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The 2009 South Pacific Tsunami
Earth-Science Reviews 107 (2011) v–vii
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Earth-Science Reviews j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / e a r s c i r ev
Editorial
The 2009 South Pacific Tsunami
A central South Pacific, region-wide tsunami causing 192 deaths and severe damage was triggered by an unprecedented earthquake doublet (Mw 8.1 and Mw 8.0) between about 17:48:11 and 17:50:01 UTC on September 29, 2009 (UN OCHA, 2009; Beavan et al., 2010; Lay et al., 2010). The first earthquake of the doublet was located at 15.51°S, 172.03°W. The second earthquake of the doublet was composed of two sub-events, the first at 15.75°S, 172.25°W, the second at 16.0°S, 172.25°W — their combined Moment Magnitude was equivalent to Mw 8.0. The tsunami seriously impacted the islands of Upolu, Manono and Savai'i in Samoa; Tutuila, the main island of American Samoa, Niuatoputapu, one of the most northerly of the islands of Tonga, Wallis and Futuna, as well as numerous locations in the central South Pacific. Wave heights (peak-to-trough) were recorded at many tide gauges including 314 cm at Pago Pago (American Samoa); 140 cm at Apia (Samoa); 47 cm at Rarotonga and 8 cm at Penrhyn (Cook Islands); 14 cm at Nuku'alofa (Tonga) and 11 cm at Papeete (French Polynesia) (USGS, 2011). Since the epicentres were located just over 100 km from the south coast of Upolu, Samoa, the tsunami arrived on shore in less than 15 min. This tsunami was significant because it was the most destructive region-wide event in the South Pacific for many years; it was the first event to take the lives of United States citizens on US soil in 34 years; the event reminded us that significant tsunamis occur in a region that covers one third of the earth's surface, is surrounded by tsunamigenic sources and for which we have little knowledge about the long-term frequency and magnitude (Goff et al., 2011a); and because for the first time, this event was followed by a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization–Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (UNESCO–IOC) immediate post-tsunami survey that deliberately set out to use a new approach for conducting surveys (see below). International Tsunami Survey Teams (ITSTs) are frequently deployed to conduct rapid post-event assessments (Satake et al., 1993; McSaveney et al., 2000; Borrero, 2005; Fritz et al., 2007). ITSTs have traditionally been composed of experts from single disciplines (e.g., numerical modellers, or geologists, or engineers) interested in gathering data for their particular field of expertise. Most ITSTs have worked according to ‘standard’ field-survey protocols and some under the structural function and auspices of the UNESCO–IOC. For a variety of reasons there has never been a coordinated, multidisciplinary, multi-sectoral, UNESCO–IOC assessment of the impacts and effects of a tsunami. Further, there have never been any attempts in the immediate aftermath of an event to identify those factors that contributed to the vulnerability and resilience of affected communities and their associated biophysical systems (their ‘socio-ecological systems’) despite calls for such approaches (Adger et al., 2005; Calgaro and Lloyd, 2008). Similarly, ITSTs have never attempted to 0012-8252/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.03.006
integrate multi-sectoral assessments in to a single ‘statement’ about the nature and effects of the tsunami they are studying. This is a pity since the disaster risk reduction (DRR) literature identifies the value that arises from multi-sectoral analyses as part of a ‘coupled human– environment system’ (CHES) approach (Turner et al., 2003; Adger et al., 2005; Huppert and Sparks, 2006; Sieh, 2006; Calgaro and Lloyd, 2008) and that in the immediate post-tsunami emergency phase, governments of affected countries urgently require information about the event to better plan short-term response and recovery actions, and enhance their long-term community DRR practice (UNISDR, 2009). Thus, to date, a great opportunity has been lost. The papers produced in this special issue of Earth-Science Reviews reflect the work of