- Email: [email protected]
Teenage mothers: A pilot study
TEENAGE MOTHERS: A PILOT STUDY. Carol McVeigh RN RM Ph.D. FRCNA FACM,Associate Professor rt Midwifery Convenor, Griffith University School of Nursing, University Drive Meadowbrook, Logan Campus, Queensland 4131, email: C.McVeigh@mai[box.gu.edu.au
ABSTRACT
teenage pregnancy has on the teenager and society are
This paper presents the findings of a pilot study carried
occurs in young women, the evolving mother-infant
immense (Shaefer ~t Emerling, 1997). When pregnancy out in one regional center in Queensland, Australia.
relationship may be negatively influenced (Koniak-
The study aimed to develop a snapshot image of
Griffin ~ Turner-Pluta, 2001 ) and both mother and
teenage mothers. Of the thirty mothers who participated; just over half (16/30; 53%) reported using
infant could face Long-term social and economic disadvantage (Kenny, 1995). Despite this, little
contraceptives, less than a third (8/30; 27%) used
information is currently available on Australian
condoms to protect themselves from STDs and the
teenage mothers and their immediate social networks.
majority (23/30; 77%) said their pregnancy was
In addition, most of the literature examining issues
unplanned. Despite this, 16 (53%) attended prenatal
related to teenage sexual activities and pregnancy is
classes, 16 (53%) breast-fed their infants and 27 (90%)
American and may not accurately represent current
were satisfied with motherhood. On average the fathers were almost four years older than the mother were (range 17 to 29 years), most fathers (23/30; 77%) were not teenagers themselves and only 11 (37%) were resident fathers following the birth of the baby. Exploratory analysis suggests that the fathers were
Australian trends. To address this shortfall in information and determine if further research is required, this pilot study was carried out in one regional centre in Queensland, Australia. Primarily this study aimed to capture a snapshot image of teenage mothers.
significantly older than the teenage mothers were (t = -6.73, df 29, p = 0.0001). Although these preliminary results are similar to those reported in the American literature further research is needed to confirm if the findings presented are representative of teenage mothers in Australia. White we await the results of future studies, practitioners are encouraged to continue to educate young women about appropriate and safer sexual practices.
Over the past decade much has been written about teenage pregnancy and birth rates internationally. Although both the United States and Australia have seen a decline in teenage pregnancy and birth rates in recent years (Brown, 2000; Nassar, Sullivan, Lancaster, Ft Day, 2000; Siedlecky, 1996) the situation continues to constitute a significant public health problem in Australia (Adelson, Frommer, Pym ~t Rubin, 1992). Each year a quarter of a million women give birth in Australia and over 13,000 of those births are to
Acknowledgments:
teenage mothers. In Queensland alone over 3,000
This study was supported by a grant from the
teenage mothers give birth annually (Day, Sullivan,
Australian College of Midwives Incorporated.
Ford, ~ Lancaster, 1999) and the early move into motherhood is of concern as it may forever alter a
Ms. Elizabeth Hea[y assisted with data gathering.
INTRODUCTION Irrespective of age, the transition to motherhood may be unpredictable and stressful. Parenting is difficult under the best of circumstances and the effects
young woman's future (Raphael-Left, 1994). Sexual intercourse prior to adulthood and outside marriage has become the norm (Henshaw, 1998; The Guttmacher Institute, 1999a). While most teenagers report using contraceptives, 22% of sexually active teens become pregnant each year and up to 50% of those pregnancies end as termination (Darroch, Landry,
26
AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE OF MIDWIVES INCORPORATED
F~Ostak, 1999; Day et aL, 1999; Lindberg, Sonenstein,
American [iterature is also commonplace in Australia.
Ku, ~ Martinez, 1997). Once sexually active, teenage
Armed with greater information about teenage
women are at greater risk of experiencing an
mothers and their immediate sociat networks,
unplanned pregnancy (Henshaw, 1998) and acquiring a
inc[uding the fathers of their infants, midwives should
sexua[ty transmitted disease (The Guttmacher
be better abte to meet the unique needs of teenage
Institute, 1998). The majority of teenagers who give
c[ients. In addition, midwives would be we[[ placed to
birth are from disadvantaged families, have few
inform other practitioner groups (i.e. schoot nurses and
prospects for future development and the majority see
genera[ practitioners) about the educational needs of
little reason to detay childbearing (Donovan, 1997;
young women while they are still at school To that
Koniak-Griffin ~ Turner-P[uta, 2001).
end, this pilot study explored a previousty neglected
When pregnancy occurs, most teenagers experience a normal delivery, however, young mothers are significantty more likely to encounter adverse
area by developing a snapshot image of teenage mothers. In addition, the need for further in-depth research was examined.
