Test of a mediation model of perceived organizational support

Journal of Vocational Behavior 66 (2005) 457–470 www.elsevier.com/locate/jvb

Test of a mediation model of perceived organizational support夽 Zhen Xiong Chen,a,¤ Samuel Aryee,b,1 and Cynthia Leec,2 b

a School of Business and Government, University of Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia Department of Management, Hong Kong Baptist University, 34 Renfrew Road, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong c 304 Hayden Hall, College of Business Administration Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA

Received 19 June 2003 Available online 25 June 2004

Abstract This study examined the mediating inXuence of trust in organization (TIO) and organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) on the relationship between perceived organization support (POS) and its work outcomes. Data were obtained from employee–supervisor dyads from multiple organizations located in a major city in southern China. Structural equation modeling results revealed that: (a) POS related to TIO and OBSE and (b) TIO and OBSE fully mediated the relationship between POS and the work outcomes of organizational commitment and in-role performance, but partially mediated the POS–organizational citizenship behavior relationship.  2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Perceived organization support; Trust in organization; Organization-based self-esteem; Organizational commitment; Performance

1. Introduction Much research on the employment relationship is predicated on the view that it constitutes an employee’s trade of eVort and loyalty for tangible beneWts (e.g., pay) 夽 The earlier version of this paper was presented at Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Seattle, USA, 1–6 August, 2003. ¤ Corresponding author. Fax: +61-2-6201-5239. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Z.X. Chen), [email protected] (S. Aryee), [email protected] (C. Lee). 1 Fax: +852-3411-5583. 2 Fax: 1-617-373-2491.

0001-8791/$ - see front matter  2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2004.01.001

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and social rewards (e.g., self-esteem) obtained from the organization (March & Simons, 1958; Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982). This view dovetails with social exchange theory which explains the formation and maintenance of interpersonal relationships in terms of the reciprocation of valued resources between two interacting individuals (Blau, 1964; Gouldner, 1960). Increasingly, social exchange theory has provided the conceptual lens with which to view the employment relationship. A major social exchange mechanism in an organizational context is perceived organizational support (POS). Eisenberger and his associates (Eisenberger, Fasolo, & Davis – LaMastro, 1990; Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986) coined the term POS to describe employees’ “global beliefs concerning the extent to which the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being.” A steady stream of research has since provided evidence linking POS to myriad employee work outcomes such as organizational commitment, job satisfaction, reduced turnover, job performance, and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) (Eisenberger et al., 1990: Moorman, Blakely, & NiehoV, 1998; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002; Settoon, Bennett, & Liden, 1996; Wayne, Shore, & Liden, 1997). However, much of this research adopted a direct or main eVect approach prompting Armeli, Eisenberger, Fasolo, and Lynch (1998, p. 289) to comment that “less attention has been given to the mechanisms presumed to underlie the positive relationship between POS and work-related outcomes.” Since Armeli et al.’s (1998) observation, only a few studies have examined the mechanisms that underpin the relationship between POS and its demonstrated work outcomes. Eisenberger, Armeli, Rexwinkel, Lynch, and Rhoades (2001) and Whitener (2001) reported support for the social exchange-based mediators of felt obligation and trust in management, respectively. The importance of the employee–organization relationship in a changing employment context coupled with the demonstrated outcomes of POS (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002) suggest a need for research to continue to examine the mechanisms through which POS inXuences these work outcomes. Accordingly, the current study examined the mediating inXuences of trust in organization (TIO) and organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) on the relationship between POS and the work outcomes of organizational commitment, in-role performance, and OCB. The hypothesized mediators stem from the organization’s treatment of its employees. As indicators of the quality of the employee–organization relationship, they are more proximal to the work outcomes and should therefore mediate the relationship between POS and the work outcomes examined in the current study. Although much research on POS has been done in the West, research on POS in collectivistic cultures is still very limited (Yoon & Lim, 1999). Accordingly, we conducted the current study in China to ascertain the applicability of POS theory to the Eastern collectivistic cultures.

