-bearing gypsum concretions and bedded gypsum have been observed in the basal part of the sequence in the south (Fig. 5). The desiccation crack fills within the red green mudstone contain scattered sandstone and mudstone clasts and the red-green mudstone units generally overlie banded nodular secondary gypsum. An alabastrine texture predominates. Lower Paleocene deposits characteristic of mass-flow fluvial and flood plain environments all point to an alluvial fan (Heward, 1978; Nilsen, 1982). Mudstone bearing gypsum concretions and bedded gypsum facies are interpreted as mud flat-playa deposits (Hardie et al., 1978). The source area of alluvial fan deposits was uplifted as a result of southward thrusting of Permo-Triassic Keban metamorphics to the north of the study area onto the Upper Cretaceous Elazıg˘ magmatics along the Pertek thrust fault. An alluvial fan originating from this source area prograded over playa deposits to the south and led to the formation of coarsening upward conglomeratic sequences (Figs. 5 and 6).
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Fig. 2. Location (a) and geological (b) map of the Elazıg˘ basin (modified from Turan, 1993).
3.3. Upper Paleocene–Lower Eocene deposits These are limestones, representing the first products of a transgression during the Tertiary and are widespread around Baskil (Figs. 2b and 7). This limestone has a sharp boundary
Fig. 3. Cartoon of the paleogeography of the Elazıg˘ basin (modified after ¨ zkul, 1988; Cronin et al., 2000). Yazgan, 1984; O
Fig. 4. The stratigraphic section of Elazıg˘ Tertiary units (no scale).
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Fig. 5. Facies relations of Lower Paleocene deposits. See Fig. 2 for locations of measured sections.
Fig. 6. Paleogeographical map of the Early Paleocene.
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Fig. 7. Paleogeographical map of the Late Paleocene–Early Eocene period.
with Lower Paleocene conglomerate and is underlain by Middle Eocene–Oligocene deposits in most places. This succession starts with sandy limestone at the base and grades upwards into pure limestone. The thickness of these deposits is about 200 m but is not uniform. Limestone is mainly composed of algae and benthic foraminifera and includes a large proportion of micritic matrix mixed with bioclasts and numerous fragments of red algae. Branching corals are locally common and characterize reef deposits. The reefs developed on topographic highs where the bedded limestone accumulated in areas protected by reefs in a shallow, turbulent warm sea open to the south and southwest. The reefs are well developed and thickest on the south margin of these deposits. To the south of Elazıg˘ basin (Hazar Lake area in Fig. 2b and Hazar Basin in Fig. 3), transgression resumed in the Late Paleocene, possibly influenced by a eustatic sea level rise (Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1990). 3.4. Middle–Upper Eocene deposits Middle–Upper Eocene deposits are widespread in the Elazıg˘ basin (Fig. 2b) and are represented by shallow to deep-marine sediments. They are characterized, from north to south, by carbonate and terrigenous shelf, continental slope, slope apron and basin plain environments (Figs. 8 and 9). These deposits accumulated when the basin subsided rapidly during the Middle Eocene by block faulting within a backarc setting (Yazgan, 1984; Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1984; ¨ zkul and Kerey, 1996). O Shelf carbonates exhibiting approximately ENE–WSW elongated outcrops north of the basin range from massive to wavy bedded in various places and generally contain Alveolina elongata d’orbigny, Chapmanina gassinensis
(Silvestri) Linderina brugesi Schulumberger Asterigerina rotula (Kaufmann), Gyrodinella magna (Le Calvez), Nummulites perforatus (Monfort), Nummulites striatus (Bruguire), Preabullalveolina afyonica Sirel and Acar, Halkyardia minima (Liebus), Praerhapydionina huberi Henson, milioid and algae (Avs¸ar, 1996). Echonoid fossils have been observed in some levels. Terrigenous shelf deposits have outcrops aligned ENE– WSW, parallel to the distribution of the Eocene deposits in the Elazıg˘ basin. These deposits are mainly represented by trough and hummocky cross-bedded calcarenite, in some places alternating with beds of sandstone and mudstone. Calcarenite generally contains reworked Nummulites. Terrigenous shelf deposits prograde toward the south over slope deposits and interfinger with shelf carbonates toward the north (Fig. 9). Slope deposits consist of slumped sandstone-mudstone, thick bedded, coarse grained, fossillifereous calcarenite-carbonate mudstones and shallow conglomeratic channel fills. Mud intraclasts, macrofossils and benthic foraminifera (up to 5 cm in length) have been observed in the lower part of the channeled calcarenite layers. Trace fossils include Zoophycos, Chondrites, Neonereites, Sabularia, Scolicia, Subphyllochorda, Taphrhelminthopsis, Glockeria, Spiroraphe, ¨ zkul, Belorhaphe, Paleodictyon, Gordia and Asterichnus (O 1993a, 1993b). Palaeocurrent directions and the slump structure show that the slope dipped to the south. Channel deposits are common in the slope facies around Hasret Mountain and Aydınlar (Cronin et al., 2000; Fig. 10). Channels in the lower part of the slope deposits were mostly filled by grain and/or matrix-supported conglomerates (Fig. 8). However, channels in the upper part of the succession are mainly filled by bedded conglomerates. Most of these channels developed simultaneously, but some formed at different times and are located at different levels. Slope apron
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Fig. 8. Stratigraphic correlation of Middle–Upper Eocene deposits (after Cronin et al., 2000).