two main groups of researchers studying the 2009 South Pacific Tsunami; a co-ordinated, multi-national, multi-sectoral International Tsunami Survey Team (ITST) operating under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization–International Oceanographic Commission (UNESCOIOC) — “UNESCO–IOC ITST Samoa”, and a number of US researchers (US team) some of whom were partly associated with the multinational team but all of whom worked under the ‘standard’ fieldsurvey protocols of the UNESCO-IOC. A small New Zealand team (NZ team) was also partially associated with the UNESCO-IOC group. Tsunamis are both a natural process that plays out within the earth system and a hazard to humans. Therefore to examine tsunamis as a process separate from the ‘coupled-biophysical-human landscapes’ framework in which they occur means that a great deal of potential understanding and insight is lost. Such frameworks provide powerful constructions for exploring the hazard and its effects. However, coupled human–environment systems do not provide specific tools to identify, analyse and quantify particular elements of the hazard problem. Therefore, we use the risk management process to provide the tools missing from the framework through investigations of the hazard, exposure, vulnerability, loss and mitigation. In essence, the work presented in this special issue represents the majority of the elements of the risk management process through which the ‘coupled human–environment systems framework’ operates as an overarching reference for exploring the hazard of tsunamis. While recognising the need to better reflect a CHES approach the work presented here is still dominated by an earth science focus. This is understandable as we shift into the unfamiliar territory of new multidisciplinary groupings, but the incorporation of work from a wide range of related disciplines is indicative of the direction that earth science is taking to address the needs of the community. The publishers of Earth-Science Reviews are thanked for recognising the value of such work. The bulk of papers centre on earth science investigations of the 2009 South Pacific tsunami (SPT), placing it within a wider regional
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context — the hazard component. There are two distinct groupings, those that look at the geological outcomes of the 2009 SPT, with studies from American Samoa (Apotsos et al., 2011-this issue [US team]; Gelfenbaum et al., 2011-this issue [US team]), Samoa (Jaffe et al., 2011-this issue [US/UNESCO–IOC team]), comparisons across both Samoan island groups (Richmond et al., 2011-this issue [US/UNESCO– IOC team]), from Tonga (Clark et al., 2011-this issue [UNESCO–IOC team]) and across the affected areas of the Tongan and Samoan archipelagos (Fritz et al., 2011-this issue [US team]). Etienne et al. (2011-this issue) [UNESCO–IOC team] draw contemporary comparisons between coarse clastic evidence from the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and the 2009 SPT, while Goff et al. (2011b-this issue) [UNESCO–IOC team] study predecessors to the 2009 SPT in the tsunami affected Wallis and Futuna archipelago. Chagué-Goff et al. (2011-this issue) [UNESCO–IOC team] draw together new geological insights gained from these studies to assist with the identification of predecessor events throughout the Pacific, while Fryer (2011-this issue) [US team] reports on potential improvements to methods for studying contemporary events. Two overarching papers place the 2009 SPT in the context of past events; the regional tsunamigenic predecessors to this event (Okal et al., 2011-this issue [US team]) and the Pacific-wide record of palaeotsunamis (Goff et al., 2011a-this issue [UNESCO–IOC team]). An example of the exposure component of CHES work looked at the impact of the 2009 SPT on the ecology of the coral reefs of Samoa that acted as a buffer to the event (McAdoo et al., 2011-this issue [UNESCO–IOC team]). Elements of vulnerability were addressed through an examination of building fragility in the Samoan archipelago (Reese et al., 2011-this issue [NZ/ UNESCO–IOC team]), and a detailed explanation of using socially trained scientists to explore vulnerability-resilience is described by van