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The Amount of Carbon Dioxide Thrown Off by Eggs During the Incubating Process
Variations «f rriee and quality of lees as they !'•**• "am the Producer te t u Censurer. »il*
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Country Huckster
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Cold storage
City Jobbers
Detail ConStore suiter
The quality of an egg cannot be improved. Every time an egg is handled the quality must be impaired, if only by a slight degree. of the albumen, and size of yolk seem to depend upon the physical condition of the bird. Any of the interior factors may probably be determined by the inherited Constitution of the individual in certain cases. Ovarian Conditions—Among the most common of the faults arising in the ovary are: double yolk eggs, blood clots, and multi-germinal discs. These are important to the producer, especially the blood clots, because they are so serious to a retail trade. Oviduct Conditions—Here one finds the causes for many different qualities including: Body heated eggs, egg within Eggs, yolk substitution, Foreign substances within Eggs, Intestinal worms within eggs, double yolk and connected eggs, meat spots, bloody eggs and loose shell membranes within eggs. Except in extreme cases all eggs affected only by these internal factors, are suitable for food consumption especially for cooking purposes. Evaporation—The degree of evaporation depends both upon the condition of the egg and that of the surroundings. A firm albumen, strong shell, and moist cool surroundings lessen evaporation. Temperature—The effect of heating at incubation or lower temperatures depends largely upon the fertility or infertility of the egg. Infertile eggs are affected only slightly by heating. It is extremely difficult to retain the original quality of a fertile egg until it reaches the consumer. Severe heating such as dipping into hot water, as well as chilling anl freezing starts rapid deterioration of tine egg. Moisture—"Too humid an atmosphere
may cause mold growth, and development of a musty odor and flavor. Bacterial Infection—The rots are the extreme results of bacterial infection. Fertile eggs are very susceptible. Preservation—New methods of preservation are being rapidly developed and means are being devised whereby preserved eggs serve as substitutes for fresh ones very satisfactorily. CONCLUSION.
There is little known, at the present time, of the exact changes taking place in eggs or the exact causes for these changes. This is a field worthy of very close attention by a score of experimenters. A brief survey of the ground will impress anyone with the fact that the egg is especially susceptible to the conditions under which it is handled. The producers do not understand the need of handling the eggs carefully. When they do understand this need and also realize that improved methods will benefit them, they need but little help to understand how the eggs should be handled. Any suggestions to these producers should be made with a full knowledge of their importance, and these suggestions should be followed up with demonstrations of the relative results from adopting or neglecting them.
EARL W. BENJAMIN.
THE AMOUNT OF CARBON DIOXIDE THROWN OFF BY EGGS DURING THE INCUBATING PROCESS. This investigation was undertaken with the idea of scientifically and systematically studying_ the factors which have so much to do with the success of artificial incubation. Undoubtedly the amount of air passed through the egg chamber should, parti26
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Hawaii, PBRC, Kewalo Marine Lab. on May 29, 2015
\s-
is too brief to allow much detail, and is only intended to show the excretion of carbon dioxide. The male and the three hens which are responsible for the nine eggs used in this test were in the same pen. The eggs were laid by the three hens on the same three days so all variable factors are eliminated and the results are strictly comparable. In Table I, the first column shows the day of incubation, the second column shows the average daily excretion of carbon dioxide of the three eggs laid by hen No. 8878, the third column the average of the two eggs laid by hen No. 8867 (the third egg developed only nine days due to weak germ), the fourth column the average of the three eggs laid by hen No. 8866, the fifth column the average of all eight eggs, and the sixth column the amount of air in cubic feet passed over each egg per day. Eight normal chicks were completely out of the shell on the twentieth day, and five of them are still living. From Table No. I. it will be seen that, as the incubating process goes on, the carbon dioxide thrown off increases very rapidly. Table No. II. shows in percentages the amount of carbon dioxide given off in four periods of five days each and for the total of twenty days. All percentages are figured on the weight of the original egg.
T A B L E I.
H e n No. 8867 Average weight of egg.
Hen No. 8866 Hen No. 8878
57.164
58.620
53.023
Day.
Loss in Carbon Dioxide per day. Grams.
- Loss In Carbon Dioxide per day. Grams.
