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The architecture of mammoth bone circular dwellings of the Upper Palaeolithic settlements in Central and Eastern Europe and their socio-symbolic meanings
Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e11
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The architecture of mammoth bone circular dwellings of the Upper Palaeolithic settlements in Central and Eastern Europe and their sociosymbolic meanings Lioudmila Iakovleva Institute of Archaeology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (Kiev, Ukraine), CNRS UMR 7041 ArScAn, Paris, France
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Available online xxx
In central and eastern Europe, the development of the architecture of mammoth bone dwellings is associated with the abundance of mammoth bone beds which were exploited by human groups in the Upper Paleolithic. The present paper focuses on the mammoth bone circular dwellings of Gravettian and Epigravettian cultures: Pavlovian (Early Gravettian of Moravia), Gagarino and Pouchkari (Gravettian of Eastern Europe), Kostienki 11/1a (Zamiatnine culture), and Mezinian. The difference between architectures is discussed, focusing on the procurement of the mammoth bones, the ground plan, and the 3D reconstruction of the dwellings. A spectacular “parietal art” is visible in the dwellings of the Mezinian, in the grouping in the outer wall of jaws and long bones showing a geometric pattern of lines, chevrons and zigzags, which are also figured in the painted bones of the dwellings and in the mobile art of the statuettes, tools and various artefacts, confirming they are the manifestation of a socio-symbolic system of the Mezinian culture. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Upper Palaeolithic Settlement Dwellings Architecture Socio-symbolic function
1. Introduction The birth and development of mammoth bone architectures in the Upper Palaeolithic in Central and Eastern Europe are directly related to the existence of mammoth bone concentrations, which provided the bones extensively procured in these regions by groups of hunters-gatherers. The systematic location of the settlements in the vicinity of significant mammoth bones concentrations resulted in a plurality of mammoth bone constructions, with architecture related to the variability of cultural traditions. The large availability of the most voluminous and heaviest parts of the skeleton of a mammoth are at the origins of varied and complex dwelling structures in settlements of the Pavlovian Pouchkari, Gagarino, Kostienki 11(1a), Kostienki 4, Kostienki 2, and Mezinian sites. There is originality in the monumental architecture, and particularly a circular dwelling type with a large number of large bones of mammoths, from which can be deducted socio-symbolic events that are expressed in the construction of residential settlements. 2. Settlements with circular mammoth bone structures, Early Gravettian of Central Europe Spatial structures made with mammoth bones are known in stonice, Milovice, and Pavlov (Klima, 1963, 1995, Moravia at Dolní Ve E-mail address: [email protected].
2001; Svoboda, 1994; Oliva, 2009; Djindjian, 2012). These studies stonice, Klima has gave rise to various interpretations. In Dolní Ve highlighted two circular dwellings 6 m in diameter limited by stones, a loess embankment and setting holes, with internal hearths and external pits. Nearby, a filled ravine provided an accumulation of mammoth bones 45 m long and 12 m wide. In Pavlov, Klima has discovered eleven similar circular dwelling structures. In Milovice, Oliva has discovered several circular dwelling structures with central hearths, defined by circles of large mammoth bones (long bones, scapulae, pelvis, and jaws) collected from the mammoth bone accumulations in the vicinity. Several types of dwelling structures have been defined in the Pavlovian (Svoboda, 2003): - Circular semi-subterranean dwellings surrounded by a stone stonice (Klima, 1963). J. circle, represented by hut n 2 of Dolní Ve Svoboda stressed that the reconstruction in elevation proposed by Klima (inclined flat roof) is hardly convincing and suggests a tipi structure with a circular plan (A). - Circular open air dwelling marked by a circle of mammoth bones, known in Dolní Vestonice I and Milovice (B). - Semi-subterranean circular dwelling without bones or stone circle, of which the most representative is Pavlov dwelling n 5, but others are known at Pavlov I and Dolní Vestonice II (C). Three types of dwellings (and a fourth (D), represented by a central fireplace without visible limits) are variants of a single type
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Please cite this article in press as: Iakovleva, L., The architecture of mammoth bone circular dwellings of the Upper Palaeolithic settlements in Central and Eastern Europe and their socio-symbolic meanings, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.050
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of dwelling, tipi-shaped, whose circular settings are mammoth or stone bones, and for which the sleeping area has been leveled, dug in a basin shape or without any preparation (Fig. 1). In this type of circular dwellings of the Gravettian of Central Europe, the use of stones and mammoth bones is also found in Gagarino, Pouchkari, and Kostienki 4, and the use of many large mammoth bones is also found in the dwellings of Kostienki 11(1a), Kostienki 2 (Zamiatnine culture) and the Mezinian sites in Eastern Europe. The use of clustered bones and, among other things, mammoth jaws in the south-southwest part of the wall of the stonice (1928 excavations) can be dwelling (cluster 6e8) of Dolní Ve compared with the more systematic and more sophisticated use of mammoth jaws in the dwellings of Kostienki 11 (1a) and also in the Mezinian sites. 3. Mammoth bone circular dwelling structures in Eastern Europe 3.1. Late Gravettian settlement of Pouchkari 1 The settlement of Pouchkari 1, located in the village of the same name on the right bank of the Desna, a subsidiary of the upper Dnepr, was discovered by Roudinski who excavated it in 1932e33, followed by Boriskovski in 1937 and 1939. The latter found a 4 12 m2 dwelling, consisting of three contiguous circular structures, each centered on a fireplace. Many mammoth tusks (69) were found around the three fireplaces, masking the fact that there are few other associated large mammoth bones. The reconstruction that was proposed is a long dwelling, inspired by that proposed by Rogachev for Kostienki 4 (Boriskovski, 1953). Chovkoplass (1965) rightly pointed out the inconsistency of this type of construction in which the wooden poles would obstruct the interior space. The settlement of Pouchkari I is more likely a seasonal camp of short duration installed near flint outcrops. Workshops were organized around fireplaces for flint knapping. Belaeva restarted excavations in this site in 1980, and found another isolated circular structure of
Fig. 1. Types of spatial structures in the Pavlovian (from Svoboda, 2003).