pregnancy outcomes such as low birth weight, perinata[ death and pregnancy induced hypertension
M E T H O D 8: PROCEDURE
(Ade[son, et aL, 1992; Nassar et aL, 2000; NSW Hearth Department, 1995). A large proportion of teenage
This quantitative descriptive study aimed to gather
mothers experience social and economic hardships
persona[ and demographic information about teenage
(Fernandez, Ruch-Ross, ~ Montague, 1993; Mercer,
mothers. A non-representative convenience sampte of
1995), become social security recipients (The
teenage mothers aged 15 to 19 years were invited to
Guttmacher Institute, 1999a) and 25% wi[[ give birth to
participate. AIr had delivered heatthy infants at or
a second chitd within 2 years (The Guttmacher
near term and air resided in one regional centre in
Institute, 1998). In addition, the children of teenage
Queensland, Austratia. Participants were recruited by
mothers are predisposed to being the victim of child
invitation white attending a youth health centre; they
abuse (Kenny, 1995), failing to complete their high
were provided with detailed information about the
school education and becoming teenage parents
study, informed of their right to refuse to participate
themselves (Fetice, 1998).
as weir as their right to withdraw at any time. Only
Although much is known about teenage mothers and their babies, far less is known about the infant's father. American studies indicate that adult men are responsible for up to 50% of a[[ births to teenage mothers in that country (Landry ~ Forrest, 1995; Larson, Hussey, Gittmore, ~ Gi[christ, 1996; Taylor, Chavez, Chabra, ~ Boggess, 1997). When a large age difference exists between the teenager and her partner she is more likely to experience an unintended
Gi[tick competent teenage mothers, namely those able to understand the implications of their actions, were recruited (Forrester Et Griffiths, 2001; The British Council, 1999). Fuji ethics approval was obtained from Griffith University and the participating hearth centre and written informed consent was obtained. The mothers were surveyed on one occasion during the first six months postpartum and to protect their anonymity no identification codes were used.
pregnancy and, once pregnant, continuing the
A 40-item questionnaire was developed specifica[ty for
pregnancy rather than opting for a termination
this study. The toot was designed to gather persona[
(Darroch et aL, 1999). In age disparate relationships
and socio-demographic information about the mother,
the teenage mother's access to economic, social and
her infant and the father of her child. The
educationat resources may be limited (Fernandez et
questionnaire also asked mothers to evatuate the
a[., 1993) and contact with and support from the
support they received from the father of their child,
infant's father usuat[y decreases as time passes (Larson
their [eve[ of satisfaction with motherhood and their
et at., 1996; McVeigh, 2000). Although no dear
current quatity of life. Additiona[ questions about
definition of 'large age difference' or 'age disparate
contraceptive use, planned versus unplanned
relationships' is offered within the literature, concerns
pregnancy, participation in parenting programs and
have been raised about the potential for pressure and
current living arrangements were included. A pane[ of
abuse when the mate partner is significantly order than
midwifery experts reviewed the too[; content vatidity
the teenage mother (Darroch eta[., 1999; Landry
was confirmed. Due to the descriptive nature of the
Forrest, 1995).
too{ no further testing was carried at this time.
Since the long-term outcome for both the teenage
Data obtained was analysed using SPSS-PC (Statistical
mother and her infant can be unpredictable it is
Package for the Social Sciences Version 10) software.
important to know if the situation reported in the
Frequency distributions and descriptive statistics were
VOL 15
NO I
MARCH2002
27
used to describe the sampte. Exptoratory t-tests were used to determine emerging tends within the data.
Table 1: Maternal Characteristics No
%
15 yrs
3
10
16 yrs
2
7
Thirty teenage mothers were surveyed during the first
17 yrs
5
17
6 months for[owing the birth of their baby. The
18 yrs
I0
33
participants mean age was 17.7 years (range 15 to 19
19 yrs
I0
33
Angto-ce[tic
28
90
2
10
Primiparae
27
93
Muttigravid
2
7
< year 12
20
67
> year 12
10
33
RESULTS
years, sd 1.37) and 27 (90%) of the mothers were
Characteristics Age:
Ethnicity:
primiparas. Interestingly, ontyl6 (53%) had used contraceptives, just 8 (27%) used condoms when sexua[ty active and 23 (77%) had experienced an
AboHginat/TSSI Parity:
unplanned pregnancy. Despite the chance nature of their pregnancy, 25 (83%) said they were happy when
Education:
informed about the pregnancy, 22 (73%) attended chitdbirth and parenting education programs and 16
Return to Schoot:
(53%) continued to breast-feed their infant fottowing discharge from hospital Most of the respondents used a variety of resources when seeking information about
Emptoyment:
pregnancy, childbirth and parenting. Midwives, prenatat educators and their own parents were sources most frequently cited.