2. Literature review and hypotheses As noted earlier, POS has been found to be related to myriad employee work outcomes (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Based on the extant literature, we expect POS

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to be related to the work outcomes of organizational commitment, in-role performance and OCB. This is because the organization’s favorable treatment of employees engenders feelings of obligation to reciprocate or equalize the exchange by demonstrating positive work attitudes and behaviors that beneWt the organization. The positive association between POS and work outcomes may come from the emotional resources provided by the work context. Kahn (1993) suggests that the extent to which co-workers are care-givers or care-seekers relative to one another shapes their abilities to perform their roles eVectively. To the extent that the organization cares to fulWll employees’ needs, promoting their best interests, and valuing their contribution, employees develop trust and self-worth that are beneWcial to the organization. 2.1. The mediating role of trust in organization Trust has been deWned as a “psychological state comprising the intention to accept vulnerability based upon positive expectations of the intention or behavior of another” (Rousseau, Sitkin, Burt, & Camerer, 1998). Employees have been noted to distinguish between two trust referents (a) speciWc individuals or groups (e.g., supervisor and co-workers) and (b) generalized representatives (e.g., employer). Research that has focused on the latter has used trust in management and trust in employer or organization interchangeably (Whitener, 1997). POS and trust in organization (TIO) represent distinct but related constructs. POS stems from the tendency of employees to ascribe dispositional traits to the organization (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Levinson, 1965). Consequently, the favorable treatment employees receive at the hands of representatives of the organization are ascribed to the organization and interpreted as evidence of the organization’s care and concern about their well-being. As reciprocal acts of beneWt which are not negotiated, social exchange entails risk and uncertainty because the exchange partner might never or only minimally reciprocate beneWts received. This makes trust an essential condition for the establishment of social exchange. Blau (1964, p. 94) noted that “since there is no way to assure an appropriate return for a favor, social exchange requires trusting others to discharge their obligations.” Eisenberger et al. (1990, p. 57) argued that POS “creates trust that the organization will fulWll its exchange obligation of noticing and rewarding employee eVorts made on its behalf.” Whitener (2001) reported POS to be related to trust in management. An organization’s care and concern about the well-being of an employee will convey information about the organization’s benevolence and goodwill leading to perceptions of its trustworthiness in the eyes of the employee. We therefore, expect POS to be related to trust in organization. Hypothesis 1a. POS relates positively to trust in organization. Informed by the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960), Dirks and Ferrin (2002) posited a relationship-oriented explanation of the inXuence of trust on employee work outcomes. They argued that a relationship-oriented explanation is based on an individual’s willingness to reciprocate care and consideration expressed by a focal partner. Accordingly, employees who perceive the organization as demonstrating

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care and consideration for their well-being reciprocate this sentiment in the form of positive work outcomes that beneWt the organization. TIO has been shown to be positively related to organizational commitment and OCB (Aryee, Budhwar, & Chen, 2002; Gopinath & Becker, 2000; Robinson, 1996; Whitener, 2001). Given that a social exchange relationship is characterized by mutual loyalty, good-will and support, and as a manifestation of social exchange, we expect trust in organization to mediate the relationship between POS and the work outcomes examined (cf., Konovsky & Pugh, 1994). Hypothesis 1b. TIO mediates the relationship between POS and the work outcomes of organizational commitment, in-role performance and OCB. 2.2. The mediating role of OBSE Following the suggestion that the power of an attitude to predict a behavior is a function of how closely that attitude is related to the act in question (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Tharenou, 1979), Pierce, Gardner, Cummings, and Dunham (1989) developed and validated an organization-speciWc measure of self-esteem (OBSE). They deWned OBSE as the “self-perceived value that individuals have of themselves as organization members acting within an organizational context” (Pierce et al., 1989, p. 625) . Individuals with high OBSE perceive themselves as trusted, valued, and contributing members of the organization. A feature of the work environment that may inXuence OBSE is the organization’s treatment of its employees and the identity relevant information that such a treatment communicates to the employee. The reXected appraisal stemming from an employee’s organizational treatment provide the “integrated experiential base upon which employee beliefs about self-worth, including OBSE, develop” (McAllister & Bigley, 2001). Further, Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) proposed that POS may contribute to an employee’s feeling of competence and worth, and by implication OBSE. Following the preceding logic, we expect POS to be related to OBSE. Hypothesis 2a. POS relates positively to OBSE. Although the motivational underpinning of the inXuence of POS on its demonstrated work outcomes has been explicated in terms of social exchange theory (Eisenberger et al., 2002), the self-concept has also been shown to provide the motivational underpinning of work outcomes (Brief & Aldag, 1981; Gecas, 1982; Korman, 1970; Leonard, Beauvais, & Scholl, 1999; Shamir, 1991). As a self-concept based motivational theory, OBSE has been found to be related to job performance, citizenship behavior (Chattopadhyay, 1999; Pierce et al., 1989; Van Dyne, Vandewalle, Kostova, Latham, & Cummings, 2000), and organizational commitment (Pierce et al., 1989). The inXuence of OBSE on its demonstrated outcomes has been explicated in terms of the fundamental need of human beings to maintain or enhance the phenomenal self. High OBSE individuals are likely to develop and maintain positive work attitudes and to exhibit a high level of job performance. As a primary source of their self-