Zijll de Jong et al. (2011this issue [UNESCO–IOC team]) for Samoa including the need for and difficulty in doing social research in a post tsunami context. Bearing in mind the need for mitigation and planning, this issue concludes with two papers drawing on different aspects of how we learn from such events. Wilson et al. (2011-this issue) [US team] chart the emergency response to the 2009 SPT in California as a distantly sourced event, while Dudley et al., 2011-this issue [US/UNESCO–IOC team] use lessons from tsunami victims in the Samoan archipelago to provide information for locals to be better prepared for the next one. This special issue of Earth-Science Reviews captures a snapshot of the multidisciplinary works now being carried out in post-tsunami studies. It represents something of a sea change in this research area and UNESCO–IOC is working to recognise the importance of this new approach in their protocols for tsunami fieldwork. We thank all of those authors who have contributed to this special issue and look forward with interest to ongoing developments in the field of tsunami research. Acknowledgements The UNESCO–IOC ITST Samoa team was based in Samoa. We thank the many people who willingly gave assistance, advice and encouragement, particularly during the difficult period in the field. Their support is greatly appreciated. We in particular want to thank His Highness, the Head of State Tui Atua Tupua Tamasese Ta'isi Efi, the Government of Samoa, the Secretariat of the Pacific Community Applied Geoscience and Technology Division (SOPAC), the University of the South Pacific (USP), the International Tsunami Information Center and the UNESCO Apia Office for their support and their extraordinary contributions. We also acknowledge the support of the New Zealand Government, especially the Ministry of Civil Defence and Emergency Management (MCDEM), the NZ Defence Force and the High Commissioner in Samoa for their support throughout the entire process. We also thank the various organisations who contributed to funding this research effort and in particular that of the Australian Research Council. The students and staff of the Australian Tsunami
Research Centre, University of New South Wales are thanked for their tireless work behind the scenes to support this team. We gratefully acknowledge the enormous assistance of Litea Biukoto of SOPAC, Dr Jan Steffen the Regional Scientific Advisor for UNESCO, Suzanne Paisley of UNESCO–IOC, and Ruby Vaa the acting Campus Director of USP Apia. References Adger, W.N., Hughes, T.P., Folke, C., Carpenter, S.R., Rockstrom, J., 2005. Social-ecological resilience to coastal disasters. Science 309, 1036–1039. Apotsos, A., Gelfenbaum, G., Jaffe, B., Watt, S., Peck, B., Buckley, M., Stevens, A., 2011. Tsunami inundation and sediment transport in a sediment-limited embayment on American Samoa. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 1–10 (this issue). Beavan, J., Wang, X., Holden, C., Wilson, K., Power, W., Prasetya, G., Bevis, M., Kautoke, R., 2010. Near-simultaneous great earthquakes at Tongan megathrust and outer rise in September 2009. Nature 466, 959–963. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.11.001. Borrero, J.C., 2005. Field data and satellite imagery of tsunami effects in Banda Aceh. Science 308, 1596. Calgaro, E., Lloyd, K., 2008. Sun, sea, sand and tsunami: examining disaster vulnerability in the tourism community of Khao Lak, Thailand. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 29, 288–306. Chagué-Goff, C., Schneider, J.-L., Goff, J., Dominey-Howes, D., Strotz, L., 2011. Expanding the proxy toolkit to help identify past events: Lessons from the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and the 2009 South Pacific Tsunami. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 106–121 (this issue). Clark, K., Power, W., Nishimura, Y., Kautoke, R.'A., Vaiomo'unga, R., Pongi, 'A., Fifita, M., 2011. Characteristics of the 29th September 2009 South Pacific tsunami as observed at Niuatoputapu Island, Tonga. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 51–64 (this issue). Dudley, W.C., Whitney, R., Faasisila, J., Fonolua, S., Jowitt, A., Chan-Kau, M., 2011. Learning from the victims: New physical and social science information about tsunamis from victims of the September 29, 2009 event in Samoa and American Samoa. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 200–205 (this issue). Etienne, S., Buckley, M., Paris, R., Nandasena, A.K., Clark, K., Strotz, L., Chagué-Goff, C., Goff, J., Richmond, B., 2011. The use of boulders for characterising past tsunamis: Lessons from the 2004 Indian Ocean and 2009 South Pacific tsunamis. EarthScience Reviews 107, 75–89 (this issue). Fritz, H.M., Borrero, J.C., Synolakis, C.E., Okal, E.A., Weiss, R., Titov, V.V., Jaffe, B.E., Foteinis, S., Lynett, P.J., Chan, I.-C., Liu, P.L.-F., 2011. Insights on the 2009 South Pacific tsunami in Samoa and Tonga from field surveys and numerical simulations. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 65–74 (this issue). Fritz, H.M., Kongko, W., Moore, A., McAdoo, B., Goff, J., Harbitz, C., Uslu, B., Kalligeris, N., Suteja, D., Kalsum, K., Titov, V., Gusman, A., Latief, H., Santoso, E., Sujoko, S., Djulkarnaen, D., Sunendar, H., Synolakis, C.E., 2007. July 17th Java tsunami runs-up more than 20 m, inundates up to 1 km. Geophysical Research Letters 34, L12602. Fryer, G.J., 2011. Walk the inundation limit: A suggestion for future post-tsunami surveys. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 122–126 (this issue). Gelfenbaum, G., Apotsos, A., Stevens, A.W., Jaffe, B., 2011. Effects of fringing reefs on tsunami inundation: American Samoa. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 11–21 (this issue). Goff, J., Chagué-Goff, C., Dominey-Howes, D., McAdoo, B., Cronin, S., Bonté-Grapetin, M., Nichol, S., Horrocks, M., Cisternas, M., Lamarche, G., Pelletier, B., Jaffe, B., Dudley, W., 2011a. Palaeotsunamis in the Pacific Islands. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 140–145 (this issue). Goff, J., Lamarche, G., Pelletier, B., Chagué-Goff, C., Strotz, L., 2011b. Predecessors to the 2009 South Pacific tsunami in the Wallis and Futuna archipelago. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 90–105 (this issue). Huppert, H., Sparks, S., 2006. Extreme natural hazards: population growth, globalization and environmental change. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society Series A 364, 1875–1888. Jaffe, B., Buckley, M., Richmond, B., Strotz, L., Etienne, S., Clark, K., Watt, S., Gelfenbaum, G., Goff, J., 2011. Flow speed estimated by inverse modeling of sandy sediment deposited by the 29 September 2009 tsunami near Satitoa, east Upolu, Samoa. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 22–36 (this issue). Lay, T., Ammon, C., Kanamori, H., Rivera, L., Koper, K., Huko, A., 2010. The 2009 Samoa– Tonga great earthquake triggered doublet. Nature 466, 964–968. McAdoo, B.G., Ah-Leong, J.S., Bell, L., Ifopo, P., Ward, J., Lovell, E., Skelton, P., 2011. Coral reefs as buffers during the 2009 South Pacific tsunami, Upolu Island, Samoa. EarthScience Reviews 107, 146–154 (this issue). McSaveney, M., Goff, J., Darby, D., Goldsmith, P., Barnett, A., Elliott, S., Nongkas, M., 2000. The 17th July 1998 Papua New Guinea: evidence and initial interpretation. Marine Geology 170, 81–92. Okal, E.A., Borrero, J.C., Chagué-Goff, C., 2011. Tsunamigenic predecessors to the 2009 Samoa earthquake. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 127–139 (this issue). Reese, S., Bradley, B.A., Bind, J., Smart, G., Power, W., Sturman, J., 2011. Empirical building fragilities from observed damage in the 2009 South Pacific tsunami. EarthScience Reviews 107, 155–172 (this issue). Richmond, B.M., Buckley, M., Etienne, S., Chagué-Goff, C., Clark, K., Goff, J., DomineyHowes, D., Strotz, L., 2011. Deposits, Flow Characteristics, and Landscape Change Resulting from the September 2009 South Pacific Tsunami in the Samoan Islands. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 37–50 (this issue). Satake, K., Bourgeois, J., Abe, Ku, Abe, Ka, Tsuji, Y., Imamura, F., Iio, Y., Katao, H., Noguera, E., Estrada, F., 1993. Tsunami field survey of the 1992 Nicaragua earthquake. Eos AGU Transactions 74 13 (145), 156–157. Sieh, K., 2006. Sumatran megathrust earthquakes: from science to saving lives. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society Series A 364, 1947–1963.