Income:
While onty 11 (37%) of the mothers rived with the father of their baby, not art-current relationships were with the bio[ogicat father of their chitd. Although most
Living Arrangements:
2
6
No/Undecided
28
94
Unemployed
28
93
Yes
Emptoyed
2
7
At School
0
0
< 510,000
18
67
51o,ooo~519,999
8
30
> 520,000
I
3
Atone
3
10
13
43
I
3
11
37
of the mothers (20130; 71%) had tess than 12 years of
With parents
education, only 2 were attending schoot and none of
Cummt boyfriend
the remaining mothers ptanned to return to schoot in
With infant's
the immediate future. In addition, 18 (67%) were sociat
father
security recipients and a[[ reported annual incomes of
Extended
less than 520,000 Australian. Of interest, most of the
family
2
7
None
14
47
mothers (25/30; 83%) believed their quality of life was
Contraceptive use:
good, 27 (90%) were very satisfied with motherhood,
Condom
8
27
however, most (27/30; 90%) reported being less than
OCP
7
23
satisfied with the support they received from the
Diaphragm
I
3
No.
%
father of their baby. See Table 1 for maternal characteristics. At( of the participants provided useful information
Table 2: Father's Characteristics
about the father of their infant. The fathers' mean age was 21 years (range 17 to 29 years, sd 3.10), most (23/
Factor:
30; 77%) were not teenagers themsetves and the
Age
17-19 yrs
7
23
greatest age difference in one relationship was 10
20-24 yrs
19
63
years. Many of the fathers (21/30; 72%) had not
25-29 yrs
4
14
< year 12
21
72
> year 12
9
28
compteted high school, 9 (30%) were currentty unemployed, 7 (23%) received sociat security benefits
Education:
and most (24127; 89%) reported annua[ incomes of tess than 529,000 Austratian. On average the fathers had
Employment:
known the teenage mothers for more than two years, however, most (19130; 63%) were absentee fathers
9
30
Employed
21
70
< 510,000
7
26
for[owing the birth of their child. Exptoratory anatysis
510,000 19,999
11
41
suggests that the fathers were significantly order than
520,000-29,999
6
22
the teenage mothers were (t=-6.74, df 29, p = 0.0001 ).
>530,000
3
11
See Tabte 2 for the father's characteristics.
28
Income
Unemptoyed
AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE OF MIDWIVES INCORPORATED
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
This pilot study examined available data in order to
Adelson, R, Frommer, M., Pym, M., 8: Rubin, G. (1992)
develop an image of Australian teenage mothers. Given
Teenage pregnancy and ferti[ity in New South Wales: An
the sample size, sampling techniques and because only
examination of fertility trends, abortion and birth
one youth centre participated, no attempt is made to
outcomes. Austra[ian Journal of Public Health. 16(3),
genera[ise these results. The results do however offer
238-244.
information not previously available in Australia and it supports the notion that further investigations are warranted. Discovering that so few of these young women used contraceptives, and tess than a third used condoms as a barrier method of choice, is alarming. Although these results are similar to those reported for the United
Brown, B. (2000) U.S. births rise for the first time in eight years; births to teenagers stilt fatting. Family Planning Perspectives. 32(5), 263-264. Darroch, J., Landry, D., ~t Ostak, S. (1999) Pregnancy rates among U.S. women and their partners in 1994. Family Planning Perspectives. 31(3), 122-126 ~t 136.
States (The Guttmacher Institute, 1999b); clinically it
Day, R, SulLivan, E., Ford, J., ~ Lancaster, R (1999)
is of concern that so few of the young women and their
AustraLian mothers and babies 1997. AIH Cat. No. PER
partners protect themselves against STDs and an
12. Sydney: AIHW National Perinata[ Statistics Unit
unplanned pregnancy. White this may be typical risk
(Perinata[ Statistics Series No. 9).
taking behaviour for this age group much more
Donovan, R (1997) Can statutory rape taws be effective
information is needed to improve our understanding
in preventing adolescent pregnancy? Family Planning
about why some young women protect themselves and others do not.
Perspectives. 29(1), 30-34.
Finding that the fathers were older than the teenage
babies. [On Line]. http: //hhd.csun.edu/sheitia/436/
mothers was not unexpected, however, discovering
lecture1001 .htm[
that more than three quarters of the men were themselves not teenagers and only one third were resident fathers is noteworthy. Similar to previous findings (Landry Et Forrest, 1995; Larson et at., 1996; Taylor et at., 1997) these results suggest that young
Fetice, M. (1998) Fact sheet on adolescents who have
Fernandez, M., Ruch-Ross, H., Et Montague, A. (1993) Ethnicity and effects of age gap between unmarried adolescent mothers and partners. Journal of Adolescent Research. 8(4), 439-466.
women in Australia, like their American counterparts,
Forrester, K., ft Griffiths, D. (2001) Essential of taw for
may engage in unprotected sexual activities with men
health professionals. Sydney: Harcourt.
years older than themselves. Once pregnant, Australian
Henshaw, S. (1998) Unintended pregnancy in the United
teenage mothers may also be at risk of the same [eve[
States. Family Planning Perspectives. 30(1), 24-29 Et 26.
of socioeconomic and educational disadvantage reported by Koniak-Griffin and Turner-Pluta (2001).