Loss in Carbon Dioxide per day. Grams.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16 17. 18 19. 20. 22. 22.
.0090 .0090 .0136 .0246 .0329 .0431 .0525 .0771 .1061 .1490 .2165 .3120 .4019 .5606 .6885 .7455 .7762 .8287 .9180 1.1997 1.5151 1.4160
.0145 .0108 .0157 .0240 .0330 .0465 .0534 .0760 .1077 .1536 .2285 .3180 .3912 .5380 .6332 .6794 .6944 .7230 .7787 1.3474 1.5075 1,7802
.0057 .0051 .0128 .0226 .0314 .0329 .0522 .0766 .1075 .1528 .2140 .3043 .3947 .5450 .6354 .6722 .6945 .7421 .7493 1.1347 1.4401 1.4875
.0099 .0083 .0140 .0237 .0324 .0432 .0527 .0766 .1071 .1518 .2197 .3114 .3959 .5479 .6524 .6990 .7217 .7646 .8153 1.2273 1.4878 1.5612
10.0960
10.1547
9.5204
9.9239
Total,
27
Ave. loss in Carbon Dioxide per day. Grams.
Cubic feet air passed over each egg per day.
.979 .726 .787
.963 .977 .950 .936 .935 .925 1.074 1.032 1.013 1.076 1.179 1.752 1.669 1.694 2.298 2.344 2.953 3.300 3.728
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Hawaii, PBRC, Kewalo Marine Lab. on May 29, 2015
ally at least, correspond to the amount of carbon dioxide given off by the developing embryos. The electric incubator used in this work held the temperature constant within a fraction of a degree. It was large enough to hold conveniently ten egg tubes, nine of which were used for eggs and the tenth was used for a check. Each egg tube was connected at one end to the air supply, from which all traces of carbon dioxide had been removed, and at the other end to the apparatus for measuring the amount of carbon dioxide given off by each individual egg. Moist soda lime in U tubes was used to measure the carbon dioxide as it came from the incubator. In the early part of this work the fertile eggs developed apparently as in normal incubation until the eighteenth day and then suddenly died. As post mortems did not show anything abnormal in the development, caused from lack of air, etc., the temperature was gradually reduced from 103 degrees F. to 100.5 degrees F., where normal hatches were obtained. It is well known in practical incubation that there is frequently an abnormal mortality about the eighteenth day; from these results it would appear that this may be due to the temperature being too high. The following tables show the results obtained from one hatch only, as this paper
TABLE II.
Hen No. 8878 Hen No. 8867 Hen No. 8866 Average
Average Percentage Loss of Carbon Dioxide During— First 5 Days Second 5 Days Third 5 Days Fourth 5 Days 20 Days 0.157 0.748 3.813 7.816 12.534 0.167 0.746 3.598 7.204 11.715 0.146 0.809 3.948 7.530 12.433 0.157
0.768
3.786
7.517
12.227
educational associations. Several societies were then in existence in some of the larger Cities for the one object of holding exhibitions once a year. Most of these associations have readily .taken up the educational work and a number of others have been organized in other parts of the State. There are at present thirty-five of these •ocal poultry associations. Recently steps have been taken to unite all of these groups into one State-wide association. The Department realized that this was a work worthy of considerable effort. Granges, agricultural societies and other kinds of organizations have been invited t o ' form a poultry association. It was decided that there must be certain definite objects in view for these organizations to work for if they were to be easily organized and maintained. The Department took the iniative and began the issuing of a monthly bulletin specially for organization work. These are called, "Hints to Poultrymen." They are written by members of the staff and HORACE ATWOOD and CHAS. E. WEAKLEY, JR. discuss seasonable topics in a practical way. The secretary of each association states the POULTRY ORGANIZATION FOR number desired. They are mailed to the secretary and by him remailed to the memEDUCATIONAL PURPOSES. bers. Several times each year one member There has been a gradual development in of the staff visits each association and lecthe methods of agricultural education and tures on a selected subject. Uniform byin its distribution. The recent tendencies laws and constitutions have been adopted point toward a wider scope and toward a by most of the associations. One dollar closer contact between the educational per year is charged for membership. This worker and the actual producer. Any one sum in large associations permits the rentwho has taken up this new extension work ing of permanent rooms, the establishing of has soon found himself face to face with a a library, the securing of good outside difficult problem. The problem is how to speakers and other benefits to the members. reach the large number of people who re- Usually the officers of some kindred organside in his district and who look to him ization express their desire to have a poulfor assistance when each individual visit try association formed in a given locality. takes up the largest part of a day. Differ- The department takes_ the matter up with a ent ways have been tried to overcome this number of leading spirits and a date is set matter. It seems to be quite a general un- and advertised for an organization meeting. derstanding now that some of this individ- The department keeps in close touch with ual work is absolutely necessary but that the new officers until the association seems through organizations much of the work to be running smoothly. Many devices can be handled to far greater advantage. have been tried by the various associations Poultry raisers as a class are enthusiastic to grow in membership and strength. Freand they take readily to association work. quently some member will offer a prize Soon after the poultry department of the consisting of a sitting of valuable eggs or a New Jersey Agricultural College was estab- fine breeding bird to the member bringing lished a definite campaign was planned to- in the most new members at the next meetward organizing the poultrymen in the ing. Protective signs offering a reward for various sections throughout the State into conviction of thieves have been sold to members by other associations. Something "Lamson, G. H . Jr. and Edmond, H. D , Storrs Agr. Exp. St a. Bui. 76.