Editorial Turner II, B.L., Matson, P.A., McCarthy, J.J., Corell, R.W., Christensen, L., Eckley, N., Hovelsrud-Broda, G.K., Kasperson, J.X., Kasperson, R.E., Luers, A., Martello, M.L., Mathiesen, S., Naylor, R.L., Polsky, C., Pulsipher, A., Schiller, A., Selin, H., Tyler, N., 2003. Illustrating the coupled human-environment system for vulnerability analysis: three case studies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, pp. 8080–8085. UNISDR, 2009. Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction. United Nations. http:// www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/report/index.php?id=1130&pid: 34&pih:2. Accessed 10 January 2011. UN OCHA, 2009. Samoa/Tonga tsunami situation Report #11. http://www.pacificdisaster. net/pdnadmin/data/documents/3376.html. Accessed 10 January 2011. USGS, 2011. Magnitude 8.1 — Samoa Islands Region. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/ earthquakes/recenteqsww/Quakes/us2009mdbi.php#summary. Accessed 11 January 2011. van Zijll de Jong, S.L., Dominey-Howes, D., Roman, C.E., Calgaro, E., Gero, A., Veland, S., Bird, D.K., Muliaina, T., Tuiloma-Sua, D., Afioga, T.L., 2011. Process, practice and priorities — key lessons learnt undertaking sensitive social reconnaissance research as part of an (UNESCO–IOC) International Tsunami Survey Team. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 173–191 (this issue).
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Wilson, R.I., Dengler, L.A., Goltz, J.D., Legg, M.R., Miller, K.M., Ritchie, A., Whitmore, P.M., 2011. Emergency response and field observation activities of geoscientists in California (USA) during the September 29, 2009 Samoa Tsunami. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 192–199 (this issue).
James Goff⁎ Dale Dominey-Howes Australian Tsunami Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, NSW, Australia ⁎Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 2 9385 8431; fax: +61 2 9385 1558. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J. Goff), [email protected] (D. Dominey-Howes). 4 March 2011
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Earth-Science Reviews j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / e a r s c i r ev
Editorial
The 2009 South Pacific Tsunami
A central South Pacific, region-wide tsunami causing 192 deaths and severe damage was triggered by an unprecedented earthquake doublet (Mw 8.1 and Mw 8.0) between about 17:48:11 and 17:50:01 UTC on September 29, 2009 (UN OCHA, 2009; Beavan et al., 2010; Lay et al., 2010). The first earthquake of the doublet was located at 15.51°S, 172.03°W. The second earthquake of the doublet was composed of two sub-events, the first at 15.75°S, 172.25°W, the second at 16.0°S, 172.25°W — their combined Moment Magnitude was equivalent to Mw 8.0. The tsunami seriously impacted the islands of Upolu, Manono and Savai'i in Samoa; Tutuila, the main island of American Samoa, Niuatoputapu, one of the most northerly of the islands of Tonga, Wallis and Futuna, as well as numerous locations in the central South Pacific. Wave heights (peak-to-trough) were recorded at many tide gauges including 314 cm at Pago Pago (American Samoa); 140 cm at Apia (Samoa); 47 cm at Rarotonga and 8 cm at Penrhyn (Cook Islands); 14 cm at Nuku'alofa (Tonga) and 11 cm at Papeete (French Polynesia) (USGS, 2011). Since the epicentres were located just over 100 km from the south coast of Upolu, Samoa, the tsunami arrived on shore in less than 15 min. This tsunami was significant because it was the most destructive region-wide event in the South Pacific for many years; it was the first event to take the lives of United States citizens on US soil in 34 years; the event reminded us that significant tsunamis occur in a region that covers one third of the earth's surface, is surrounded by tsunamigenic sources and for which we have little knowledge about the long-term frequency and magnitude (Goff et al., 2011a); and because for the first time, this event was followed by a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization–Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (UNESCO–IOC) immediate post-tsunami survey that deliberately