Kenny, D. (1995) Adolescent pregnancy in Australia. In D. Kenny ~ R. Job (Eds.). Australia's adolescents: A
Sexual relationships between adult mates and younger
health psychology perspective (pp. 239-245). Armidate,
teenage women may be more commonplace in
Australia: University of New England Press.
Australia than previously anticipated. What, if anything, engaging in such relationships means longterm to teenage mothers and their infants remains unknown? Due to this study's [imitations it seems important to gain a better understanding of why these
Koniak-Griffin, D., ft Turner-Ptuta, C. (2001) Health risks and psychosociat outcomes of early childbearing: A review of the literature. Journal of Perinata[ and Neonatal Nursing. 15(1), 1-17.
relationships develop and ultimately what impact, if
Landry, D., & Forrest, J. (1995) How old are U.S.
any, they may have on the young woman's future
fathers? Family Planning Perspectives. 27(4) 159-165.
opportunities. Clearly further research is needed to
Larson, N., Hussey, J., Giltmore, M., ~t Oitchrist, L.
determine if the findings presented here are upheld by a national study. White we await the results from that
(1996) What about Dad? Fathers of children born to school-age mothers. Families in Society. 77(5), 279-289.
investigation it is important for midwives to continue to offer safer sex and pregnancy prevention
Lindberg, L., Sonenstein, F., Ku, L., Et Martinez, G.
information to their clients through schools and medical practitioners.
and their adult partners. Family Planning Perspectives.
(1997) Age differences between minors who give birth 29(2), 61-66.
VOL 15
NO I
MARCH 2002
29
McVeigh, C. (2000) Investigating the retationship between satisfaction with social support and functional status after childbirth. The American Journa[ of
Book Review
Materna[/Chitd Nursing. 25(I ), 25-30. Mercer, R. (1995) Becoming a mother: Research on maternal identity from Rubin to the present. New York: Springer Pubiishing. Nassar, N., Suitivan, E., Lancaster, P., E Day, P. (2000) Austratian mothers and babies 1998. AIH Cat. No. PER 15. Sydney: AIHW Nationa[ Perinata[ Statistics Unit (Perinata[ Statistics Series No. 10). NSW Department of Hearth. (1995). Midwives Data Coitection: Pubtic health buttetin (Vot. 7, No. $I). Raphae[-Leff, J. (1994)Psychotogica[ processesof chitdbearing. London: Chapman Et Hail. Shaefer, S., Et Emeriing, J. (1997) Homebound pregnant adolescents. Home Heaith Care Management Et Practice. 9(3), 23-32. Siedtecky, S. (1996) Teenage pregnancy: What is
GIVING SORROW WORDS Women's stories of grief
happening? On The Road. 4(2), 3-8.
after abortion
Taytor, D., Chavez, G., Chabra, A., Ft Boggess, J. (1997) Risk factors for adult paternity in births to ado[escents. Obstetrics Et Gynecology. 89(2), 199-205. The British Council (1999) Chitdren's rights: a nationa[ and international perspective. [On Line] www.britcoun.org/governance/jusrig/human/chitdrig/ crO2a.htm[
Metinda Tankard Reist (2000) Duffy E Snettgrove, Potts Point ,519.95
This is a very sad book. Sad for two reasons, the first is that these women are so traumatised and that they regret their decisions. The second reason is more insidious and it is that the author has assumed that
The Guttmacher Institute. (1998) Teen sex and pregnancy. Author. [On Line] www.agi-usa.org/pubs/fbteen-sex.htm[
women are not abte to make 'informed' decisions and
The Guttmacher Institute. (1999a) Teenage pregnancy and the welfare reform debate. Author. [On Line] www.agi-usa.org/pubs/ibS.htm[
Those of you who are anti-abortion wi[[ appiaud this
The Guttmacher Institute. (1999b) Teen sex and pregnancy. Author. [On Line] www.agi-usa.org/pubs
concerned and disturbed with the assumptions and lack
so are victims of their partners, relatives, and the medical and regal systems.
book and feel that it is an affirmation of a[[ that you beJieve. Those of you who are pro-choice wi[[ be of any criticat analysis that it makes. This book is ciearty anti-abortion and it would appear, that there are targe numbers of women who are suffering post traumatic stress because they were coerced into having a procedure that they did not want. This is despite rigorous research which shows that most women who have abortions believe that their choice was the correct one. We must remember that there are occasions in our lives that we make decisions that we do regret and sometimes these decisions are very profound. An exampte of such a decision is deciding to drive when under the influence of drugs and/or aicohot and the driver is responsible for killing one or more people. What is significant with these women's stories is that they were air coerced into having abortions by either
30
AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE OF MIDWIVES INCORPORATED
ABSTRACT
teenage pregnancy has on the teenager and society are
This paper presents the findings of a pilot study carried
occurs in young women, the evolving mother-infant
immense (Shaefer ~t Emerling, 1997). When pregnancy out in one regional center in Queensland, Australia.