deposits crop out in the western part of the basin (W of Baskil) and are represented by conglomerate (Fig. 8). Basin-plain deposits, comprising hemipelagic mudstone-bearing sandstone interbeds, were observed south
¨ zkul and Kerey, 1996). Around Salus¸ag˘ı of the basin (O village, west of Baskil, marble olistoliths related to block faulting of the basement are scattered throughout these deposits.
Fig. 9. Paleogeographical map of the Middle–Late Eocene period.
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¨ zkul, 1988; Cronin et al., 2000). Fig. 10. Deep water channels and paleocurrent directions of Middle–Late Eocene deposits exposed in the Elazıg˘ basin (after O
A similar transtensional and/or extensional tectonic regime affected the Hazar Lake area during this period (Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1990).
3.5. Oligocene–Lower Miocene deposits Oligocene–Lower Miocene deposits outcrop in a restricted area west–northwest of the Elazıg˘ basin and are represented by shallow-marine carbonates (Figs. 2b and 11).
These limestones contain large benthic foraminifera, coralline algae, bryozoa and coral and were deposited as a massive bank carbonate on topographic highs on the shelf. Bedded limestone formed as a result of reworking of organic material in the shoal and protected areas within the shelf. Shelf-edge carbonates are exposured on hills west of Baskil (Fig. 2b). Their lateral relationship with other facies has not been determined because of tectonism and erosion. These are composed of alternating brecciated limestone and mudstone beds.
Fig. 11. Paleogeographical map of the Oligocene–Early Miocene period.
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Benthic foraminifera such as Nummulites sp. and Discocyclina sp., and fragments of corals and algae are mixed with pelagic foraminifera such as Globigerina sp. and Globorotalia sp. The mixture of fragmented benthic forams of differing size and the unfragmented pelagic forams is a distinct criteria for shelf edge carbonates. Lower Miocene carbonates have wide outcrops NW of Baskil and N and NW of Keban. These carbonates, aligned E–W as a narrow belt, are massive, yellowish cream in color, and contain coral and algal fragments, bivalves, echinoids and Miogypsina sp., Miogypsinoides sp., Lepidocyclina sp., Amphistegina sp., Globigerina immaturus (Turan, 1993). This facies association can be considered as having accumulated on a narrow shelf edge around the northern edge of the basin, based on depositional features and setting. The Middle Eocene–Lower Miocene deposits as a whole are considered to be the products of a deep marine-shelf
environment and were deposited in a back-arc basin ¨ zkul, 1988). Coarse-grained developed on continental crust (O slope and slope apron sediments were deposited in the lower part of the sequence as a result of tectonic instability and deep marine conditions active in Middle Eocene time. Clastic sedimentation ceased towards the end of Eocene time in the Elazıg˘ basin, but carbonate deposition continued at an increasing rate until the end of the Early Miocene.
Fig. 12. Facies relations of Lower Pliocene deposits in the C ¸ aybag˘ı area.
Fig. 13. Facies relations of Lower Pliocene deposits in the Hankendi area.
3.6. Lower Pliocene deposits Sedimentary rocks of this period were observed in three local outcrops in the Elazıg˘ basin (Fig. 2b).