about 2.5 m in diameter with an interior fireplace, 12 m away from the previous one (Beliaeva, 2003). The role of tusks, collapsed in the central fireplace but unburned, suggests a lightweight tipi construction, with the tusks linked at the top to form a corbelled frame covered with reindeer skins. 3.2. Stone and bone mammoth dwelling, Eastern Gravettian settlement of Gagarino In the middle Don Basin, 160 km north of Voronezh, in the open air settlement of Gagarino (Eastern Gravettian), during the 1926e1927 excavations, a circular dwelling was discovered by Zamiatnine (1935). A part of the dwelling was damaged by fieldwork before the excavations. The dwelling has a surface 4.5e5.5 m in diameter, with a central hearth inside. The circular wall of the dwelling has been built with large limestone plates and mammoth bones (skulls and tusks mainly). Two deep and elongated pits, located at the north of the dwelling, accentuate the similarity with the pits known in the dwelling structures of Kostienki 1, Avdeevo, and Zaraysk (Fig. 2). The Gagarino dwelling is also known for the three bare female statuettes carved in ivory which were found inside, near the circular wall. Altogether, in the settlement of Gagarino, 14 figurines have been discovered, among which are 5 quite intact female statuettes, 1 double statuette left unfinished, 4 drafts, 1 anthropomorphic statuette, and 3 fragments (Tarasov, 1979, p.123e142). The presence of female statuettes in the dwellings and pits at Gagarino, Kostienki Avdeevo, Zaraysk, and Khotylevo 2, all sites of the Eastern Gravettian, reveals a characteristic feature of the ideology of hunter-gatherers in which the female theme particularly flourished in residential settlements. 3.3. Mammoth bone dwelling of Kostienki 11/1a In Eastern Europe, in the periglacial steppe-tundra zone of the regions of Ukraine and Russia, a monumental architecture of mammoth bone dwellings, particularly sophisticated and spectacular, appears in the region of the middle Don basin: Kostienki 11/1a and in the regions of the middle and upper Dnieper, in the settlements of Gontsy, Dobranichivka, Mejiriche, Ioudinovo, Mezine, and Suponevo. These residential settlements are always installed near large mammoth bone concentrations, revealing a particular search for this material, indispensable to construct dwellings with a very elaborate architecture. The great importance given to the monumental architecture in residential settlements, compared with the modest spatial structures without bone constructions in the small seasonally-occupied sites, confirms the difference in function and time occupation. In the middle Don Basin, circular dwellings built with a large number of mammoth bones, surrounded by storage pits, are known in the settlements of the culture of Zamiatnine: Kostienki 11/1a, Kostienki 2, Kostienki 3, and Kostienki 19. These sites, partially excavated, provided inconsistent 14C dates, but the sites could be most probably dated around 19,000 to 20,000 BP or earlier. The most characteristic feature of these sites is the settlement of Kostienki 11/1a, also called Anosovka 2, which is located on the promontory of the slope of Anosov. The site of Kostienki 2, which is located 160 m north, could belong to the same settlement. In the current state of the research in Kostienki 11/1a, two large circular mammoth bone dwellings are known. They are located 17 m apart (Popov and Anikovich, 1982). These two dwellings, surrounded by storage pits, have a similar architecture based a circular set of mammoth bones that form a wall circumference. A first dwelling was excavated only over a quarter of its area with a pit. The second dwelling was excavated over its entire surface and was then kept in situ under the protection of the building of a site
Please cite this article in press as: Iakovleva, L., The architecture of mammoth bone circular dwellings of the Upper Palaeolithic settlements in Central and Eastern Europe and their socio-symbolic meanings, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.050
L. Iakovleva / Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e11
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Fig. 2. Dwelling of Gagarino (from Zamiatnine, 1935).
museum (Fig. 3). It is a large circular mammoth bone dwelling 9 m in diameter. It is surrounded by 5 storage pits, 70 cm deep and 2 m in diameter. Despite partial damage during the discovery, the inner circle of 7 m in diameter was made by digging 30 cm into loess to flatten the floor of the dwelling. Currently, the in situ dwelling is composed of 573 mammoth bones from 40 individuals. Probably, the removed loess was used to seal the bones of the perimeter wall (Popov and Anikovich, 1982). In the outer perimeter wall of the dwelling, 8 groups of bones were organized in a circle by pairs of mammoth skulls, and completed with long bones, scapulae, pelvis, jaws, and tusks. A detailed description of the bones of the dwelling was recently published by Popov and Anikovich (1982). The composition of the bones of each of these groups is different. However the internal position of the pairs of skulls and the grouping of bones are common features: scapulae and pelvis in vertical and horizontal position, long bones repetitively grouped in vertical and horizontal position, associated jaws with chin down
with the exception of a few jaws in the reversed position. The clustered and rhythmic location of the same bones decorates the architecture of the dwelling. The decorative aspect of the compositions of mammoth jaws in the outer wall of the two dwellings of Kostienki 11/1a is notable. The wall decor has been erected from many mammoth jaws, put one next to each other or stacked with each other in the same anatomical position, following rhythmic patterns of zigzags and chevrons. 4. Mammoth bone dwellings of the Middle and Upper Dnepr basin (Mezinian) The settlements with the most sophisticated mammoth bone dwellings are concentrated in the middle and upper Dnepr basin: Gontsy, Dobranichivka, Mejiriche, Ioudinovo, Elisseevichi 1, Timonovka 1 and 2, Mezine, Suponevo, and Boujanka 2. The sites are associated with the Mezinian culture, often considered as an
Please cite this article in press as: Iakovleva, L., The architecture of mammoth bone circular dwellings of the Upper Palaeolithic settlements in Central and Eastern Europe and their socio-symbolic meanings, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.050
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complemented by working areas, outdoor fireplaces, dumping areas (ashes from hearth cleaning and flint knapping), butchering areas, and mammoth bone beds. One of the most characteristic examples of such a complex settlement is given by the current excavations in Gontsy (Iakovleva and Djindjian, 2005, Iakovleva et al., 2010, Iakovleva et al., 2012). Gontsy, like other residential sites, has characteristic dwellings: four large huts surrounded by storage pits, but also an original construction resembling a small dwelling. The particular importance of the site of Gontsy is marked by the presence of a large mammoth bone bed mixed with bones of other animals (reindeer, bison, musk ox, marmot, carnivores) and widely exploited by the human group (artefacts, hearths). The mammoth bone bed is located on the side and at the bottom of a large, shallow depression dug by a system of paleoravines which fill rapidly, which carved the promontory on which the camp was installed. Exploitation of the mammoth bone bed by the human group is demonstrated by the presence of many artefacts: burnt bone hearths; mammoth bone and ivory tools, flint tools, and blanks. Microstratigraphic studies throughout the site demonstrate the contemporaneousness of the bone bed in the paleoravines and the occupation layers of the dwellings (Iakovleva et al., 2010, 2012) giving a new light on the steps of installation of the settlement and the construction of the dwellings from the available bones of the mammoth bone bed. The excavation of three new large dwellings has allowed linking the bones of a large dwelling and the mammoth carcasses of the bone bed for the first time.
Fig. 3. Dwelling of Kostienki 11/1a (photo L. Iakovleva).
