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The American environment: Perceptions and policies
REVIEWS
383
life, according to recent historiography, falls between 1650 and the 1680s when a new elite emerged and when slavery became the prevailing labour system. ‘Collapse of an experiment’ and ‘Still breathing Virginia’ recount the bloody massacre of 1622, its contribution to Company factionalism and the events leading to royal takeover. As an introduction to the colonization of Virginia, American Genesis is broad-gauged, brief and lucid. Yet historical geographers will find the book wanting in appreciation of location and environment. For example, why did the English choose the Chesapeake, the James River and Jamestown? Why locate at Jamestown, a “marish”, unhealthy site, thus contravening the Company’s instructions? Was the low mortality under Smith and Dale the result of their authoritarian policies, or more likely because of the occupation of healthier niches? No mention is made of the latitudinal analogy which guided the bizarre introduction under Sandys of Mediterranean crops into a humid continental biome. Finally, Vaughan finds the death knell of the Company in the massacre of 1622, yet mortality was dangerously high before and after that event : it is essential to sort out the causes, whether they were Morgan’s rampant capitalism or disease resulting from recentralization in Jamestown. A satisfactory interpretation of the American genesis demands a more sophisticated model of the Virginia environment, the perceptions of and adjustments to it, and its nexus with disease and death. Perhaps geographers will be able to provide such an interpretation after reading this excellent introduction to the nightmarish world of early Virginia. University of Maryland, Baltimore County
CARVILLEEARLE
J. WREFORD WATSON and TIMOTHY O’RIORDAN (Eds), The American Environment: Perceptions and Policies (New York: John Wiley, 1976. Pp. xii + 340. $17.05) The questions and solutions associated with environmental perception on a continental scale are difficult to identify let alone to analyse. Yet Wreford Watson and O’Riordan have brought together a series of nineteen essays dealing with perceptions of and policies for the North American environment in an informative and readable volume. In addition to a brief introduction by the two editors entitled ‘Image and reality in the American scene’, the volume is divided into four sections : ‘Perceptions of the unfolding environment’ (chapters l-5), ‘Perceptions and policies in the American city’ (chapters 6-l l), ‘Transportation and the American environment’ (chapters 12-14) and ‘Land use: changing perceptions and policies’ (chapters 15-19). Chapter 1, ‘Image regions’ by J. Wreford Watson, reviews the perceived major regions of the United States: New England, the South, the West and the North. Douglas McMannis, in chapter 2 on ‘The perception of the seaboard environment’, provides a commendable account of the new European on the Eastern Seaboard. Chapter 3, ‘First impressions of the Great Plains and Prairies’ by G. Malcolm Lewis, contains an interesting summary of some of the first accounts of the Canadian prairies. Alfred Runte’s ‘The West: wealth, wonderland and wilderness’ (chapter 4) notes that the West served as the climax in the unfolding of North America: the overpowering topography, wealth and size of the region gave the West a dimension that other regions did not have. In chapter 4, ‘The image of Nature in America’, Wreford Watson discusses the wilderness as a thing to be destroyed as well as an environment to be protected; this serves as a classic example of changing perceptions. The first section of the volume is of special interest to historical geographers for it is concerned largely with perceptions of past environments. The second section addresses the question of the American city as a changing environment. In chapter 6, ‘The city and the American way of life’, Wreford Watson points to some of the reasons why cities in the United States appear to have more difficulty in offering their residents enjoyable environments than is the case with European urban centres. For example, the heart of the European city is its cultural institution centre whereas in the American city it is the central business district. Another interesting influence on the American city is the importance of comfort to Americans; hence the 27
384
REVIEWS