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3.6.1. C ¸ aybag˘ı area This area is bordered by a fault to the south and has about 750 m of red-gray conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, peat, marl and limestone characteristic of fluvial, palustrine and lacustrine environments (Fig. 12). Fluvial deposits mainly form cyclic fining-upward sequences. Conglomerate and trough-planar cross-stratified sandstone occur in the lower part of the fining-upward sequences and siltstone–mudstone in the upper part. Conglomerates in the basal part of the cyclic sequences have an erosional bases and lenticular shapes. The sandstone is red, has erosional base epsilon and trough cross bedding and climbing ripples. Fresh water fossils such as Potamidae and Unio were observed in the sandstones (Tu¨rkmen, 1991). Red mudstone about 15 m thick and coal layers occur at the uppermost part of the sequences and are present in places. These mudstones contain micromammalia fossils such as Promimomys moldavicus, Apodemus cf. dominans, Castoridae gen. et ¨ nay and De Bruijn, 1998). There are sp. indet (large form) (U also well-preserved leaves, bivalves and gastropoda in mudstone. The sequence is interpreted as representing meandering river deposits. Palustrine deposits are characterized by siltstone, brown-gray mudstone, claystone and peat, interbedded with both fluvial deposits and lacustrine deposits. Claystones are massive, gray to green in color and commonly contain macrophytic debris. Peat facies pass vertically into both claystone and brown-gray mudstone. Lacustrine deposits are found west of the basin were the characteristic lithologies are stratified limestone, brecciated limestone and laminated marl. The stratified limestones consisting of bioturbation structures are usually micritic mudstone–wackestone with gastropod and ostracod fossils that form beds ranging between 20 and 40 cm in thickness. These limestones are interbedded with
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brecciated limestones. Laminated marl contains Ostracoda, Gastropoda, Pelecypoda and Annelida. Pisoliths (radius ! 5–6 cm) are common in limestone. Pyroclastics and basalt flows occur at the uppermost part of the Lower Pliocene deposits. In the C ¸ aybag˘ı area, frequent alternating beds of fluvial and lacustrine deposits suggest that the basin was tectonically active during Early Pliocene time. Volcanic activity towards the end of the Early Pliocene was interrupted from time to time by sedimentation in a lake. Plateau basalts erupted over Pre-Lower Pliocene rocks. 3.6.2. Elazıg˘-Hankendi area This area is located to the southwest, close to Elazıg˘, and dominated by clayey limestone interfingering with basalt and pyroclastics (Figs. 13 and 14). The limestone is micritic and contains Gastropoda and reworked plant debris. Ooids and pisoids are locally common. The limestones alternate with conglomerate and mudstone. The conglomerates are generally red, poorly consolidated, poorly sorted, normal to inversely graded, and matrix-supported. The mudstone is red, and has paleosols level with caliche (Fig. 13). These conglomerates and mudstones are characteristic of alluvial fan deposits (Heward, 1978; Nilsen, 1982). The limestones are interpreted as shallow-water deposits (Anadon et al., 1991). Mimomys occitanus, Occitanomys brailloni, Apodemus dominans, Cricetidae gen. et sp. indet (Mesocricetus ?), Spalacidae gen. et sp. indet, Ochotonides sp., Soricidae gen. et sp. indet and Mesocricetus aff. primitivus have been ¨ nay and De Bruijn, 1998) in the sequence. identified (U 3.6.3. Baskil area There are difficulties in reconstructing the geometry of the basin in this area due to erosion. Facies characteristics
Fig. 14. Paleogeographical map of the Early Pliocene period.
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resemble those in the C ¸ aybag˘ı area. However, this area has more organic rich levels but fewer conglomerates and sandstones relative to C¸aybag˘ı. As a result swamp and lacustrine facies are more common in this area. All of these areas are bordered by ENE–WSW aligned faults and the depressions related to these faults were filled by fluvial and lacustrine deposits. 3.7. Plio-Quaternary deposits These deposits were investigated in two areas. 3.7.1. C¸aybag˘ı area Plio-Quaternary deposits crop out parallel to the Euphrates River (Fig. 2b). Sediments in this area are up to 250 m thick and, comprise cyclic fining-upward sequences of well-organized conglomerate and cross-bedded sandstone (Fig. 15). Stratified conglomerate is clast-supported
Fig. 15. Facies relations of Plio-Quaternary deposits.