set out to use a new approach for conducting surveys (see below). International Tsunami Survey Teams (ITSTs) are frequently deployed to conduct rapid post-event assessments (Satake et al., 1993; McSaveney et al., 2000; Borrero, 2005; Fritz et al., 2007). ITSTs have traditionally been composed of experts from single disciplines (e.g., numerical modellers, or geologists, or engineers) interested in gathering data for their particular field of expertise. Most ITSTs have worked according to ‘standard’ field-survey protocols and some under the structural function and auspices of the UNESCO–IOC. For a variety of reasons there has never been a coordinated, multidisciplinary, multi-sectoral, UNESCO–IOC assessment of the impacts and effects of a tsunami. Further, there have never been any attempts in the immediate aftermath of an event to identify those factors that contributed to the vulnerability and resilience of affected communities and their associated biophysical systems (their ‘socio-ecological systems’) despite calls for such approaches (Adger et al., 2005; Calgaro and Lloyd, 2008). Similarly, ITSTs have never attempted to 0012-8252/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.03.006
integrate multi-sectoral assessments in to a single ‘statement’ about the nature and effects of the tsunami they are studying. This is a pity since the disaster risk reduction (DRR) literature identifies the value that arises from multi-sectoral analyses as part of a ‘coupled human– environment system’ (CHES) approach (Turner et al., 2003; Adger et al., 2005; Huppert and Sparks, 2006; Sieh, 2006; Calgaro and Lloyd, 2008) and that in the immediate post-tsunami emergency phase, governments of affected countries urgently require information about the event to better plan short-term response and recovery actions, and enhance their long-term community DRR practice (UNISDR, 2009). Thus, to date, a great opportunity has been lost. The papers produced in this special issue of Earth-Science Reviews reflect the work of two main groups of researchers studying the 2009 South Pacific Tsunami; a co-ordinated, multi-national, multi-sectoral International Tsunami Survey Team (ITST) operating under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization–International Oceanographic Commission (UNESCOIOC) — “UNESCO–IOC ITST Samoa”, and a number of US researchers (US team) some of whom were partly associated with the multinational team but all of whom worked under the ‘standard’ fieldsurvey protocols of the UNESCO-IOC. A small New Zealand team (NZ team) was also partially associated with the UNESCO-IOC group. Tsunamis are both a natural process that plays out within the earth system and a hazard to humans. Therefore to examine tsunamis as a process separate from the ‘coupled-biophysical-human landscapes’ framework in which they occur means that a great deal of potential understanding and insight is lost. Such frameworks provide powerful constructions for exploring the hazard and its effects. However, coupled human–environment systems do not provide specific tools to identify, analyse and quantify particular elements of the hazard problem. Therefore, we use the risk management process to provide the tools missing from the framework through investigations of the hazard, exposure, vulnerability, loss and mitigation. In essence, the work presented in this special issue represents the majority of the elements of the risk management process through which the ‘coupled human–environment systems framework’ operates as an overarching reference for exploring the hazard of tsunamis. While recognising the need to better reflect a CHES approach the work presented here is still dominated by an earth science focus. This is understandable as we shift into the unfamiliar territory of new multidisciplinary groupings, but the incorporation of work from a wide range of related disciplines is indicative of the direction that earth science is taking to address the needs of the community. The publishers of Earth-Science Reviews are thanked for recognising the value of such work. The bulk of papers centre on earth science investigations of the 2009 South Pacific tsunami (SPT), placing it within a wider regional