relationship may be negatively influenced (Koniak-
The study aimed to develop a snapshot image of
Griffin ~ Turner-Pluta, 2001 ) and both mother and
teenage mothers. Of the thirty mothers who participated; just over half (16/30; 53%) reported using
infant could face Long-term social and economic disadvantage (Kenny, 1995). Despite this, little
contraceptives, less than a third (8/30; 27%) used
information is currently available on Australian
condoms to protect themselves from STDs and the
teenage mothers and their immediate social networks.
majority (23/30; 77%) said their pregnancy was
In addition, most of the literature examining issues
unplanned. Despite this, 16 (53%) attended prenatal
related to teenage sexual activities and pregnancy is
classes, 16 (53%) breast-fed their infants and 27 (90%)
American and may not accurately represent current
were satisfied with motherhood. On average the fathers were almost four years older than the mother were (range 17 to 29 years), most fathers (23/30; 77%) were not teenagers themselves and only 11 (37%) were resident fathers following the birth of the baby. Exploratory analysis suggests that the fathers were
Australian trends. To address this shortfall in information and determine if further research is required, this pilot study was carried out in one regional centre in Queensland, Australia. Primarily this study aimed to capture a snapshot image of teenage mothers.
significantly older than the teenage mothers were (t = -6.73, df 29, p = 0.0001). Although these preliminary results are similar to those reported in the American literature further research is needed to confirm if the findings presented are representative of teenage mothers in Australia. White we await the results of future studies, practitioners are encouraged to continue to educate young women about appropriate and safer sexual practices.
Over the past decade much has been written about teenage pregnancy and birth rates internationally. Although both the United States and Australia have seen a decline in teenage pregnancy and birth rates in recent years (Brown, 2000; Nassar, Sullivan, Lancaster, Ft Day, 2000; Siedlecky, 1996) the situation continues to constitute a significant public health problem in Australia (Adelson, Frommer, Pym ~t Rubin, 1992). Each year a quarter of a million women give birth in Australia and over 13,000 of those births are to
Acknowledgments:
teenage mothers. In Queensland alone over 3,000
This study was supported by a grant from the
teenage mothers give birth annually (Day, Sullivan,
Australian College of Midwives Incorporated.
Ford, ~ Lancaster, 1999) and the early move into motherhood is of concern as it may forever alter a
Ms. Elizabeth Hea[y assisted with data gathering.
INTRODUCTION Irrespective of age, the transition to motherhood may be unpredictable and stressful. Parenting is difficult under the best of circumstances and the effects
young woman's future (Raphael-Left, 1994). Sexual intercourse prior to adulthood and outside marriage has become the norm (Henshaw, 1998; The Guttmacher Institute, 1999a). While most teenagers report using contraceptives, 22% of sexually active teens become pregnant each year and up to 50% of those pregnancies end as termination (Darroch, Landry,
26
AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE OF MIDWIVES INCORPORATED
F~Ostak, 1999; Day et aL, 1999; Lindberg, Sonenstein,
American [iterature is also commonplace in Australia.
Ku, ~ Martinez, 1997). Once sexually active, teenage
Armed with greater information about teenage
women are at greater risk of experiencing an
mothers and their immediate sociat networks,
unplanned pregnancy (Henshaw, 1998) and acquiring a
inc[uding the fathers of their infants, midwives should
sexua[ty transmitted disease (The Guttmacher
be better abte to meet the unique needs of teenage
Institute, 1998). The majority of teenagers who give
c[ients. In addition, midwives would be we[[ placed to
birth are from disadvantaged families, have few
inform other practitioner groups (i.e. schoot nurses and
prospects for future development and the majority see
genera[ practitioners) about the educational needs of
little reason to detay childbearing (Donovan, 1997;
young women while they are still at school To that
Koniak-Griffin ~ Turner-P[uta, 2001).
end, this pilot study explored a previousty neglected
When pregnancy occurs, most teenagers experience a normal delivery, however, young mothers are significantty more likely to encounter adverse
area by developing a snapshot image of teenage mothers. In addition, the need for further in-depth research was examined.