and matrix filled. Stratification is commonly defined by alternating pebble/cobble sized and granule/pebble sized clasts. Clasts of stratified conglomerates are subrounded to well rounded. Gravels show a well-developed b-axis upstream imbrication pattern. Normally graded conglomerates are poorly sorted, clast-supported, and matrix-filled gravels. Crude normal grading is also present. Beds extend laterally and their bases are flat to slightly scoured. Clasts are subrounded to well rounded. Cross-bedded conglomerates pass into cross-bedded pebbly sandstone. Although cross bedding is defined by concav-up crossbeds, which have tangentially based lower set contacts. Clasts are subrounded to well rounded. Planar cross-bedded conglomerate is rare. The sandstone is coarse grained, well rounded and sorted. Silt and clay sized sediments have not been observed. These sediments characterizing Donject-type and Scott-type facies transitions suggest strong tectonic activity in the area during Plio-Quaternary time (Steel and Aasheim, 1978). Paleocurrent analysis of braided river facies shows that paleocurrents were from NE to SW and W, parallel to the present trend of the Euphrates River (Kerey and Tu¨rkmen, 1991). Sediments located in the northern part of this area have E–W aligned outcrops parallel to the Palu anticline (Fig. 16) and are mainly composed of red conglomerate and mudstone. The conglomerate is poorly sorted, mudsupported, and shows normal and reverse grading. Paleosol-bearing caliche is present in the uppermost part of the red mudstone. The mudstone also includes conglomerate and sandstone lenses 4–10 m thick. The non-organized, poorly sorted conglomerates and mudstones characterize alluvial fan deposits (Nilsen, 1982). These fans expand onto the fluvial plain of the Euphrates River from a mountain apron to the north (Fig. 16). 3.7.2. Baskil area Sediments in this area are 30–50 m of and extensively outcrop to the northeast and southwest of Baskil town (Fig. 16). They are mainly red, crude bedded, poorly sorted and poorly consolidated conglomerates with angular and subangular grains. These conglomerates are normal to reverse graded, matrix-supported, poorly sorted, red in color and contain large blocks typical of alluvial fans (Rust, 1979). In this area, Plio-Quaternary deposits extend parallel to the axis of the Baskil Anticline (Fig. 16). Part of the PlioQuaternary outcrop, parallel to the Euphrates River, developed under the control of a thrust fault while other parts formed as terraces of the Euphrates River similar to the Palu area (Fig. 16). Toward the end of the Pliocene, the Elazıg˘ basin was subjected to N–S compressional tectonics resulting in E–W folding and thrusting. Sedimentation during the PlioQuaternary was controlled by these structures so that the deposits lie parallel to folds and thrusts (Fig. 16).
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Fig. 16. Paleogeographical map of the Plio-Quaternary period.
4. Tectonic features and paleogeographic evolution of the Elazıg˘ basin The Elazıg˘ basin was affected by extensional and compressional tectonics beginning towards the end of the Late Cretaceous. The Permo-Triassic Keban metamorphic rocks and the Upper Cretaceous Elazıg˘ magmatic rocks form the basement of the basin (Fig. 4). Following the closure of the Inner Tauride Ocean from the end of the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene time, arccontinent collision caused metamorphic rocks to be thrusted over the Upper Cretaceous magmatic arc (Bingo¨l, 1984; Hempton, 1985; Yazgan and Chessex, 1991; Turan et al., 1995). Continental environments then developed due to regional uplift (Pertek thrust fault) (Fig. 17a). Deposition of Lower Paleocene sediments were controlled by the Pertek fault (Bingo¨l, 1984; Tatar, 1987; Turan, 1993; Aksoy, 1994; Figs. 2b and 5). In this tectonically controlled basin, clastic and evaporitic alluvial fan and playa sediments deposited during Early Paleocene time (Fig. 17a). A transgressive sea developed in an extensional regime from Late Paleocene onward. Lower Paleocene continental deposits along the edge of a shallow sea were reworked, and reefal limestone was deposited above the sediment until Early Eocene time (Fig. 17b). In the Middle Eocene, a sea was located to the south of the study area (Aktas¸ and Robertson, 1984; Yazgan and Chessex, 1991; Turan et al., 1995; Yig˘itbas¸ et al., 1993). In the Elazıg˘ basin, the sea progradated northward, influenced by block faulting in an extensional back-arc setting, from Late Paleocene–Early Eocene time.