(Continued on page 29, 2nd column) 28
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Hawaii, PBRC, Kewalo Marine Lab. on May 29, 2015
The above table shows that the loss of carbon dioxide during the last five days of incubation is about 5? of the total loss of carbon dioxide, twice as much as is given off in the third five days, ten times as much as in the second five days, and almost fifty times as much as in the first five days. In an incubator this carbon dioxide must be removed or at least kept below a certain maximum which some investigators have found to be 150 parts in 10,000.* If this maximum is not to be exceeded 100 fertile eggs will require 165 cubic feet of fresh air to be passed over and around them on the twentieth day to keep the embryos from smothering.,_ By referring to table I, it will be seen that a considerable excess of air was used in this test and with no ill effect, as eight out of nine eggs hatched. A more detailed report concerning this investigation will be published as a bulletin by the West Virginia Agr. Exp. Station.
y r<5 y
^
y
*• S*
s ' .'
s-
S*
y
Jr
y-
s-
****
< • '
Produoer
Country Huckster
Country store
S n a i l Coimieslon Hholeoale city Man realer Jobter
Cold storage
City Jobbers
Detail ConStore suiter
The quality of an egg cannot be improved. Every time an egg is handled the quality must be impaired, if only by a slight degree. of the albumen, and size of yolk seem to depend upon the physical condition of the bird. Any of the interior factors may probably be determined by the inherited Constitution of the individual in certain cases. Ovarian Conditions—Among the most common of the faults arising in the ovary are: double yolk eggs, blood clots, and multi-germinal discs. These are important to the producer, especially the blood clots, because they are so serious to a retail trade. Oviduct Conditions—Here one finds the causes for many different qualities including: Body heated eggs, egg within Eggs, yolk substitution, Foreign substances within Eggs, Intestinal worms within eggs, double yolk and connected eggs, meat spots, bloody eggs and loose shell membranes within eggs. Except in extreme cases all eggs affected only by these internal factors, are suitable for food consumption especially for cooking purposes. Evaporation—The degree of evaporation depends both upon the condition of the egg and that of the surroundings. A firm albumen, strong shell, and moist cool surroundings lessen evaporation. Temperature—The effect of heating at incubation or lower temperatures depends largely upon the fertility or infertility of the egg. Infertile eggs are affected only slightly by heating. It is extremely difficult to retain the original quality of a fertile egg until it reaches the consumer. Severe heating such as dipping into hot water, as well as chilling anl freezing starts rapid deterioration of tine egg. Moisture—"Too humid an atmosphere
may cause mold growth, and development of a musty odor and flavor. Bacterial Infection—The rots are the extreme results of bacterial infection. Fertile eggs are very susceptible. Preservation—New methods of preservation are being rapidly developed and means are being devised whereby preserved eggs serve as substitutes for fresh ones very satisfactorily. CONCLUSION.