pregnancy outcomes such as low birth weight, perinata[ death and pregnancy induced hypertension
M E T H O D 8: PROCEDURE
(Ade[son, et aL, 1992; Nassar et aL, 2000; NSW Hearth Department, 1995). A large proportion of teenage
This quantitative descriptive study aimed to gather
mothers experience social and economic hardships
persona[ and demographic information about teenage
(Fernandez, Ruch-Ross, ~ Montague, 1993; Mercer,
mothers. A non-representative convenience sampte of
1995), become social security recipients (The
teenage mothers aged 15 to 19 years were invited to
Guttmacher Institute, 1999a) and 25% wi[[ give birth to
participate. AIr had delivered heatthy infants at or
a second chitd within 2 years (The Guttmacher
near term and air resided in one regional centre in
Institute, 1998). In addition, the children of teenage
Queensland, Austratia. Participants were recruited by
mothers are predisposed to being the victim of child
invitation white attending a youth health centre; they
abuse (Kenny, 1995), failing to complete their high
were provided with detailed information about the
school education and becoming teenage parents
study, informed of their right to refuse to participate
themselves (Fetice, 1998).
as weir as their right to withdraw at any time. Only
Although much is known about teenage mothers and their babies, far less is known about the infant's father. American studies indicate that adult men are responsible for up to 50% of a[[ births to teenage mothers in that country (Landry ~ Forrest, 1995; Larson, Hussey, Gittmore, ~ Gi[christ, 1996; Taylor, Chavez, Chabra, ~ Boggess, 1997). When a large age difference exists between the teenager and her partner she is more likely to experience an unintended
Gi[tick competent teenage mothers, namely those able to understand the implications of their actions, were recruited (Forrester Et Griffiths, 2001; The British Council, 1999). Fuji ethics approval was obtained from Griffith University and the participating hearth centre and written informed consent was obtained. The mothers were surveyed on one occasion during the first six months postpartum and to protect their anonymity no identification codes were used.
pregnancy and, once pregnant, continuing the
A 40-item questionnaire was developed specifica[ty for
pregnancy rather than opting for a termination
this study. The toot was designed to gather persona[
(Darroch et aL, 1999). In age disparate relationships
and socio-demographic information about the mother,
the teenage mother's access to economic, social and
her infant and the father of her child. The
educationat resources may be limited (Fernandez et
questionnaire also asked mothers to evatuate the
a[., 1993) and contact with and support from the
support they received from the father of their child,
infant's father usuat[y decreases as time passes (Larson
their [eve[ of satisfaction with motherhood and their
et at., 1996; McVeigh, 2000). Although no dear
current quatity of life. Additiona[ questions about
definition of 'large age difference' or 'age disparate
contraceptive use, planned versus unplanned
relationships' is offered within the literature, concerns
pregnancy, participation in parenting programs and
have been raised about the potential for pressure and
current living arrangements were included. A pane[ of
abuse when the mate partner is significantly order than
midwifery experts reviewed the too[; content vatidity
the teenage mother (Darroch eta[., 1999; Landry
was confirmed. Due to the descriptive nature of the
Forrest, 1995).
too{ no further testing was carried at this time.
Since the long-term outcome for both the teenage
Data obtained was analysed using SPSS-PC (Statistical
mother and her infant can be unpredictable it is
Package for the Social Sciences Version 10) software.
important to know if the situation reported in the
Frequency distributions and descriptive statistics were
VOL 15
NO I
MARCH2002
27
used to describe the sampte. Exptoratory t-tests were used to determine emerging tends within the data.
Table 1: Maternal Characteristics No
%
15 yrs
3
10
16 yrs
2
7
Thirty teenage mothers were surveyed during the first
17 yrs
5
17
6 months for[owing the birth of their baby. The
18 yrs
I0
33
participants mean age was 17.7 years (range 15 to 19
19 yrs
I0
33
Angto-ce[tic
28
90
2
10
Primiparae
27
93
Muttigravid
2
7
< year 12
20
67
> year 12
10
33
RESULTS
years, sd 1.37) and 27 (90%) of the mothers were
Characteristics Age:
Ethnicity:
primiparas. Interestingly, ontyl6 (53%) had used contraceptives, just 8 (27%) used condoms when sexua[ty active and 23 (77%) had experienced an
AboHginat/TSSI Parity:
unplanned pregnancy. Despite the chance nature of their pregnancy, 25 (83%) said they were happy when
Education:
informed about the pregnancy, 22 (73%) attended chitdbirth and parenting education programs and 16
Return to Schoot:
(53%) continued to breast-feed their infant fottowing discharge from hospital Most of the respondents used a variety of resources when seeking information about
Emptoyment:
pregnancy, childbirth and parenting. Midwives, prenatat educators and their own parents were sources most frequently cited.