move to the “Sunbelt” cities. Chapter 7, ‘The poet and the metropolis’ by John Paterson, is an interesting review of the poet’s perceptions of the American urban centres. The next three chapters, ‘Black culture, violence and the American city’ by O’Riordan, ‘Geographical aspects of race-related violence in the United States’ by G. Malcolm Lewis and ‘Black perspectives on American cities’ by Florence Ladd, deal with Black perceptions of American social and economic environments. They present a solid review of one minority’s perception, but they ignore the other minorities which see other environments. Chapter 11, ‘Centre cities in Canada and the United States’ by Edward Higbee, compares the relative social and economic success of Canadian cities with the apparent failure of urban centres in the United States. Dr Higbee argues that the difficulties of cities in the United States may be traced to the “frontier independence” attitude of middle-class America and to discrimination patterns. These conditions discourage the development of what Higbee considers a mature conprehensive social security system that is so essential for quality urban life. The more welfare-oriented Canadian and European cities appear to offer a higher quality of life. The socialist trends that Dr Higbee supports have, however, received recent setbacks in both Sweden and Australia and the welfare system of the United Kingdom is perhaps contributing to the economic problems of that nation. Certainly, additional research is needed before we can determine the degree of socialism which a nation can afford before there is serious damage to its economy. One additional comment on this chapter should be made. Dr Higbee’s grim forecast for cities in the United States may well be the major American challenge for the next few decades. On the other hand, the recent rise to power of the Parti Quebecois and the threat of national dismemberment may well be the major Canadian challenge. The third section is an interesting discussion of the American transportation network and its political and environmental impact. Chapter 12, ‘The politics of transportation’ by O’Riordan, is a brief comment on the role of politics in the development of transportation networks. ‘Transportation and American settlement patterns’ by John Davis is a review of transportation development in the United States, including discussion of the impact of trailways, roadways, waterways, railways, motorways, airways and pipeways. Chapter 14, ‘The railway epoch and the North American landscape’, by Michael E. Eliot Hurst is a comparison of the evolution of various aspects of railroad systems in the United States and Canada. The first chapter of the fourth section is a brief summary of land management in the United States, by O’Riordan. Chapter 16, ‘The environmental impact of American agriculture’ by Richard E. Friday and David J. Allee, covers most aspects of environmental change associated with crop and livestock production. As American agriculture becomes increasingly capital intensive, environmental damage tends to be more extensive. In chapter 17, ‘Forest management policy: its evolution and response to changing public values’, George H. Stankey discusses differences between national programmes for management of agricultural land and forest land. Thus Sankey states that “the assumption of land scarcity argues that forest products are so scarce, compared to labour or capital, that land must be managed so as to maximize biological productivity (although no one expects this of agricultural land)“. Chapter 18, ‘Outdoor recreation and the American environment’ by O’Riordan and Davis, is a summary of the impact of leisure-time activities on the landscape. The rapid growth of this sector of the economy has created many planning and environmental problems for rural areas. In the final chapter, ‘The role of environmental issues in Canadian-American policy making and administration’, O’Riordan points to the international flavour of many environmental problems. This is one of the better chapters, its comments about the International Joint Commission being especially timely in view of problems of both air and water quality along the border. In summary, this chapter implies that Canada has taken a stronger stand than the United States on questions of international pollution, whereas the States are better able to deal with domestic environmental difficulties.