There is little known, at the present time, of the exact changes taking place in eggs or the exact causes for these changes. This is a field worthy of very close attention by a score of experimenters. A brief survey of the ground will impress anyone with the fact that the egg is especially susceptible to the conditions under which it is handled. The producers do not understand the need of handling the eggs carefully. When they do understand this need and also realize that improved methods will benefit them, they need but little help to understand how the eggs should be handled. Any suggestions to these producers should be made with a full knowledge of their importance, and these suggestions should be followed up with demonstrations of the relative results from adopting or neglecting them.
EARL W. BENJAMIN.
THE AMOUNT OF CARBON DIOXIDE THROWN OFF BY EGGS DURING THE INCUBATING PROCESS. This investigation was undertaken with the idea of scientifically and systematically studying_ the factors which have so much to do with the success of artificial incubation. Undoubtedly the amount of air passed through the egg chamber should, parti26
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Hawaii, PBRC, Kewalo Marine Lab. on May 29, 2015
\s-
is too brief to allow much detail, and is only intended to show the excretion of carbon dioxide. The male and the three hens which are responsible for the nine eggs used in this test were in the same pen. The eggs were laid by the three hens on the same three days so all variable factors are eliminated and the results are strictly comparable. In Table I, the first column shows the day of incubation, the second column shows the average daily excretion of carbon dioxide of the three eggs laid by hen No. 8878, the third column the average of the two eggs laid by hen No. 8867 (the third egg developed only nine days due to weak germ), the fourth column the average of the three eggs laid by hen No. 8866, the fifth column the average of all eight eggs, and the sixth column the amount of air in cubic feet passed over each egg per day. Eight normal chicks were completely out of the shell on the twentieth day, and five of them are still living. From Table No. I. it will be seen that, as the incubating process goes on, the carbon dioxide thrown off increases very rapidly. Table No. II. shows in percentages the amount of carbon dioxide given off in four periods of five days each and for the total of twenty days. All percentages are figured on the weight of the original egg.
T A B L E I.
H e n No. 8867 Average weight of egg.
Hen No. 8866 Hen No. 8878
57.164
58.620
53.023
Day.
Loss in Carbon Dioxide per day. Grams.
- Loss In Carbon Dioxide per day. Grams.
Loss in Carbon Dioxide per day. Grams.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16 17. 18 19. 20. 22. 22.
.0090 .0090 .0136 .0246 .0329 .0431 .0525 .0771 .1061 .1490 .2165 .3120 .4019 .5606 .6885 .7455 .7762 .8287 .9180 1.1997 1.5151 1.4160
.0145 .0108 .0157 .0240 .0330 .0465 .0534 .0760 .1077 .1536 .2285 .3180 .3912 .5380 .6332 .6794 .6944 .7230 .7787 1.3474 1.5075 1,7802
.0057 .0051 .0128 .0226 .0314 .0329 .0522 .0766 .1075 .1528 .2140 .3043 .3947 .5450 .6354 .6722 .6945 .7421 .7493 1.1347 1.4401 1.4875
.0099 .0083 .0140 .0237 .0324 .0432 .0527 .0766 .1071 .1518 .2197 .3114 .3959 .5479 .6524 .6990 .7217 .7646 .8153 1.2273 1.4878 1.5612
10.0960
10.1547
9.5204
9.9239
Total,
27
Ave. loss in Carbon Dioxide per day. Grams.
Cubic feet air passed over each egg per day.
.979 .726 .787
.963 .977 .950 .936 .935 .925 1.074 1.032 1.013 1.076 1.179 1.752 1.669 1.694 2.298 2.344 2.953 3.300 3.728
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Hawaii, PBRC, Kewalo Marine Lab. on May 29, 2015
ally at least, correspond to the amount of carbon dioxide given off by the developing embryos. The electric incubator used in this work held the temperature constant within a fraction of a degree. It was large enough to hold conveniently ten egg tubes, nine of which were used for eggs and the tenth was used for a check. Each egg tube was connected at one end to the air supply, from which all traces of carbon dioxide had been removed, and at the other end to the apparatus for measuring the amount of carbon dioxide given off by each individual egg. Moist soda lime in U tubes was used to measure the carbon dioxide as it came from the incubator. In the early part of this work the fertile eggs developed apparently as in normal incubation until the eighteenth day and then suddenly died. As post mortems did not show anything abnormal in the development, caused from lack of air, etc., the temperature was gradually reduced from 103 degrees F. to 100.5 degrees F., where normal hatches were obtained. It is well known in practical incubation that there is frequently an abnormal mortality about the eighteenth day; from these results it would appear that this may be due to the temperature being too high. The following tables show the results obtained from one hatch only, as this paper
TABLE II.