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concept, high OBSE individuals will attach a high value to organizational membership leading to high levels of organizational commitment. Similarly, consistent with their self-concept as valued and contributing members of the organization, high OBSE individuals will be more motivated to perform at high levels and to engage in citizenship behaviors. POS constitutes a situational characteristic that translates into OBSE, which in turn, serves as a motivational underpinning of the work outcomes examined in this study. Hypothesis 2b. OBSE mediates the relationship between POS and the work outcomes of organizational commitment, in-role performance and OCB.

3. Method 3.1. Sample and procedure Respondents were employees of multiple organizations enrolled in a part-time MBA program oVered by a premier Chinese university located in a major city in a southern province of the People’s Republic of China. Program instructors distributed questionnaire packages to respondents. Each respondent was also requested to forward a separate questionnaire package to his/her immediate supervisor. A cover letter was attached to both subordinate and supervisor questionnaires explaining the objectives of the survey and providing an assurance of the conWdentiality of responses. Stamped self-addressed envelopes were provided for returning completed questionnaires to the instructors. A total of 217 completed questionnaires were received from subordinates and 192 from supervisors representing a response rate of 72.3 and 64%, respectively. After deleting records of unmatched supervisor–subordinate pairs, a total of 190 supervisor–subordinate dyads remained and constituted the sample for this study. Of the 190 respondents, 55.2% were men, the average age was 29.52 years (SD D 4.57), the average organizational tenure was 5.31 years (SD D 4.57) and the average dyad tenure was 3.61 years (SD D 6.53). Respondents reported an average of 15 years education and represented diverse occupational backgrounds such as accounting/Wnance (11%), sales/marketing (19.4%), consumer services (12.6%), human resources/administration (14.7%), production/manufacturing (10.5%), research and development (7.3%), and computer systems/engineering (4.6%) while 19% did not indicate their occupational background. The supervisors reported an average of 34.60 years (SD D 7.32), 15.94 years of education (SD D 1.57), and 7.21 years of organizational tenure (SD D 6.95). Twenty-four percentage of them were Wrst line supervisors, 56.8% middle managers, and 17.7% top managers. Sixty-nine percentage of the supervisors were men. 3.2. Measures The survey instrument was in Chinese but was initially constructed in English. To assure equivalence of the measures in the Chinese and English versions, the survey

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instrument was translated into Chinese and then back translated independently into English (Brislin, 1980) by three experienced bilingual researchers. The back translation procedure helped insure an accurate prose translation that was de-centred from a literal English language translation (Werner & Campbell, 1970). 3.2.1. POS A 9-item shortened version of the Survey of Perceived Organizational Support (Eisenberger et al., 1990; Wayne, Shore, Bommer, & Tetrick, 2002) was used to measure POS. Response options ranged from (1) ‘strongly disagree’ to (5) ‘strongly agree.’ Sample items include “My organization really cares about my well-being” and “Help is available from my organization when I have a problem.” The scale’s
reliability of .91 in this study compares favorably to the .92 reported by Wayne et al. (2002). 3.2.2. OBSE A 10-item scale developed by Pierce et al. (1989) was used to measure OBSE. Response options ranged from (1) ‘strongly disagree’ to (7) ‘strongly agree.’ Sample items are “I count around here” and “I am taken seriously around here.” The scale’s
reliability in this study is .91. 3.2.3. Trust in organization A 7-item scale by Gabarro and Athos (1978) was used to measure TIO. Response options ranged from (1) ‘strongly disagree’ to (7) ‘strongly agree.’ Sample items are “My employer is open and frank with me” and “I can expect my employer to treat me in a consistent and predictable manner.” The scale’s
reliability in this study is .93. 3.2.4. In-role performance A 4-item scale by Farh and Cheng (1999) was used to measure in-role performance. Response options ranged from (1) ‘strongly disagree’ to (7) ‘strongly agree.’ Sample items are “This subordinate makes an important contribution to the overall performance of our work unit” and “This subordinate can always fulWll the jobs assigned by the supervisor in time.” The scale’s
reliability in this study is .87. 3.2.5. Organizational citizenship behavior We focused on the OCB dimensions of boosterism and conscientiousness because they reXect our interest in organizationally directed citizenship behaviors (Masterson, Lewis, Goldman, & Taylor, 2000). Two separate 3-item scales by Farh, Earley, and Lin (1997) were used to measure conscientiousness and boosterism (labeled as identiWcation in Farh et al.’s study) dimensions of OCB. Farh et al’s multidimensional OCB scale was developed in Taiwan but has since been shown to have adequate psychometric properties in the PRC (Chen & Francesco, 2003; Chen, Tsui, & Farh, 2002; Hui, Law, & Chen, 1999). Response options ranged from (1) ‘strongly disagree’ to (7) ‘strongly agree.’ A sample item for conscientiousness is “This subordinate complies with company rules and procedures even when nobody watches and