REVIEWS This book is essential for those interested in historical, politial or environmental problems of North America. Although there are a few weak links in the work, it is, on the whole, an outstanding compilation of a variety of opinions on numerous North American problems. State University of New York-Potsdam
PAUL B. FREDERIC
Comments on reviews R. COLE HARRIS and JOHN WARKENTIN, Canada Before Confederation: A Study in New York and Toronto: Oxford University Press, Historical Geography of North America Series, 1974), reviewed by F. C. Innes, Journal of Historical Geography 1 (1975) 117-8
Historical Geography (London,
Comment by EDWARD J. MILES Towards the end of his review of Canada Before Confederation,
Professor Innes states: “In the United States or elsewhere, one can only hope that it will be ignored as a text, at least until a more sophisticated and detailed knowledge of contemporary Canada than that which is commonly acquired by undergraduates, is general”. Shortly before reading this review, I had assigned the volume in question to American students in a course on the geography of Canada. Some of the students were geography majors, a few others were involved in a formal programme of Canadian Studies with minimal training in geography while still others were taking the course for general interest; all were undergraduates. On two subsequent occasions, I have again assigned this volume. The degree of satisfaction and interest with which the book has been received would tend to make the fears of Professor Innes groundless. My colleagues teaching Canadian history also found it to be a valuable study. A rereading of his review leads me to comment more fully. With praise, richly deserved, for the literary quality of the volume, and in spite of a few disclaimers to the contrary, Innes comes to the conclusion that this piece of joint scholarship lacks a clear purpose, cohesion and a theme; is unacceptable either as a monograph or as a text; and presents little that is truly new. I find these conclusions harsh and difficult to accept. On the contrary, I would suggest that this book will become for Canada what Ralph H. Brown’s Historical Geography of the United States has become for the United States, namely a pioneering bench-mark for future researchers, recognized for its scholarly as well as its literary qualities. Professor Innes seems dissatisfied first because he fails to find in the book a clearly stated purpose, and second because of lack of the cohesion and theme which he feels that such a book should have. Yet nowhere do the authors claim as an avowed purpose the painting of a national picture. In addition, dissatisfaction seems to stem from expectations based on the two previous studies in the Oxford Historical Geography of North America Series, and not from an evaluation of Canada Before Confederation in its own right. Surely it is unfair to judge one volume in a series by comparing it to its forerunners or followers. The question is not the series, but rather a specific volume in that series; a work that might well have been broken down into several separate regional studies, each with its own “specific themes and interpretive assessments” which Innes finds so attractive in Meinig’s The Southwest and Ward’s Cities and Immigrants. Yet the authors of Canada Before Confederation openly recognize the lack of sufficient previous work that would permit a series of specifically and narrowly focused studies on different regions. Rather, they “have attempted to write a comprehensive and deliberately provocative synthesis”. Once again a parallel with Brown may be drawn. In essence, Canada Before Confederation reflects exactly the situation on the eve of confederation: a series of separate colonies with individual landscapes telling of the
383
life, according to recent historiography, falls between 1650 and the 1680s when a new elite emerged and when slavery became the prevailing labour system. ‘Collapse of an experiment’ and ‘Still breathing Virginia’ recount the bloody massacre of 1622, its contribution to Company factionalism and the events leading to royal takeover. As an introduction to the colonization of Virginia, American Genesis is broad-gauged, brief and lucid. Yet historical geographers will find the book wanting in appreciation of location and environment. For example, why did the English choose the Chesapeake, the James River and Jamestown? Why locate at Jamestown, a “marish”, unhealthy site, thus contravening the Company’s instructions? Was the low mortality under Smith and Dale the result of their authoritarian policies, or more likely because of the occupation of healthier niches? No mention is made of the latitudinal analogy which guided the bizarre introduction under Sandys of Mediterranean crops into a humid continental biome. Finally, Vaughan finds the death knell of the Company in the massacre of 1622, yet mortality was dangerously high before and after that event : it is essential to sort out the causes, whether they were Morgan’s rampant capitalism or disease resulting from recentralization in Jamestown. A satisfactory interpretation of the American genesis demands a more sophisticated model of the Virginia environment, the perceptions of and adjustments to it, and its nexus with disease and death. Perhaps geographers will be able to provide such an interpretation after reading this excellent introduction to the nightmarish world of early Virginia. University of Maryland, Baltimore County
CARVILLEEARLE