Epigravettian culture, and dated between 15,000 and 14,000 BP by 14 C dates (Iakovleva and Djindjian, 2005). The area of the settlements varies between 500 and 2500 m2 depending on the completeness of the excavations. The site of Gontsy, including the promontory of the settlement and the bone bed, reached nearly 10,000 m2. The architectural tradition of this type of settlement is characterized by the presence of large dwellings 4e6 m in diameter surrounded by storage pits (which could be used as dumps) 1 to 2 or 3 m in diameter, mainly filled with bones of mammoths and other animals, and flint knapping. The dwellings are located 10e24 m apart. Iolated storage pits and some other constructions of smaller size and different shape (elongated walls, small dwellings) are present, well known in Gontsy and Mezine. Up to four large dwellings have been discovered at Gontsy, Dobranichivka, Mejiriche, and Ioudinovo (Fig. 4). The selection and the arrangement of the mammoth bones, considered as architectural elements of each dwelling, is varied. Inside are a central hearth (Gontsy, Dobranichivka, Mejiriche and Ioudinovo), several off-centered hearths (Mezine), or no hearths at all (Dobranichivka, Ioudinovo). The number of pits varies in the settlements. Nine pits surround dwelling n 1 of Gontsy, and six pits surround dwelling n 4 of Mejiriche. Four pits surround the four dwellings of Dobranichivka and the same number was found on the side of dwelling n 1 of Mezine. The location and function of the pits as their abandonment may be variable in each settlement. These structures are
4.1. Architecture and shape of the dwellings The architecture of mammoth bone dwellings is based on the large availability of bone raw material inside the territory of huntergatherers. Monumental constructions were erected with a very large number of bones and tusks of mammoths in Gontsy, Dobranichivka, Mezine, Mejiriche, Ioudinovo, Elisseevichi 1, Timonovka, and Suponevo (Chovkoplass, 1965, 1970, 1972; Polikarpovitch, 1968; Pidoplichko, 1969, 1976; Gladkikh and Korniez, 1979; Iakovleva, 1991, 2009; Abramova and Grigorieva, 1997). Despite their specificity, all the dwellings have the same common structure, erected with the most voluminous and heaviest bones of the mammoth skeleton. The complexity of this architecture may be analyzed especially in the large dwellings, made with a significant number of mammoth bones and tusks, which have a circular or oval shape 4e6 m in diameter, as in the settlements of Dobranichivka, Mezine, Mejiriche, Gontsy, Ioudinovo, and Suponevo (Table 1).
Table 1 Characteristics of the best known circular Gravettian and Epigravettian dwellings of Upper Palaeolithic settlements of central and eastern Europe. N
Settlement
Culture
Dwelling type
Dimensions
1 2 3 4 5 6
Dolni Vestonice n 1 Dolni Vestonice n 2 Pavlov n 5 Dolni Vestonice II n 3 Milovice G Pouchkari
Early Gravettian Early Gravettian Early Gravettian Early Gravettian Early Gravettian Late Gravettian
Tipi Tipi Tipi Tipi Tipi Tipi
Diameter Diameter Diameter Diameter Diameter Diameter
7 8 9
Pouchkari Gagarino Kostienki 4 Upper layer (2 dwellings) Kostienki11/1a Dwelling n 2 Kostienki 2 Mejiriche n 1
Late Gravettian Gravettian Gravettian
Tipi Tipi Tipi
Diameter 3e4 m Diameter 5.5 m Diameter 6m
Zamiatnine culture
Yaranga
Zamiatnine culture Mezinian
Yaranga
10 11 11
Type Type Type Type Type
B A C D? B
3e4 3e4 3e4 3e4 3e4 3e4
Hearth inside m m m m m m
Hearths outside
Pits
Wall Art
Parietal art
H H H H
H
Y
H H
H
Y Y
Diameter 9m
H
H
5
Y
Diameter 8m 6 6.5 m2
H H
? H
Sup. 2
Y
Mobile art
Excavation date
Y Y Y
1963 1963 1954e56 1980 1983 1932e33, 1937e39 1980e90 1926e27 1937e59
Y
1960
Y
Y
1953e56 1966
Please cite this article in press as: Iakovleva, L., The architecture of mammoth bone circular dwellings of the Upper Palaeolithic settlements in Central and Eastern Europe and their socio-symbolic meanings, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.050
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Table 1 (continued ) N
Settlement
Culture
Dwelling type
Dimensions
Hearth inside
Hearths outside
Pits
Wall Art
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Mejiriche n 2 Mejiriche n 3 Mejiriche n 4 Dobranichivka Dobranichivka Dobranichivka Dobranichivka Gontsy n 1 Gontsy n 2
Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian
6 4.5 m2 5 4 m2 5.8 4.6 m2 Diameter 4 m Diameter 4 m Diameter 4 m Diameter 4 m Diameter 5.5 m 2.7 1.7 m2
H H H
H H H H H H H H H
Sup. 2 Sup. 2 6 Sup. 1 4 4 4 9 1
Y Y Y
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Gontsy n 3 Gontsy n 4 Gontsy n 5 Mezine n 1 Mezine Old excavations Ioudinovo n 1 Ioudinovo n 2 Ioudinovo n 3 Ioudinovo n 4 Suponevo n 1
Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Small Dwelling Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga ? Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga
n 1 n 2 n 3 n 4
Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian
7m Partial Sup a 2.6 4 m2 Diameter 8 m Diameter 5.5m ? Diameter 9 m Diameter 5 m 5 7 m2 5 7 m2 Diameter 5.5m
An exception is the first building of Ioudinovo, which has a diameter of 9 m, compared to the large dwelling n 5 of Gontsy which has a diameter of 8 m and the two dwellings of Kostienki 11/ 1a. The 3D museum reconstructions, from the remains of the collapsed dwellings n 1 of Mezine and n 1 of Mejiriche, are well known (Chovkoplass, 1965; Pidoplichko, 1969, 1976). There are discussions about these reconstructions based on ethnographic comparison with Siberian peoples. The bone composition of all the known dwellings highlights the characteristic features of this type of circular dwelling. It is possible to define three types of yaranga dwellings: - The standard dwelling (circular shape, 5 m diameter, or oval, 4 6 m2); - The large dwelling (8 m diameter); and - The small dwelling (oval, about 3 2 m2). The foundations of the dwellings are commonly made by pushing a large set of skulls of mammoths into the ground in a circle. The number of these skulls is highly variable. For example, for dwelling n 1 of Gontsy, 5, 5 m in diameter, 28 skulls of mammoths were used in the foundations. The circular foundation of ¼ dwelling n 1 of the same size of Mezine, consists of only 15 skulls of mammoths. There are two ways to pitch the skulls (always without the jaws) in the ground. In the first case, the front of the skull is pitched in the ground with the alveoli upwards; in the second, the position is reversed, the alveoli are buried. With the first and most common way, the mammoth skull is used with its own tusks, sometimes with other defenses in his own alveoli, or without its tusks. The mammoth tusks, thanks to their long bends, as well as wood poles embedded in the empty alveoli, may also have served as elements of elevation or timbers. Flat bones (scapulae and pelvis), long bones (humerus, femur, radius, tibia, ulna fibula), jaws, vertebrae in anatomical connection, arranged vertically, have been widely used for the construction of the walls. Numerous flat bones and long bones were drilled to allow attachments. The structure of the dwelling is also stabilized by long bones, which are planted vertically in the ground, such as poles, and extended by other bones or by wooden poles. The long bones are frequently nested in holes dug into the epiphysis. A long bone or the wooden pole can be inserted in a cavity of a tusk. Stone pebbles obtained from glacial moraines have also been used. Dwellings n 2,