vi
Editorial
context — the hazard component. There are two distinct groupings, those that look at the geological outcomes of the 2009 SPT, with studies from American Samoa (Apotsos et al., 2011-this issue [US team]; Gelfenbaum et al., 2011-this issue [US team]), Samoa (Jaffe et al., 2011-this issue [US/UNESCO–IOC team]), comparisons across both Samoan island groups (Richmond et al., 2011-this issue [US/UNESCO– IOC team]), from Tonga (Clark et al., 2011-this issue [UNESCO–IOC team]) and across the affected areas of the Tongan and Samoan archipelagos (Fritz et al., 2011-this issue [US team]). Etienne et al. (2011-this issue) [UNESCO–IOC team] draw contemporary comparisons between coarse clastic evidence from the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and the 2009 SPT, while Goff et al. (2011b-this issue) [UNESCO–IOC team] study predecessors to the 2009 SPT in the tsunami affected Wallis and Futuna archipelago. Chagué-Goff et al. (2011-this issue) [UNESCO–IOC team] draw together new geological insights gained from these studies to assist with the identification of predecessor events throughout the Pacific, while Fryer (2011-this issue) [US team] reports on potential improvements to methods for studying contemporary events. Two overarching papers place the 2009 SPT in the context of past events; the regional tsunamigenic predecessors to this event (Okal et al., 2011-this issue [US team]) and the Pacific-wide record of palaeotsunamis (Goff et al., 2011a-this issue [UNESCO–IOC team]). An example of the exposure component of CHES work looked at the impact of the 2009 SPT on the ecology of the coral reefs of Samoa that acted as a buffer to the event (McAdoo et al., 2011-this issue [UNESCO–IOC team]). Elements of vulnerability were addressed through an examination of building fragility in the Samoan archipelago (Reese et al., 2011-this issue [NZ/ UNESCO–IOC team]), and a detailed explanation of using socially trained scientists to explore vulnerability-resilience is described by van Zijll de Jong et al. (2011this issue [UNESCO–IOC team]) for Samoa including the need for and difficulty in doing social research in a post tsunami context. Bearing in mind the need for mitigation and planning, this issue concludes with two papers drawing on different aspects of how we learn from such events. Wilson et al. (2011-this issue) [US team] chart the emergency response to the 2009 SPT in California as a distantly sourced event, while Dudley et al., 2011-this issue [US/UNESCO–IOC team] use lessons from tsunami victims in the Samoan archipelago to provide information for locals to be better prepared for the next one. This special issue of Earth-Science Reviews captures a snapshot of the multidisciplinary works now being carried out in post-tsunami studies. It represents something of a sea change in this research area and UNESCO–IOC is working to recognise the importance of this new approach in their protocols for tsunami fieldwork. We thank all of those authors who have contributed to this special issue and look forward with interest to ongoing developments in the field of tsunami research. Acknowledgements The UNESCO–IOC ITST Samoa team was based in Samoa. We thank the many people who willingly gave assistance, advice and encouragement, particularly during the difficult period in the field. Their support is greatly appreciated. We in particular want to thank His Highness, the Head of State Tui Atua Tupua Tamasese Ta'isi Efi, the Government of Samoa, the Secretariat of the Pacific Community Applied Geoscience and Technology Division (SOPAC), the University of the South Pacific (USP), the International Tsunami Information Center and the UNESCO Apia Office for their support and their extraordinary contributions. We also acknowledge the support of the New Zealand Government, especially the Ministry of Civil Defence and Emergency Management (MCDEM), the NZ Defence Force and the High Commissioner in Samoa for their support throughout the entire process. We also thank the various organisations who contributed to funding this research effort and in particular that of the Australian Research Council. The students and staff of the Australian Tsunami