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no evidence can be traced” and for boosterism is “This subordinate makes constructive suggestions that can improve the operation of the company.” The
reliability for conscientiousness is .79 and for boosterism is .80. 3.2.6. Organizational commitment An 8-item scale by Allen and Meyer (1990) was used to measure the aVective component of organizational commitment. Response options ranged from (1) ‘strongly disagree’ to (7) ‘strongly agree.’ Sample items are “I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own” and “I feel emotionally attached to this organization.” The scale’s
reliability in this study is .87. 3.3. Data analysis A two-step procedure involving conWrmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Medsker, Williams, & Holohan, 1994) was employed to test the hypotheses. In the Wrst step, we conducted CFA to examine the distinctiveness of the variables used in the study. In the second step, we used a model comparison procedure to evaluate our structural models. Given the small sample size relative to the measurement items, we adopted procedures used by previous researchers to reduce the number of items (Bagozzi & Heatherton, 1994; Brooke et al., 1988). We reduced the number of items by creating three indicators for each construct. Scores for each indicator were then computed as the mean of the scores on the items that constituted each indicator. Data with listwise deletion of missing values were used for the LISREL analysis resulting in a Wnal sample size of 186. In conducting the CFA, we compared a 7-factor model with three 6-factor models (6-factor Model 1 to Model 3), a 5-factor model, a 1-factor model, and a null model. In the 7-factor Model, Wve constructs and two sub-constructs (OCB consists of two sub-constructs, conscientiousness and boosterism) were treated as seven independent factors. In the 6-factor Model 1, POS and OBSE items were loaded on one factor. In the 6-factor Model 2, POS and TIO items were loaded on one factor. In the 6-factor Model 3, the two OCB dimensions (conscientiousness and boosterism) were loaded on one factor. In the 5-factor Model, in-role performance, conscientiousness, and boosterism items were loaded on one factor. In the 1-factor Model, all variables studied were loaded on one factor. To test the hypothesized mediating role of OBSE and TIO, we Wrst assessed the following conditions for mediation: (a) the independent variable must be related to the mediator; (b) the independent variable must be related to the dependent variable; (c) the mediator must be related to the dependent variable; and (d) the independent variable must have no eVect on the dependent variable when the mediator is held constant (full mediation) or should become signiWcantly smaller (partial mediation) (Baron & Kenny, 1986). We compared four partially mediated models with the hypothesized fully mediated model to examine the fourth condition of mediation. To assess model Wt, we used the overall model chi-square measure (2), the Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI, Tucker & Lewis, 1973), the goodness-of-Wt index (GFI,

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Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993), the comparative Wt index (CFI, Bentler, 1990), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA, Browne & Cudeck, 1993).