H H H H
H H
H H H H
Y Y
Parietal art
Mobile art
Excavation date
Y
1970 1972 1976 1953 1967 1969 1970 1915 1998
Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y
H H
H
Y Y Y Y
2006 2009 2011 1954 1909-30 1947 1947, 1967 1981 1983 1927
3, and 4 of Gontsy are characteristic of this type of architecture (Fig. 7). The dwellings in Gontsy are preserved in situ under a high protection hall. However, the disassembly of the dwellings of the other excavated sites revealed several recurring features of this original architecture. In 1955, during the disassembly of dwelling n 1 of Mezine (counting more than 300 bones of mammoths, wolves and reindeer antlers, including 273 bones of mammoths), an experiment took place, reassembling the skulls of mammoths with tusks, as well as the use of wooden poles, planted in the ground in the vicinity of the long bones vertically inserted into the ground (Fig. 9). This suggests the height and volume of the dwelling, with a total ground area of 25 m2 (Chovkoplass, 1965, p.45e46). In conclusion, these observations on mammoth bone architecture, deducted from the study of collapsed dwellings which have lost height and volume, indicate that the settlement and its dwellings, located on a promontory opening on the valley of the river, weare probably visible from afar. These mammoth bone dwellings are protected, sealed internally by the loess extracted from pits, and the roof covered by the skins of hunted animals. They offer a housed space of vital importance. They mark spectacularly the surrounding natural landscape and reveal a significant relationship of humans with nature, through the integration of the settlement in the landscape of the great plain at the glacial maximum where natural shelters were absent.
4.2. Wall ornamentation of the dwellings This monumental architecture reveals aesthetic and symbolic features illustrated by complex compositions of different types of bones and tusks of mammoths in the wall of the dwellings, bringing together utility functions and decorative functions. Differences in the bone anatomical composition give each dwelling its own architectural image, which distinguishes it from others, probably with a specific meaning (Iakovleva, 1991, 1999, p.109e112). The most expressive wall decor, erected from the same groups of bones, is visible in the dwellings of Gontsy, Mejiriche, Ioudinovo, Suponevo, Mezine, and Kostienki 11/1a (Tables 2 and 3).
Please cite this article in press as: Iakovleva, L., The architecture of mammoth bone circular dwellings of the Upper Palaeolithic settlements in Central and Eastern Europe and their socio-symbolic meanings, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.050
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Table 2 Art objects of the Mezinian sites of the Dnepr basin. Art objects of Dnepr basin Mezinian sites Mezine 1 Mezine Gontsy 1 Gontsy 2 Gontsy 3 Gontsy 4 Gontsy 5 Mejiriche 1 Mejiriche 2 Mejiriche 3 Mejiriche 4 Dobranichivka 1 Dobranichivka 2 Dobranichivka 3 Dobranichivka 4 Ioudinovo 1 Ioudinovo 2 Ioudinovo 3 Ioudinovo 4 Kiev-Kirilovskaya Suponevo 1 Elisseevichi Semenivka Barmaki Obolonia
Architecture
Parietal Art dwelling
Female statuette
5 16+2 phallics
Chevrons Parallel lines Chevrons Parallel lines Parallel lines Chevron Chevrons Parallel lines Chevrons
Shell ornament
Engraved tusk
Bone & ivory ornament
x x x
x x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x
1 x 2 2
x
x
Tooth ornament
Engraved tool
x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x
1 1 1 Parallel Lines Chevrons, Parallel lines Chevrons, Parallel lines Parallel lines
x x x x
x x x x x x x
Chevrons 1
x x x x
x
x x x
x
x
x x
1
x
Table 3 Geometric figures of the Mezinian art. Main Mezinian geometric figures of Dnepr basin Mezine 1 Mezine Gontsy 1 Gontsy 2 Gontsy 3 Gontsy 4 Gontsy 5 Mejiriche 1 Mejiriche 2 Mejiriche 3 Mejiriche 4 Dobranichivka 1 Dobranichivka 2 Dobranichivka 3 Dobranichivka 4 Ioudinovo 1 Ioudinovo 2 Ioudinovo 3 Ioudinovo 4 Kiev-Kirilovskaya Suponevo 1 Elisseevichi Semenivka Barmaki Obolonia
Pubic triangle
Zig-Zag chevron
Lozenge
Meander
x
x x
x
x
x x
x x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x
x
x
The most elaborate architectural ornamentation is particularly well known in the outer walls of the four dwellings of Mejiriche. Richer and more homogeneous wall decoration marks dwelling n 1 of Mejiriche (Fig. 6). It was erected with many mammoth V-shape jaws, stacked up in the same anatomical position (chin down), showing a rhythmic decoration of chevrons (a column of jaws with up to 5 jaws in the same column) and zigzags (contiguous columns of jaws). The decor was completed by a set of long bones arranged vertically in the southern part of the wall. Only a few flat bones complete this composition in the wall.
Vertical Horizontal lines
Zoomorphic figures
x x x x x x x x x x x
Abstract decoration on tusk x x
x
x
x x x x x x x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
Mammoth jaws were also used in the circular wall of the dwelling n 1 of Mezine. They are grouped in the southern and eastern parts of the dwelling. Although the layout of the jaws is less spectacular, two jaws grouped in the southern part of the wall were colored with a red geometric painting of chevrons, which shows the variety of artistic manifestations expressed around the same theme. The three jaws, which are located in the eastern part of the wall, may have originally belonged to a column of jaws forming chevrons, which, after collapse, have been partially displaced and have therefore lost their initial position.
Please cite this article in press as: Iakovleva, L., The architecture of mammoth bone circular dwellings of the Upper Palaeolithic settlements in Central and Eastern Europe and their socio-symbolic meanings, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.050
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Fig. 4. Map of the dwellings of Mejiriche (drawing L. Iakovleva from excavation data of I. Pidoplitchko, M. Gladkikh, and N. Korniez).