Hen No. 8878 Hen No. 8867 Hen No. 8866 Average
Average Percentage Loss of Carbon Dioxide During— First 5 Days Second 5 Days Third 5 Days Fourth 5 Days 20 Days 0.157 0.748 3.813 7.816 12.534 0.167 0.746 3.598 7.204 11.715 0.146 0.809 3.948 7.530 12.433 0.157
0.768
3.786
7.517
12.227
educational associations. Several societies were then in existence in some of the larger Cities for the one object of holding exhibitions once a year. Most of these associations have readily .taken up the educational work and a number of others have been organized in other parts of the State. There are at present thirty-five of these •ocal poultry associations. Recently steps have been taken to unite all of these groups into one State-wide association. The Department realized that this was a work worthy of considerable effort. Granges, agricultural societies and other kinds of organizations have been invited t o ' form a poultry association. It was decided that there must be certain definite objects in view for these organizations to work for if they were to be easily organized and maintained. The Department took the iniative and began the issuing of a monthly bulletin specially for organization work. These are called, "Hints to Poultrymen." They are written by members of the staff and HORACE ATWOOD and CHAS. E. WEAKLEY, JR. discuss seasonable topics in a practical way. The secretary of each association states the POULTRY ORGANIZATION FOR number desired. They are mailed to the secretary and by him remailed to the memEDUCATIONAL PURPOSES. bers. Several times each year one member There has been a gradual development in of the staff visits each association and lecthe methods of agricultural education and tures on a selected subject. Uniform byin its distribution. The recent tendencies laws and constitutions have been adopted point toward a wider scope and toward a by most of the associations. One dollar closer contact between the educational per year is charged for membership. This worker and the actual producer. Any one sum in large associations permits the rentwho has taken up this new extension work ing of permanent rooms, the establishing of has soon found himself face to face with a a library, the securing of good outside difficult problem. The problem is how to speakers and other benefits to the members. reach the large number of people who re- Usually the officers of some kindred organside in his district and who look to him ization express their desire to have a poulfor assistance when each individual visit try association formed in a given locality. takes up the largest part of a day. Differ- The department takes_ the matter up with a ent ways have been tried to overcome this number of leading spirits and a date is set matter. It seems to be quite a general un- and advertised for an organization meeting. derstanding now that some of this individ- The department keeps in close touch with ual work is absolutely necessary but that the new officers until the association seems through organizations much of the work to be running smoothly. Many devices can be handled to far greater advantage. have been tried by the various associations Poultry raisers as a class are enthusiastic to grow in membership and strength. Freand they take readily to association work. quently some member will offer a prize Soon after the poultry department of the consisting of a sitting of valuable eggs or a New Jersey Agricultural College was estab- fine breeding bird to the member bringing lished a definite campaign was planned to- in the most new members at the next meetward organizing the poultrymen in the ing. Protective signs offering a reward for various sections throughout the State into conviction of thieves have been sold to members by other associations. Something "Lamson, G. H . Jr. and Edmond, H. D , Storrs Agr. Exp. St a. Bui. 76.
(Continued on page 29, 2nd column) 28
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Hawaii, PBRC, Kewalo Marine Lab. on May 29, 2015
The above table shows that the loss of carbon dioxide during the last five days of incubation is about 5? of the total loss of carbon dioxide, twice as much as is given off in the third five days, ten times as much as in the second five days, and almost fifty times as much as in the first five days. In an incubator this carbon dioxide must be removed or at least kept below a certain maximum which some investigators have found to be 150 parts in 10,000.* If this maximum is not to be exceeded 100 fertile eggs will require 165 cubic feet of fresh air to be passed over and around them on the twentieth day to keep the embryos from smothering.,_ By referring to table I, it will be seen that a considerable excess of air was used in this test and with no ill effect, as eight out of nine eggs hatched. A more detailed report concerning this investigation will be published as a bulletin by the West Virginia Agr. Exp. Station.