4. Results Table 1 presents the CFA results. As shown in that table, the Wt indices revealed support for the hypothesized 7-factor model suggesting support for the distinctiveness of the constructs used in this study. Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations of the variables studied. As shown in that table, POS, OBSE, and TIO were related to the outcome variables in the expected direction. To test the hypothesized model, we Wrst assessed the conditions of mediation (cf., Prussia & Kinicki, 1996, p. 192). First, correlation coeYcients indicated that POS was signiWcantly correlated with all three work outcomes (see Table 2). Second, baseline structural or hypothesized model results showed that POS signiWcantly inXuenced Table 1 The results of CFA

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Models

2

df

TLI

CFI

GFI

RMSEA

1-Factor Model 5-Factor Model 6-Factor Model 1 6-Factor Model 2 6-Factor Model 3 7-Factor Model

1337.51 335.20 274.93 507.99 271.89 208.63

170 160 155 155 155 149

.49 .92 .94 .83 .94 .97

.54 .93 .95 .86 .95 .98

.50 .84 .87 .75 .87 .90

.230 .078 .062 .130 .065 .043

Note. In the 7-factor Model, Wve constructs and two sub-constructs (OCB consists of two sub-constructs, conscientiousness and boosterism) were treated as seven independent factors. In the 6-factor Model 1, POS and OBSE items were loaded on one factor. In the 6-factor Model 2, POS and TIO items were loaded on one factor. In the 6-factor Model 3, the two OCB dimensions (conscientiousness and boosterism) were loaded on one factor. In the 5-factor Model, in-role performance, conscientiousness, and boosterism items were loaded on 1-factor. In the 1-factor Model, all variables studied were loaded on 1-factor.

Table 2 Means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Variables

M

SD

POS OBSE TIO In–role performance Conscientiousness (OCB) Boosterism (OCB) Organizational commitment

2.88 4.58 4.56 5.03 5.15 4.96 4.27

.73 .91 1.16 1.08 1.03 1.03 .80

1 [.91] .60** .64** .33** .30** .35** .58**

Note. N D 186. Figures in parentheses are
reliabilities. p 0 .01.

**

2 [.91] .48** .35** .27** .38** .44**

3

[.93] .32** .25** .35** .67**

4

[.87] .67** .62** .31**

5

[.79] .57** .23**

6

7

[.80] .35** [.87]

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Table 3 Results of model comparisons

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Models

2

df

TLI

CFI

GFI

RMSEA

Model 1 (Hypothesized fully mediated model) Model 2 (Partially mediated model A)a Model 3 (Partially mediated model B)b Model 4 (Partially mediated model C)c Model 5 (Partially mediated model D)d

266.37 284.34 263.75 261.15 214.91

160 156 157 158 159

.95 .94 .95 .95 .97

.96 .95 .96 .96 .98

.88 .87 .87 .88 .90

.054 .060 .058 .051 .040

Note. N D 186. TLI, Tucker–Lewis index; CFI, comparative Wt index; GFI, goodness of Wt index; and RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation. a In comparison to Model 1 (Hypothesized fully mediated model), Model 2 (Partially mediated model A) adds paths from POS to four outcomes, i.e., organizational commitment, in-role performance, boosterism, and conscientiousness. b Model 3 (Partially mediated model B) adds paths from POS to in-role performance, boosterism, and conscientiousness. c Model 4 (Partially mediated model C) adds paths from POS to two boosterism and conscientiousness. d Model 5 (Partially mediated model D) adds path from POS to conscientiousness.

the hypothesized mediators (OBSE and TIO) providing support for Hypothesis 1a and Hypothesis 2a (see Fig. 1). The third condition was also satisWed as the results showed that OBSE and TIO signiWcantly inXuenced the three work outcomes. To evaluate the fourth condition for mediation, we compared the Wt of four partial mediating models to our hypothesized model. As shown in Table 3, the Wt indices revealed partially mediated model D to be our best Wtting model indicating partial support for Hypothesis 1a and Hypothesis 1b. Fig. 1 presents the LISREL estimates for the paths in the best Wtting model. As shown in that Wgure, OBSE and TIO fully mediated the relationship between POS and the three work outcomes of organizational commitment, in-role performance, and boosterism. However, OBSE and TIO partially mediated the relationship between POS and conscientiousness.

5. Discussion This study examined the mediating role of TIO and OBSE in the relationship between POS and employee work outcomes in China. Consistent with social exchange formulations, POS related positively to TIO (Whitener, 2001). The favorable treatment that employees receive from the organization constitutes an opportunity for the organization not only to initiate a social exchange relationship with its employees but, also to demonstrate its trustworthiness in the eyes of employees. Blau (1964, pp. 94) argued that “Only social exchange tends to engender feelings of personal obligations, gratitude and trust, purely economic exchange as such does not.” The Wndings further revealed that POS related positively to OBSE suggesting that the experience of being valued by the organization and being favorably treated increases