Income:
While onty 11 (37%) of the mothers rived with the father of their baby, not art-current relationships were with the bio[ogicat father of their chitd. Although most
Living Arrangements:
2
6
No/Undecided
28
94
Unemployed
28
93
Yes
Emptoyed
2
7
At School
0
0
< 510,000
18
67
51o,ooo~519,999
8
30
> 520,000
I
3
Atone
3
10
13
43
I
3
11
37
of the mothers (20130; 71%) had tess than 12 years of
With parents
education, only 2 were attending schoot and none of
Cummt boyfriend
the remaining mothers ptanned to return to schoot in
With infant's
the immediate future. In addition, 18 (67%) were sociat
father
security recipients and a[[ reported annual incomes of
Extended
less than 520,000 Australian. Of interest, most of the
family
2
7
None
14
47
mothers (25/30; 83%) believed their quality of life was
Contraceptive use:
good, 27 (90%) were very satisfied with motherhood,
Condom
8
27
however, most (27/30; 90%) reported being less than
OCP
7
23
satisfied with the support they received from the
Diaphragm
I
3
No.
%
father of their baby. See Table 1 for maternal characteristics. At( of the participants provided useful information
Table 2: Father's Characteristics
about the father of their infant. The fathers' mean age was 21 years (range 17 to 29 years, sd 3.10), most (23/
Factor:
30; 77%) were not teenagers themsetves and the
Age
17-19 yrs
7
23
greatest age difference in one relationship was 10
20-24 yrs
19
63
years. Many of the fathers (21/30; 72%) had not
25-29 yrs
4
14
< year 12
21
72
> year 12
9
28
compteted high school, 9 (30%) were currentty unemployed, 7 (23%) received sociat security benefits
Education:
and most (24127; 89%) reported annua[ incomes of tess than 529,000 Austratian. On average the fathers had
Employment:
known the teenage mothers for more than two years, however, most (19130; 63%) were absentee fathers
9
30
Employed
21
70
< 510,000
7
26
for[owing the birth of their child. Exptoratory anatysis
510,000 19,999
11
41
suggests that the fathers were significantly order than
520,000-29,999
6
22
the teenage mothers were (t=-6.74, df 29, p = 0.0001 ).
>530,000
3
11
See Tabte 2 for the father's characteristics.
28
Income
Unemptoyed
AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE OF MIDWIVES INCORPORATED
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
This pilot study examined available data in order to
Adelson, R, Frommer, M., Pym, M., 8: Rubin, G. (1992)
develop an image of Australian teenage mothers. Given
Teenage pregnancy and ferti[ity in New South Wales: An
the sample size, sampling techniques and because only
examination of fertility trends, abortion and birth
one youth centre participated, no attempt is made to
outcomes. Austra[ian Journal of Public Health. 16(3),
genera[ise these results. The results do however offer
238-244.
information not previously available in Australia and it supports the notion that further investigations are warranted. Discovering that so few of these young women used contraceptives, and tess than a third used condoms as a barrier method of choice, is alarming. Although these results are similar to those reported for the United
Brown, B. (2000) U.S. births rise for the first time in eight years; births to teenagers stilt fatting. Family Planning Perspectives. 32(5), 263-264. Darroch, J., Landry, D., ~t Ostak, S. (1999) Pregnancy rates among U.S. women and their partners in 1994. Family Planning Perspectives. 31(3), 122-126 ~t 136.
States (The Guttmacher Institute, 1999b); clinically it
Day, R, SulLivan, E., Ford, J., ~ Lancaster, R (1999)
is of concern that so few of the young women and their
AustraLian mothers and babies 1997. AIH Cat. No. PER
partners protect themselves against STDs and an
12. Sydney: AIHW National Perinata[ Statistics Unit
unplanned pregnancy. White this may be typical risk
(Perinata[ Statistics Series No. 9).
taking behaviour for this age group much more
Donovan, R (1997) Can statutory rape taws be effective
information is needed to improve our understanding
in preventing adolescent pregnancy? Family Planning
about why some young women protect themselves and others do not.
Perspectives. 29(1), 30-34.
Finding that the fathers were older than the teenage
babies. [On Line]. http: //hhd.csun.edu/sheitia/436/
mothers was not unexpected, however, discovering
lecture1001 .htm[
that more than three quarters of the men were themselves not teenagers and only one third were resident fathers is noteworthy. Similar to previous findings (Landry Et Forrest, 1995; Larson et at., 1996; Taylor et at., 1997) these results suggest that young
Fetice, M. (1998) Fact sheet on adolescents who have
Fernandez, M., Ruch-Ross, H., Et Montague, A. (1993) Ethnicity and effects of age gap between unmarried adolescent mothers and partners. Journal of Adolescent Research. 8(4), 439-466.
women in Australia, like their American counterparts,
Forrester, K., ft Griffiths, D. (2001) Essential of taw for
may engage in unprotected sexual activities with men
health professionals. Sydney: Harcourt.
years older than themselves. Once pregnant, Australian
Henshaw, S. (1998) Unintended pregnancy in the United
teenage mothers may also be at risk of the same [eve[
States. Family Planning Perspectives. 30(1), 24-29 Et 26.
of socioeconomic and educational disadvantage reported by Koniak-Griffin and Turner-Pluta (2001).