In the outer wall of dwelling n 1 of Suponevo, preferentially consisting of mammoth skulls and jaws, decorative elements have been also identified, as well as in the walls of dwellings n 2 and n 3 of Ioudinovo. The geometric decoration of the outer wall of the dwelling n 2 of Mejiriche has been built preferentially with long bones, grouped in parallel and vertically. Such a preference emphasizes the origicor with a pattern of vertical parallel nality of this architectural de lines. In the eastern part, a single chevron pattern is represented by a single jaw placed in the normal anatomical position (chin down). Only two jaws have been found in this dwelling. Flat bones (scapulae and pelvis) are also present in the eastern part of the wall. In dwelling n 3 of Mejiriche, the outer wall has been erected, preferentially, with flat bones (scapulae and pelvis) and long bones. The geometric decoration in the western part of the dwelling is figured by grouped long bones stacked horizontally (four stacks)
forming horizontal parallel lines, and associated with a stack of two jaws in the normal anatomical position (chin down) showing a nested chevron pattern. The third jaw found nearby was probably part of the same composition, which was originally a stack of three jaws. Long bones, stacked in the horizontal position, have been systematically placed in the outer walls of the four dwellings of Ioudinovo. In addition, the same association of nested jaws and long bones grouped in horizontal position is visible in the western outer wall of dwelling n 3 at Ioudinovo. The presence, in the western part of the outer wall of dwelling n 2, of a mammoth skull and a jaw placed in the normal anatomical position (chin down), repeats the chevron pattern. The outer wall of dwelling n 4 of Mejiriche is erected with different mammoth bones (flat bones, long bones, skulls, jaws, part of vertebral spine in anatomical connection) according to an
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Fig. 5. Map of the dwelling n 1 of Mezine with the spatial distribution of painted bones (drawing L. Iakovleva from excavation data of I. Chovkoplass).
established order and rhythm. The geometric decoration of the eleven jaws located in the western part of the dwelling forms a pattern with chevrons and zigzags. The centre of this ornamental composition consists of a single and large jaw, which is located in position “chin up” forming an inverted chevron. This central jaw is surrounded symmetrically on both sides by stacks of other jaws, which follow a precise rhythm: two columns with two jaws in each column on one side and two columns with three jaws in each column on the other side. All stacks of jaws are arranged in the same normal anatomical position (chin down), forming joined chevrons and zigzags through their rhythmic grouping. In the outer wall of dwelling n 1 of Suponevo, jaws are arranged in an inverted position (chin up), forming inverted chevrons. The southern part of the wall of the dwelling is also built with several jaws. The collapse of the outer wall has destroyed their original disposition. However, it is possible to distinguish a column of two stacked jaws, showing a chevron top oriented. A third jaw in the same orientation is located in the direct vicinity. The architectural chevrons echo the engraved chevrons, which were executed with the technique of fine engraving on two small fragments of tusks found in Suponevo. The four dwellings of Mejiriche illustrate the particularity of each dwelling, which shows the deliberate choice of different mammoth bones and their specific disposition. In the outer walls of the dwellings, the geometric wall decoration is made with two types of mammoth bones: long bones creating vertical parallel lines (dwellings n 1 and n 2); horizontal parallel lines (dwelling n 3) and the jaws creating chevrons (dwelling n 1 and n 4) and zigzags (dwelling n 1 and n 4).
cor, the marking of the Despite the uniqueness of each wall de four dwellings by chevrons is one of the characteristic features of the architecture of Mejiriche. The architectural decoration using jaws forming chevrons and zigzags, with a composition different for each dwelling, recalls the same geometric decoration engraved on the female statuettes, found in these dwellings or in the vicinity (Fig. 6). This pattern probably reveals a complex coding ‛woman e mammoth e dwelling’, similar in dwelling architecture, sculpture, and geometric engraving (Iakovleva, 2013, p.52e53). A socio e symbolic code may also be seen in the outer wall of the large dwelling n 5 of Gontsy, under excavation (Fig. 7). An original composition of mammoth jaws was discovered in the southern part of the wall. The mammoth bones are organized as follows (from west to east): a scapula e a first jaw (chin up) with a long bone placed vertically between the two teeth e a second jaw (chin down) e a third jaw in the same position as the previous e a skull with buried alveoli e and a fifth mandible (chin down) on which is placed a baby mammoth skull and a scapula (Figs. 7 and 8). They reveal a symbolism “women e mammoths” integrated in the dwelling. The richness of this coding reveals the surprising overlay of an adult mammoth jaw with the skull of a baby mammoth, which finished the set of the zigzag mammoth jaws in the outer southern wall of dwelling n 5 of Gontsy. Such an architectural composition invites us to wonder about the cosignification the female theme and the mammoth theme, considering that the herd of mammoths, led by a female matriarch, is composed of females, sub-adults, young, and babies.
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4.3. Painted decorations of dwelling n 1 of Mezine
Fig. 6. Dwelling n 4 of Mejiriche (photo M. Gladkikh).
Fig. 7. Dwelling n 4 of Gontsy (Excavations and photo L. Iakovleva and F. Djindjian).
Fig. 8. Mammoth jaw with a baby mammoth skull in the outer wall of the dwelling n 4 of Gontsy (Excavations and photo L. Iakovleva and F. Djindjian).
Dwelling n 1 of Mezine has a bone wall decoration of geometric painting in red hematite and in yellow jarosite (Iakovleva, 1999, p.112e113, Fig. 14; 2009, p.106e107, Fig. 9). The six painted bones come from mammoth bones used in dwelling n 1 (Fig. 5): a scapula, a pelvis, two jaws, a skull, and a femur which has also a geometric engraving. A group of painted bone consisting of two jaws and a large fragment of a half right pelvis, associated with a scapula, another pelvis without decoration, and a large stone, is located between the two skulls with tusks in their alveoli forming the southern part of the outer wall of the dwelling. The location of the geometric decoration on one side of each bone is explained by their architectural layout and their visibility in the wall. The painted decoration is represented on the same surface of the right side of the two nested jaws in oblique position, and the painted area is oriented outward. Each jaw has an individualized decoration. The composition of short lines parallel and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bone is superimposed under an obtuse angle by long parallel lines, forming a chevron pattern. Thanks to the constant rhythm and the red color of the decor, the right side of a young mammoth jaw is highlighted especially. Red paint decoration, consisting of short parallel lines attached with an obtuse angle, is located on the right side of an adult mammoth jaw. The surface quality of this jaw prevents the complete reconstruction of the ornamentation. A geometric composition, difficult to see actually, is composed of a red great spot, parallel lines, and chevrons, located on a part of the surface of a right mammoth pelvis. A more visible geometric composition is located on a large part of the medial surface of an adult mammoth scapula. The geometric red and yellow decorations are composed primarily of zigzags, which were supplemented with a few marginal chevrons made with the same obtuse angle as for all the composition. The aesthetic value of this ornamentation is revealed by the positions of the ranks of the regular and tight parallel zigzags, as well as chevrons which are composed according to a well respected rhythm of the same width, 0.8e0.9 cm, as well as the same interval between each of these ornamental items. A painted and engraved femur was driven vertically into the ground in the center of the dwelling. In a cavity, dug inside the femur epiphysis, was inserted another narrower and smaller long bone, as a pole, part of a system of poles planted vertically in the ground inside the dwelling. The geometric painted decoration on both sides (back and side) of the femur is composed of short parallel lines, oblique against the length of the bone. A long row of about twenty short and oblique red lines decorates the back surface of the bone. This ornamentation is superimposed on a dozen double and fine lines engraved at 90 to the longitudinal axis of the bone. In addition, two superimposed oblique and parallel short lines, of yellow color, are painted on the flattened end of the lateral surface. A great red spot is painted on the other end of the same surface. The geometric painted decoration of this long sequence is well done through a regular alternation of lines of 6e7 cm in length and roughly of the same width, 1 cm, with the same interval of 1 cm between each line. A red and yellow geometric painting also marks the skull of a mammoth from the northern outer wall of the same dwelling. The tradition of marking the mammoth skulls is also known in Mejiriche. In the northwest outer wall of dwelling n 4 of Mejiriche, the painting is represented by large spots of red hematite on two skulls of mammoths. A red geometric figure, with a decoration of chevrons and parallel lines, was painted on a mammoth skull near the entrance inside dwelling n 1.