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Fig. 1. Estimated path coeYcients of the hypothesized model. POS, perceived organizational support; TIO, trust in organization; OBSE, organization-based self-esteem; and OCB, organizational citizenship behavior. *p 0 .05 and **p 0 .01.

one’s feeling of self-worth in the context of work (Pierce et al., 1989). The messages inherent in the organization’s favorable treatment of its employees constitute reXected appraisal as to who they are (Gecas, 1982; Rosenberg, 1979) or the extent to which they are valued leading to OBSE. The present Wnding indicates that organizational support of and care for the employee whether conceptualized at the organizational level as organizational care or at the individual level as POS, represents a “fundamental contextual source of OBSE” (McAllister & Bigley, 2001). Consistent with the extant literature (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002), our Wndings further revealed POS to be related to the work outcomes examined. This suggests that employees reciprocate the organization’s favorable treatment by incorporating organizational membership and role status into their social identity as well as engaging in behaviors that promote trust and OBSE. Trust in organization leads employees to promote the well-being of the organization through positive work outcomes, thereby, cementing the establishment of a social exchange relationship with the employing organization. It is noteworthy that TIO fully mediated the POS and organizational commitment relationship, while Eisenberger et al. (2001) reported that felt obligation partially mediated the POS–organizational commitment relationship. However, consistent with the mediating inXuence of TIO in the present study, Eisenberger et al. (2001) reported that felt obligation fully mediated the relationship between POS and the behavioral outcomes of in-role performance and organizational spontaneity, an extra-role behavior. Consistent with our expectations and Pierce et al.’s (1989) Wndings, OBSE related to the work outcomes examined. Further, with the exception of conscientiousness,

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OBSE fully mediated the POS–work outcome relationships. Support for the mediating inXuence of OBSE is explicable in terms of cognitive consistency theory, which posits that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that are consistent with their self-concept (Brockner, 1988; Korman, 1970). The mediating inXuence of OBSE in the present study and positive aVectivity in the Eisenberger et al.’s (2001) study, suggest a need to integrate self-concept theory into explanations of the relationship between POS and its demonstrated work outcomes. Beyond the mediated inXuence of POS on the work outcomes, the results revealed a direct relationship between POS and conscientiousness. The POS–conscientiousness relationship may stem from the potential of POS to satisfy the self-esteem needs of employees which not only enhances their identiWcation with the organization but also their willingness to go beyond the call of duty in their task performance. As with any research, the present one has a number of limitations. A Wrst limitation is the cross-sectional design which means that cause–eVect relations cannot be inferred from our Wndings. For example, OBSE and the behavioral outcomes may be reciprocally related. Perhaps because employees engage in these behaviors, they may come to perceive themselves as valued and contributing members of the organization. Future research that employs a longitudinal design may be better placed to ascertain the causal basis of the relationships examined in this study. A second limitation is the possibility of method variance inXating the relationships between the self-report measures. This is because, with the exception of the behavioral outcomes which were based on supervisor ratings, all other measures were based on self-reports. Since these measures reXect individual perceptions, it is diYcult to obtain data on them from sources other than the respondents. The CFA results, however, revealed the measures to be distinct which should minimize concerns about method variance. Further Crampton and Wagner (1994) provided evidence to suggest that percept–percept inXation is not as severe as is generally claimed. A third limitation is our failure to control for the eVects of other social exchange mechanisms for example, leader–member exchange (LMX). There is research evidence in both individualist and collectivist societies that LMX is better able to predict supervisorrelated than organization-related outcomes (Hui, Lee, & Rousseau, 2004; Wayne et al., 2002). Given that in-role performance may also represent a supervisor-related outcome, future research should include social exchange processes at both levels if we are to unambiguously explain the motivational underpinnings of myriad behavioral outcomes. A Wnal limitation is the use of part-time MBA students which makes it impossible to control for such contextual variables as size and nature of task. This limitation is, however, counterbalanced by the use of employees from multiple organizations which enhances the generalizability of our Wndings. These limitations notwithstanding, the present Wndings provide support for the generalizability of POS theory to a collectivist, relationship-centered cultural context. SpeciWcally, it replicated the demonstrated inXuence of POS on the employee work outcomes of organizational commitment, in-role performance and OCB. Further and more importantly, the Wndings provide an explanation for why POS is related to these work outcomes. Support for the mediational role of TIO and OBSE highlight the motivational underpinnings of the POS–work outcome relationships. Lastly, the

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