J. WREFORD WATSON and TIMOTHY O’RIORDAN (Eds), The American Environment: Perceptions and Policies (New York: John Wiley, 1976. Pp. xii + 340. $17.05) The questions and solutions associated with environmental perception on a continental scale are difficult to identify let alone to analyse. Yet Wreford Watson and O’Riordan have brought together a series of nineteen essays dealing with perceptions of and policies for the North American environment in an informative and readable volume. In addition to a brief introduction by the two editors entitled ‘Image and reality in the American scene’, the volume is divided into four sections : ‘Perceptions of the unfolding environment’ (chapters l-5), ‘Perceptions and policies in the American city’ (chapters 6-l l), ‘Transportation and the American environment’ (chapters 12-14) and ‘Land use: changing perceptions and policies’ (chapters 15-19). Chapter 1, ‘Image regions’ by J. Wreford Watson, reviews the perceived major regions of the United States: New England, the South, the West and the North. Douglas McMannis, in chapter 2 on ‘The perception of the seaboard environment’, provides a commendable account of the new European on the Eastern Seaboard. Chapter 3, ‘First impressions of the Great Plains and Prairies’ by G. Malcolm Lewis, contains an interesting summary of some of the first accounts of the Canadian prairies. Alfred Runte’s ‘The West: wealth, wonderland and wilderness’ (chapter 4) notes that the West served as the climax in the unfolding of North America: the overpowering topography, wealth and size of the region gave the West a dimension that other regions did not have. In chapter 4, ‘The image of Nature in America’, Wreford Watson discusses the wilderness as a thing to be destroyed as well as an environment to be protected; this serves as a classic example of changing perceptions. The first section of the volume is of special interest to historical geographers for it is concerned largely with perceptions of past environments. The second section addresses the question of the American city as a changing environment. In chapter 6, ‘The city and the American way of life’, Wreford Watson points to some of the reasons why cities in the United States appear to have more difficulty in offering their residents enjoyable environments than is the case with European urban centres. For example, the heart of the European city is its cultural institution centre whereas in the American city it is the central business district. Another interesting influence on the American city is the importance of comfort to Americans; hence the 27
384
REVIEWS
move to the “Sunbelt” cities. Chapter 7, ‘The poet and the metropolis’ by John Paterson, is an interesting review of the poet’s perceptions of the American urban centres. The next three chapters, ‘Black culture, violence and the American city’ by O’Riordan, ‘Geographical aspects of race-related violence in the United States’ by G. Malcolm Lewis and ‘Black perspectives on American cities’ by Florence Ladd, deal with Black perceptions of American social and economic environments. They present a solid review of one minority’s perception, but they ignore the other minorities which see other environments. Chapter 11, ‘Centre cities in Canada and the United States’ by Edward Higbee, compares the relative social and economic success of Canadian cities with the apparent failure of urban centres in the United States. Dr Higbee argues that the difficulties of cities in the United States may be traced to the “frontier independence” attitude of middle-class America and to discrimination patterns. These conditions discourage the development of what Higbee considers a mature conprehensive social security system that is so essential for quality urban life. The more welfare-oriented Canadian and European cities appear to offer a higher quality of life. The socialist trends that Dr Higbee supports have, however, received recent setbacks in both Sweden and Australia and the welfare system of the United Kingdom is perhaps contributing to the economic problems of that nation. Certainly, additional research is needed before we can determine the degree of socialism which a nation can afford before there is serious damage to its economy. One additional comment on this chapter should be made. Dr Higbee’s grim forecast for cities in the United States may well be the major American challenge for the next few decades. On the other hand, the recent rise to power of the Parti Quebecois and the threat of national dismemberment may well be the major Canadian challenge. The third section is an interesting discussion of the American transportation network and its political and environmental impact. Chapter 12, ‘The politics of transportation’ by O’Riordan, is a brief comment on the role of politics in the development of transportation networks. ‘Transportation and American settlement patterns’ by John Davis is a review of transportation development in the United States, including discussion of the impact of trailways, roadways, waterways, railways, motorways, airways and pipeways. Chapter 14, ‘The railway epoch and the North American landscape’, by Michael E. Eliot Hurst is a comparison of the evolution of various aspects of railroad systems in the United States and Canada. The first chapter of the fourth section is a brief summary of land management in the United States, by O’Riordan. Chapter 16, ‘The environmental impact of American agriculture’ by Richard E. Friday and David J. Allee, covers most aspects of environmental change associated with crop and livestock production. As American agriculture becomes increasingly capital intensive, environmental damage tends to be more extensive. In chapter 17, ‘Forest management policy: its evolution and response to changing public values’, George H. Stankey discusses differences between national programmes for management of agricultural land and forest land. Thus Sankey states that “the assumption of land scarcity argues that forest products are so scarce, compared to labour or capital, that land must be managed so as to maximize biological productivity (although no one expects this of agricultural land)“. Chapter 18, ‘Outdoor recreation and the American environment’ by O’Riordan and Davis, is a summary of the impact of leisure-time activities on the landscape. The rapid growth of this sector of the economy has created many planning and environmental problems for rural areas. In the final chapter, ‘The role of environmental issues in Canadian-American policy making and administration’, O’Riordan points to the international flavour of many environmental problems. This is one of the better chapters, its comments about the International Joint Commission being especially timely in view of problems of both air and water quality along the border. In summary, this chapter implies that Canada has taken a stronger stand than the United States on questions of international pollution, whereas the States are better able to deal with domestic environmental difficulties.