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Fig. 9. Reconstitution of the dwelling n 1 of Mezine by the team of Ivan Chovkoplass (photo Archives of the Institute of Archaeology NAS Ukraine).
The geometrical composition of the painted bones of dwelling n 1 of Mezine, as well as the architectural compositions of all the dwellings, distinguishes the characteristic use of chevrons, zigzags, and parallel lines in wall decoration, as well as in geometric engravings on mobile art objects of the same sites. In addition, the parietal symbolic notation of the dwellings of Mezine and Mejiriche is consistent with the decoration of the statuettes and certain types of ornaments and tools (Iakovleva, 1991, 2009, p.749e750). 5. Conclusion The architecture of the dwellings shows various decorations which are the elements of a complex socio-symbolic system. Firstly, settlements with their monumental decorated mammoth bone dwellings are prominent in the natural environment of the valley of the plain, as a socialized and symbolized place of the territory occupied by the network of human groups. The bone decor of the outer walls of the dwellings of Kostienki 11/1a, Gontsy, Mejiriche, and Mezine shows the same decorative theme as the decoration of the statuettes and certain types of body ornaments and tools. If the mobile art objects and the decorated domestic tools provide these functions in the space of the settlement, the monumental dwellings mark spectacularly the natural landscape of the great plain during the ice age in the territory. In addition, the specificity of the female theme, one of the overriding Palaeolithic art themes, is systematically expressed in the different forms of the mobile sculpture, the engraved geometric decoration, but also the architectural decoration. It reflects the expression of a coded artistic system implemented in the settlement. As a corollary, the scarcity of schematic animal sculpture is linked to the development of the architecture, which implicitly includes the theme of the mammoth and the theme of the female through complex compositions involving a large number of mammoth bones, which played a fundamental role in the economy of this people. Thus, the art of dwelling architecture and mobile ornaments, by its original and varied forms, illuminates the vision of the universal ideology of the societies of Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers, with spiritual elaborations on the essential value of life and death of the human groups, strongly embedded in the animal world. One of the core concepts of this universal ideology is given by a constant and
repetitive association “woman e animal” (with specific and variable species), linking fecundity and food resource, which played a role of vital importance in the development of their socio-symbolic systems. References Abramova, Z.A., Grigorieva, G.V., 1997. The Palaeolithic Site of Ioudinovo, vol. 3. Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg, p. 146 (in Russian). Boriskovski, P.I., 1953. The Palaeolithic of Ukraine. Leningrad, Nauka (in Russian). mes des reconstructions d'habitat sur le site Beliaeva, V., 2003. Les proble olithique supe rieur de Pouchkari I. Actes tdu XIV congre s UISPP, 2-8 pale ge. Colloques 6.2 and 6.5. In: Vasiliev, S.A., Soffer, O., septembre 2001, Lie Kozlowski, J. (Eds.), Perceived Lantdscapes and Built Environment, British Archaeological Reports International Series, vol. 1122, pp. 149e156. Chovkoplass, I.G., 1965. The Settlement of Mezine. Naukova Dumka, Kiev (In Russian). couvertes Chovkoplass, I.G., 1970. The Settlement of Dobranichivka. Revue Les de ologiques, Moscow, pp. 222e223 (In Russian). arche Chovkoplass, I.G., 1972. The study of the settlement of Dobranichivka in the area of Kiev. Leningrad Materials and research on the archeology of the USSR 185, 177e188 (in Russian). Djindjian, F., 2012. Les structures d'habitat du Gravettien en Europe. In: Otte, M. (Ed.), Les Gravettiens. Errance, Paris, pp. 149e175. Gladkikh, M.I., Korniez, N.L., 1979. A New Mammoth Bone Dwelling in Mejiriche. Ukraine, USSR, n 9. Vistnik Academy of Science, Kiev, pp. 50e54 (in Russian). Iakovleva, L.A., 1991. Housing in the concept of world view in the Upper Paleolithic (fMejiriche). The Spiritual World of Prehistoric Societies in Ukraine. Naukova dumka, Kiev, pp. 8e19 (in Russian). olithique supe rieur d'Europe oriIakovleva, L., 1999. L'art dans les habitats du Pale entale, vol. 103. L'Anthropologie, Paris, pp. 93e120. zinien en Europe orientale dans son contexte chroIakovleva, L., 2009. L'art me sentations pre historiques. Images du sens nologique, culturel et spirituel. Repre (2/3). L'Anthropologie 113, 691e752. Iakovleva, L.A., 2013. The art of origins in Ukraine. Starodavni Svit, Kiev, 286 p. (in ukrainian). Iakovleva, L., Djindjian, F., 2005. New data on Mammoth bone settlements of Eastern Europe in the light of new excavations of the Gontsy site (Ukraine). Quaternary International 126e128, 195e207. Iakovleva, L., Djindjian, F., Maschenko, E., Konik, S., 2010. The mammoth bone bed of the mammoth bone hut Late Upper Palaeolithic camp-site of Gontsy (Ukraine): recent results of the 2004e2006 excavations. In: Boeskorov, Lazarev, G., Maschenko, E. (Eds.), IV Mammoth International Conference Iakutsk (Siberia) 18-22 June 2007, Iakutsk, 2010, pp. 150e158. Iakovleva, L., Djindjian, F., Maschenko, E.N., Konik, S., Moigne, A.M., 2012. The late upper Palaeolithic site of Gontsy (Ukraine): a reference for the reconstitution of the hunter-gatherer system based on a mammoth economy. Quaternary International 255, 86e93. Klima, B., 1963. Dolni Vestonice. Vyzkum Taboriste Lovcu Mamutu V Letech 19471952. Nakl. CSAV, Praha. Klima, B., 1995. Dolni Vestonice II, Ein Mammuthj€ agerrastplatz und seine Besge n 73. tattungen. ERAUL, Lie
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L. Iakovleva / Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e11 Klima, B., 2001. Die kjokkenmoddinge Nr. 5e8 von Dolni Vestonice. In: Ginter, B., Drobniewicz, B., Kazior, B., Nowak, M., Poltowicz, M. (Eds.), Problems of the Stone Age in the Old World. Jagellonian University, Krakow, pp. 173e193. Oliva, M., 2009. Milovice ; Site of the Mammoth People below the Pavlov Hills. In: Anthropos, Studies in Anthropology, Palaeoethnology, Palaeontology and Quaternary Geology, vol. 27. Moravske Zemske Muzeum, Brno. Pidoplitchko, I.G., 1976. The Mammoth Bone Dwellings of Mejiriche. Naukova dumka, Kiev (in Russian). Pidoplichko, I.G., 1969. The Mammoth Bone Dwellings in Ukraine. Naukova dumka, Kiev (in Russian). Polikarpovitch, K.M., 1968. The Palaeolithic of the Upper Dnepr. Minsk (in Russian). Popov, V.V., Anikovich, M.V., 1982. The late upper Palaeolithic in Kostienki. The Paleolithic of Kostienki e Borschevo region in the context of upper palaeolithic of Europe. under the direction of Anikovich M.V, Popov V.V., and Platonova N.I..