Research Centre, University of New South Wales are thanked for their tireless work behind the scenes to support this team. We gratefully acknowledge the enormous assistance of Litea Biukoto of SOPAC, Dr Jan Steffen the Regional Scientific Advisor for UNESCO, Suzanne Paisley of UNESCO–IOC, and Ruby Vaa the acting Campus Director of USP Apia. References Adger, W.N., Hughes, T.P., Folke, C., Carpenter, S.R., Rockstrom, J., 2005. Social-ecological resilience to coastal disasters. Science 309, 1036–1039. Apotsos, A., Gelfenbaum, G., Jaffe, B., Watt, S., Peck, B., Buckley, M., Stevens, A., 2011. Tsunami inundation and sediment transport in a sediment-limited embayment on American Samoa. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 1–10 (this issue). Beavan, J., Wang, X., Holden, C., Wilson, K., Power, W., Prasetya, G., Bevis, M., Kautoke, R., 2010. Near-simultaneous great earthquakes at Tongan megathrust and outer rise in September 2009. Nature 466, 959–963. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.11.001. Borrero, J.C., 2005. Field data and satellite imagery of tsunami effects in Banda Aceh. Science 308, 1596. Calgaro, E., Lloyd, K., 2008. Sun, sea, sand and tsunami: examining disaster vulnerability in the tourism community of Khao Lak, Thailand. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 29, 288–306. Chagué-Goff, C., Schneider, J.-L., Goff, J., Dominey-Howes, D., Strotz, L., 2011. Expanding the proxy toolkit to help identify past events: Lessons from the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and the 2009 South Pacific Tsunami. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 106–121 (this issue). Clark, K., Power, W., Nishimura, Y., Kautoke, R.'A., Vaiomo'unga, R., Pongi, 'A., Fifita, M., 2011. Characteristics of the 29th September 2009 South Pacific tsunami as observed at Niuatoputapu Island, Tonga. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 51–64 (this issue). Dudley, W.C., Whitney, R., Faasisila, J., Fonolua, S., Jowitt, A., Chan-Kau, M., 2011. 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Editorial Turner II, B.L., Matson, P.A., McCarthy, J.J., Corell, R.W., Christensen, L., Eckley, N., Hovelsrud-Broda, G.K., Kasperson, J.X., Kasperson, R.E., Luers, A., Martello, M.L., Mathiesen, S., Naylor, R.L., Polsky, C., Pulsipher, A., Schiller, A., Selin, H., Tyler, N., 2003. Illustrating the coupled human-environment system for vulnerability analysis: three case studies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, pp. 8080–8085. UNISDR, 2009. Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction. United Nations. http:// www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/report/index.php?id=1130&pid: 34&pih:2. Accessed 10 January 2011. UN OCHA, 2009. Samoa/Tonga tsunami situation Report #11. http://www.pacificdisaster. net/pdnadmin/data/documents/3376.html. Accessed 10 January 2011. USGS, 2011. Magnitude 8.1 — Samoa Islands Region. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/ earthquakes/recenteqsww/Quakes/us2009mdbi.php#summary. Accessed 11 January 2011. van Zijll de Jong, S.L., Dominey-Howes, D., Roman, C.E., Calgaro, E., Gero, A., Veland, S., Bird, D.K., Muliaina, T., Tuiloma-Sua, D., Afioga, T.L., 2011. Process, practice and priorities — key lessons learnt undertaking sensitive social reconnaissance research as part of an (UNESCO–IOC) International Tsunami Survey Team. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 173–191 (this issue).
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Wilson, R.I., Dengler, L.A., Goltz, J.D., Legg, M.R., Miller, K.M., Ritchie, A., Whitmore, P.M., 2011. Emergency response and field observation activities of geoscientists in California (USA) during the September 29, 2009 Samoa Tsunami. Earth-Science Reviews 107, 192–199 (this issue).
James Goff⁎ Dale Dominey-Howes Australian Tsunami Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, NSW, Australia ⁎Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 2 9385 8431; fax: +61 2 9385 1558. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J. Goff), [email protected] (D. Dominey-Howes). 4 March 2011