Kenny, D. (1995) Adolescent pregnancy in Australia. In D. Kenny ~ R. Job (Eds.). Australia's adolescents: A
Sexual relationships between adult mates and younger
health psychology perspective (pp. 239-245). Armidate,
teenage women may be more commonplace in
Australia: University of New England Press.
Australia than previously anticipated. What, if anything, engaging in such relationships means longterm to teenage mothers and their infants remains unknown? Due to this study's [imitations it seems important to gain a better understanding of why these
Koniak-Griffin, D., ft Turner-Ptuta, C. (2001) Health risks and psychosociat outcomes of early childbearing: A review of the literature. Journal of Perinata[ and Neonatal Nursing. 15(1), 1-17.
relationships develop and ultimately what impact, if
Landry, D., & Forrest, J. (1995) How old are U.S.
any, they may have on the young woman's future
fathers? Family Planning Perspectives. 27(4) 159-165.
opportunities. Clearly further research is needed to
Larson, N., Hussey, J., Giltmore, M., ~t Oitchrist, L.
determine if the findings presented here are upheld by a national study. White we await the results from that
(1996) What about Dad? Fathers of children born to school-age mothers. Families in Society. 77(5), 279-289.
investigation it is important for midwives to continue to offer safer sex and pregnancy prevention
Lindberg, L., Sonenstein, F., Ku, L., Et Martinez, G.
information to their clients through schools and medical practitioners.
and their adult partners. Family Planning Perspectives.
(1997) Age differences between minors who give birth 29(2), 61-66.
VOL 15
NO I
MARCH 2002
29
McVeigh, C. (2000) Investigating the retationship between satisfaction with social support and functional status after childbirth. The American Journa[ of
Book Review
Materna[/Chitd Nursing. 25(I ), 25-30. Mercer, R. (1995) Becoming a mother: Research on maternal identity from Rubin to the present. New York: Springer Pubiishing. Nassar, N., Suitivan, E., Lancaster, P., E Day, P. (2000) Austratian mothers and babies 1998. AIH Cat. No. PER 15. Sydney: AIHW Nationa[ Perinata[ Statistics Unit (Perinata[ Statistics Series No. 10). NSW Department of Hearth. (1995). Midwives Data Coitection: Pubtic health buttetin (Vot. 7, No. $I). Raphae[-Leff, J. (1994)Psychotogica[ processesof chitdbearing. London: Chapman Et Hail. Shaefer, S., Et Emeriing, J. (1997) Homebound pregnant adolescents. Home Heaith Care Management Et Practice. 9(3), 23-32. Siedtecky, S. (1996) Teenage pregnancy: What is
GIVING SORROW WORDS Women's stories of grief
happening? On The Road. 4(2), 3-8.
after abortion
Taytor, D., Chavez, G., Chabra, A., Ft Boggess, J. (1997) Risk factors for adult paternity in births to ado[escents. Obstetrics Et Gynecology. 89(2), 199-205. The British Council (1999) Chitdren's rights: a nationa[ and international perspective. [On Line] www.britcoun.org/governance/jusrig/human/chitdrig/ crO2a.htm[
Metinda Tankard Reist (2000) Duffy E Snettgrove, Potts Point ,519.95
This is a very sad book. Sad for two reasons, the first is that these women are so traumatised and that they regret their decisions. The second reason is more insidious and it is that the author has assumed that
The Guttmacher Institute. (1998) Teen sex and pregnancy. Author. [On Line] www.agi-usa.org/pubs/fbteen-sex.htm[
women are not abte to make 'informed' decisions and
The Guttmacher Institute. (1999a) Teenage pregnancy and the welfare reform debate. Author. [On Line] www.agi-usa.org/pubs/ibS.htm[
Those of you who are anti-abortion wi[[ appiaud this
The Guttmacher Institute. (1999b) Teen sex and pregnancy. Author. [On Line] www.agi-usa.org/pubs
concerned and disturbed with the assumptions and lack
so are victims of their partners, relatives, and the medical and regal systems.
book and feel that it is an affirmation of a[[ that you beJieve. Those of you who are pro-choice wi[[ be of any criticat analysis that it makes. This book is ciearty anti-abortion and it would appear, that there are targe numbers of women who are suffering post traumatic stress because they were coerced into having a procedure that they did not want. This is despite rigorous research which shows that most women who have abortions believe that their choice was the correct one. We must remember that there are occasions in our lives that we make decisions that we do regret and sometimes these decisions are very profound. An exampte of such a decision is deciding to drive when under the influence of drugs and/or aicohot and the driver is responsible for killing one or more people. What is significant with these women's stories is that they were air coerced into having abortions by either
30
AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE OF MIDWIVES INCORPORATED