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The architecture of mammoth bone circular dwellings of the Upper Palaeolithic settlements in Central and Eastern Europe and their sociosymbolic meanings Lioudmila Iakovleva Institute of Archaeology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (Kiev, Ukraine), CNRS UMR 7041 ArScAn, Paris, France
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
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In central and eastern Europe, the development of the architecture of mammoth bone dwellings is associated with the abundance of mammoth bone beds which were exploited by human groups in the Upper Paleolithic. The present paper focuses on the mammoth bone circular dwellings of Gravettian and Epigravettian cultures: Pavlovian (Early Gravettian of Moravia), Gagarino and Pouchkari (Gravettian of Eastern Europe), Kostienki 11/1a (Zamiatnine culture), and Mezinian. The difference between architectures is discussed, focusing on the procurement of the mammoth bones, the ground plan, and the 3D reconstruction of the dwellings. A spectacular “parietal art” is visible in the dwellings of the Mezinian, in the grouping in the outer wall of jaws and long bones showing a geometric pattern of lines, chevrons and zigzags, which are also figured in the painted bones of the dwellings and in the mobile art of the statuettes, tools and various artefacts, confirming they are the manifestation of a socio-symbolic system of the Mezinian culture. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Upper Palaeolithic Settlement Dwellings Architecture Socio-symbolic function
1. Introduction The birth and development of mammoth bone architectures in the Upper Palaeolithic in Central and Eastern Europe are directly related to the existence of mammoth bone concentrations, which provided the bones extensively procured in these regions by groups of hunters-gatherers. The systematic location of the settlements in the vicinity of significant mammoth bones concentrations resulted in a plurality of mammoth bone constructions, with architecture related to the variability of cultural traditions. The large availability of the most voluminous and heaviest parts of the skeleton of a mammoth are at the origins of varied and complex dwelling structures in settlements of the Pavlovian Pouchkari, Gagarino, Kostienki 11(1a), Kostienki 4, Kostienki 2, and Mezinian sites. There is originality in the monumental architecture, and particularly a circular dwelling type with a large number of large bones of mammoths, from which can be deducted socio-symbolic events that are expressed in the construction of residential settlements. 2. Settlements with circular mammoth bone structures, Early Gravettian of Central Europe Spatial structures made with mammoth bones are known in stonice, Milovice, and Pavlov (Klima, 1963, 1995, Moravia at Dolní Ve E-mail address: [email protected].
2001; Svoboda, 1994; Oliva, 2009; Djindjian, 2012). These studies stonice, Klima has gave rise to various interpretations. In Dolní Ve highlighted two circular dwellings 6 m in diameter limited by stones, a loess embankment and setting holes, with internal hearths and external pits. Nearby, a filled ravine provided an accumulation of mammoth bones 45 m long and 12 m wide. In Pavlov, Klima has discovered eleven similar circular dwelling structures. In Milovice, Oliva has discovered several circular dwelling structures with central hearths, defined by circles of large mammoth bones (long bones, scapulae, pelvis, and jaws) collected from the mammoth bone accumulations in the vicinity. Several types of dwelling structures have been defined in the Pavlovian (Svoboda, 2003): - Circular semi-subterranean dwellings surrounded by a stone stonice (Klima, 1963). J. circle, represented by hut n 2 of Dolní Ve Svoboda stressed that the reconstruction in elevation proposed by Klima (inclined flat roof) is hardly convincing and suggests a tipi structure with a circular plan (A). - Circular open air dwelling marked by a circle of mammoth bones, known in Dolní Vestonice I and Milovice (B). - Semi-subterranean circular dwelling without bones or stone circle, of which the most representative is Pavlov dwelling n 5, but others are known at Pavlov I and Dolní Vestonice II (C). Three types of dwellings (and a fourth (D), represented by a central fireplace without visible limits) are variants of a single type
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of dwelling, tipi-shaped, whose circular settings are mammoth or stone bones, and for which the sleeping area has been leveled, dug in a basin shape or without any preparation (Fig. 1). In this type of circular dwellings of the Gravettian of Central Europe, the use of stones and mammoth bones is also found in Gagarino, Pouchkari, and Kostienki 4, and the use of many large mammoth bones is also found in the dwellings of Kostienki 11(1a), Kostienki 2 (Zamiatnine culture) and the Mezinian sites in Eastern Europe. The use of clustered bones and, among other things, mammoth jaws in the south-southwest part of the wall of the stonice (1928 excavations) can be dwelling (cluster 6e8) of Dolní Ve compared with the more systematic and more sophisticated use of mammoth jaws in the dwellings of Kostienki 11 (1a) and also in the Mezinian sites. 3. Mammoth bone circular dwelling structures in Eastern Europe 3.1. Late Gravettian settlement of Pouchkari 1 The settlement of Pouchkari 1, located in the village of the same name on the right bank of the Desna, a subsidiary of the upper Dnepr, was discovered by Roudinski who excavated it in 1932e33, followed by Boriskovski in 1937 and 1939. The latter found a 4 12 m2 dwelling, consisting of three contiguous circular structures, each centered on a fireplace. Many mammoth tusks (69) were found around the three fireplaces, masking the fact that there are few other associated large mammoth bones. The reconstruction that was proposed is a long dwelling, inspired by that proposed by Rogachev for Kostienki 4 (Boriskovski, 1953). Chovkoplass (1965) rightly pointed out the inconsistency of this type of construction in which the wooden poles would obstruct the interior space. The settlement of Pouchkari I is more likely a seasonal camp of short duration installed near flint outcrops. Workshops were organized around fireplaces for flint knapping. Belaeva restarted excavations in this site in 1980, and found another isolated circular structure of
Fig. 1. Types of spatial structures in the Pavlovian (from Svoboda, 2003).