REVIEWS This book is essential for those interested in historical, politial or environmental problems of North America. Although there are a few weak links in the work, it is, on the whole, an outstanding compilation of a variety of opinions on numerous North American problems. State University of New York-Potsdam
PAUL B. FREDERIC
Comments on reviews R. COLE HARRIS and JOHN WARKENTIN, Canada Before Confederation: A Study in New York and Toronto: Oxford University Press, Historical Geography of North America Series, 1974), reviewed by F. C. Innes, Journal of Historical Geography 1 (1975) 117-8
Historical Geography (London,
Comment by EDWARD J. MILES Towards the end of his review of Canada Before Confederation,
Professor Innes states: “In the United States or elsewhere, one can only hope that it will be ignored as a text, at least until a more sophisticated and detailed knowledge of contemporary Canada than that which is commonly acquired by undergraduates, is general”. Shortly before reading this review, I had assigned the volume in question to American students in a course on the geography of Canada. Some of the students were geography majors, a few others were involved in a formal programme of Canadian Studies with minimal training in geography while still others were taking the course for general interest; all were undergraduates. On two subsequent occasions, I have again assigned this volume. The degree of satisfaction and interest with which the book has been received would tend to make the fears of Professor Innes groundless. My colleagues teaching Canadian history also found it to be a valuable study. A rereading of his review leads me to comment more fully. With praise, richly deserved, for the literary quality of the volume, and in spite of a few disclaimers to the contrary, Innes comes to the conclusion that this piece of joint scholarship lacks a clear purpose, cohesion and a theme; is unacceptable either as a monograph or as a text; and presents little that is truly new. I find these conclusions harsh and difficult to accept. On the contrary, I would suggest that this book will become for Canada what Ralph H. Brown’s Historical Geography of the United States has become for the United States, namely a pioneering bench-mark for future researchers, recognized for its scholarly as well as its literary qualities. Professor Innes seems dissatisfied first because he fails to find in the book a clearly stated purpose, and second because of lack of the cohesion and theme which he feels that such a book should have. Yet nowhere do the authors claim as an avowed purpose the painting of a national picture. In addition, dissatisfaction seems to stem from expectations based on the two previous studies in the Oxford Historical Geography of North America Series, and not from an evaluation of Canada Before Confederation in its own right. Surely it is unfair to judge one volume in a series by comparing it to its forerunners or followers. The question is not the series, but rather a specific volume in that series; a work that might well have been broken down into several separate regional studies, each with its own “specific themes and interpretive assessments” which Innes finds so attractive in Meinig’s The Southwest and Ward’s Cities and Immigrants. Yet the authors of Canada Before Confederation openly recognize the lack of sufficient previous work that would permit a series of specifically and narrowly focused studies on different regions. Rather, they “have attempted to write a comprehensive and deliberately provocative synthesis”. Once again a parallel with Brown may be drawn. In essence, Canada Before Confederation reflects exactly the situation on the eve of confederation: a series of separate colonies with individual landscapes telling of the