Due to uplift of a footwall block (Uluova normal fault), the sea could not inundate the area south of this fault (Fig. 17c). Irregularities in the basement resulting from block faulting affected the type of sediment deposited. Facies characterizing differing depths interacted laterally and vertically (Fig. 17c). Deposits of carbonate shelf, slope and basin plain types accumulated from north to south in a progressively shallowing basin. The shelf facies onlapped slope facies throughout the basin. Olistoliths, originating from block faulting of the basement, were locally deposited within the basin plain facies. Paleocurrent analysis on sole marks in the basin plain sediment, (frequently cut by channel-fill conglomerates), ¨ zkul, indicate that mass flows were from the north (O 1988). Measurements of the slope channels on Hasret Mountain and Aydınlar indicate a paleocurrent direction from NE to SW (Fig. 10). The lithofacies distribution in the basin shows that the sea deepened towards the south during this period. During the Oligocene–Miocene, after reaching its maximum extend during the Middle–Late Eocene, the sea retreated to the N–NW and became progressively shallower. Reefal limestones of Oligocene age indicate this shallowing. At the end of the Oligocene, a large part of the basin was subaerially exposed (Fig. 17d). Marine Miocene deposits only crop out in a small area west of Baskil but have extensive outcrops north of the basin. These features indicate an overall marine regression. Retreate of the sea during the Tertiary was related to regional uplift following the closure of Neotethys and regional continent–continent collision in the Middle
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Fig. 17. Geotectonic evolution model of the Elazıg˘ basin in the Tertiary.
Miocene, marking the beginning of the Neotectonic period (S¸engo¨r, 1980; Jackson and McKenzie, 1984; S¸engo¨r and Yılmaz, 1983; Dewey et al., 1986; Hempton, 1987). Strong compressional tectonics effecting Eastern Anatolia during the Neotectonic period was also active in the Elazıg˘ basin. E–W aligned folding and thrust faulting of Tertiary units in the basin occurred as a result of the generally N–S compression (Fig. 2b). Lower Pliocene deposits are mostly fine to coarse grained clastics, limestone, tuff and in some places coal intercalation, deposited in a tectonically controlled shallow, turbulent lake (Fig. 17e). Fluvial deposits are also observed east of Elazıg˘ and cover the Early Miocene deposits in some places (Fig. 2b).
Toward the end of the Pliocene, lacustrine basins closed as a result of uplift caused by the approximate N–S extension. At this time, activation of the East Anatolian fault belt caused strong folding of lacustrine deposits around C ¸ aybag˘ı, close to the fault zone (Tu¨rkmen, 1991; Turan, 1993). The area achieved its present structural setting in the Plio-Quaternary due to formation of the NE–SW trending Elazıg˘ anticliniorium that extends across the basin (Tatar, 1987; Turan, 1993), combined with E–W thrusting. Plio-Quaternary coarse-grained sediments were deposited in depressions related to the above-mentioned structure and as terraces of the Euphrates River basin. Depressions like the Uluova, Kuzova, Kovancılar plains and Euphrates River valley are the present areas of deposition.
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5. Conclusions 1. The Tertiary units of the Elazıg˘ basin include Lower Paleocene continental deposits, Upper Paleocene–Lower Miocene marine deposits and Pliocene-Quaternary continental deposits. The basin was affected by extensional and compressional tectonics, starting at the end of Late Cretaceous time. 2. In the Early Paleocene, alluvial fan and playa deposits developed along the front of a thrust fault. 3. Marine conditions developed in the basin as a result of an extensional regime beginning in the Late Paleocene and continued until Early Miocene time. Shallow-deep marine carbonates and clastics were deposited in a back-arc basin that developed on continental crust from Late Paleocene to Early Miocene time. 4. ENE–WSW orientated folds and thrusts developed as a result of a NNW–SSE compressional regime during the Neotectonic period. Pliocene–Pleistocene alluvial and lacustrine sediments were deposited as a result of tectonism affecting the Paleocene–Lower Miocene sediments in the Elazıg˘ basin.
Acknowledgements We thank Alastair H.F. Robertson (University of Edinburgh) and Hu¨kmu¨ Orhan (University of Selc¸uk) for reading and constructive comments of early version of the manuscript.
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