about 2.5 m in diameter with an interior fireplace, 12 m away from the previous one (Beliaeva, 2003). The role of tusks, collapsed in the central fireplace but unburned, suggests a lightweight tipi construction, with the tusks linked at the top to form a corbelled frame covered with reindeer skins. 3.2. Stone and bone mammoth dwelling, Eastern Gravettian settlement of Gagarino In the middle Don Basin, 160 km north of Voronezh, in the open air settlement of Gagarino (Eastern Gravettian), during the 1926e1927 excavations, a circular dwelling was discovered by Zamiatnine (1935). A part of the dwelling was damaged by fieldwork before the excavations. The dwelling has a surface 4.5e5.5 m in diameter, with a central hearth inside. The circular wall of the dwelling has been built with large limestone plates and mammoth bones (skulls and tusks mainly). Two deep and elongated pits, located at the north of the dwelling, accentuate the similarity with the pits known in the dwelling structures of Kostienki 1, Avdeevo, and Zaraysk (Fig. 2). The Gagarino dwelling is also known for the three bare female statuettes carved in ivory which were found inside, near the circular wall. Altogether, in the settlement of Gagarino, 14 figurines have been discovered, among which are 5 quite intact female statuettes, 1 double statuette left unfinished, 4 drafts, 1 anthropomorphic statuette, and 3 fragments (Tarasov, 1979, p.123e142). The presence of female statuettes in the dwellings and pits at Gagarino, Kostienki Avdeevo, Zaraysk, and Khotylevo 2, all sites of the Eastern Gravettian, reveals a characteristic feature of the ideology of hunter-gatherers in which the female theme particularly flourished in residential settlements. 3.3. Mammoth bone dwelling of Kostienki 11/1a In Eastern Europe, in the periglacial steppe-tundra zone of the regions of Ukraine and Russia, a monumental architecture of mammoth bone dwellings, particularly sophisticated and spectacular, appears in the region of the middle Don basin: Kostienki 11/1a and in the regions of the middle and upper Dnieper, in the settlements of Gontsy, Dobranichivka, Mejiriche, Ioudinovo, Mezine, and Suponevo. These residential settlements are always installed near large mammoth bone concentrations, revealing a particular search for this material, indispensable to construct dwellings with a very elaborate architecture. The great importance given to the monumental architecture in residential settlements, compared with the modest spatial structures without bone constructions in the small seasonally-occupied sites, confirms the difference in function and time occupation. In the middle Don Basin, circular dwellings built with a large number of mammoth bones, surrounded by storage pits, are known in the settlements of the culture of Zamiatnine: Kostienki 11/1a, Kostienki 2, Kostienki 3, and Kostienki 19. These sites, partially excavated, provided inconsistent 14C dates, but the sites could be most probably dated around 19,000 to 20,000 BP or earlier. The most characteristic feature of these sites is the settlement of Kostienki 11/1a, also called Anosovka 2, which is located on the promontory of the slope of Anosov. The site of Kostienki 2, which is located 160 m north, could belong to the same settlement. In the current state of the research in Kostienki 11/1a, two large circular mammoth bone dwellings are known. They are located 17 m apart (Popov and Anikovich, 1982). These two dwellings, surrounded by storage pits, have a similar architecture based a circular set of mammoth bones that form a wall circumference. A first dwelling was excavated only over a quarter of its area with a pit. The second dwelling was excavated over its entire surface and was then kept in situ under the protection of the building of a site
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Fig. 2. Dwelling of Gagarino (from Zamiatnine, 1935).
museum (Fig. 3). It is a large circular mammoth bone dwelling 9 m in diameter. It is surrounded by 5 storage pits, 70 cm deep and 2 m in diameter. Despite partial damage during the discovery, the inner circle of 7 m in diameter was made by digging 30 cm into loess to flatten the floor of the dwelling. Currently, the in situ dwelling is composed of 573 mammoth bones from 40 individuals. Probably, the removed loess was used to seal the bones of the perimeter wall (Popov and Anikovich, 1982). In the outer perimeter wall of the dwelling, 8 groups of bones were organized in a circle by pairs of mammoth skulls, and completed with long bones, scapulae, pelvis, jaws, and tusks. A detailed description of the bones of the dwelling was recently published by Popov and Anikovich (1982). The composition of the bones of each of these groups is different. However the internal position of the pairs of skulls and the grouping of bones are common features: scapulae and pelvis in vertical and horizontal position, long bones repetitively grouped in vertical and horizontal position, associated jaws with chin down
with the exception of a few jaws in the reversed position. The clustered and rhythmic location of the same bones decorates the architecture of the dwelling. The decorative aspect of the compositions of mammoth jaws in the outer wall of the two dwellings of Kostienki 11/1a is notable. The wall decor has been erected from many mammoth jaws, put one next to each other or stacked with each other in the same anatomical position, following rhythmic patterns of zigzags and chevrons. 4. Mammoth bone dwellings of the Middle and Upper Dnepr basin (Mezinian) The settlements with the most sophisticated mammoth bone dwellings are concentrated in the middle and upper Dnepr basin: Gontsy, Dobranichivka, Mejiriche, Ioudinovo, Elisseevichi 1, Timonovka 1 and 2, Mezine, Suponevo, and Boujanka 2. The sites are associated with the Mezinian culture, often considered as an
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complemented by working areas, outdoor fireplaces, dumping areas (ashes from hearth cleaning and flint knapping), butchering areas, and mammoth bone beds. One of the most characteristic examples of such a complex settlement is given by the current excavations in Gontsy (Iakovleva and Djindjian, 2005, Iakovleva et al., 2010, Iakovleva et al., 2012). Gontsy, like other residential sites, has characteristic dwellings: four large huts surrounded by storage pits, but also an original construction resembling a small dwelling. The particular importance of the site of Gontsy is marked by the presence of a large mammoth bone bed mixed with bones of other animals (reindeer, bison, musk ox, marmot, carnivores) and widely exploited by the human group (artefacts, hearths). The mammoth bone bed is located on the side and at the bottom of a large, shallow depression dug by a system of paleoravines which fill rapidly, which carved the promontory on which the camp was installed. Exploitation of the mammoth bone bed by the human group is demonstrated by the presence of many artefacts: burnt bone hearths; mammoth bone and ivory tools, flint tools, and blanks. Microstratigraphic studies throughout the site demonstrate the contemporaneousness of the bone bed in the paleoravines and the occupation layers of the dwellings (Iakovleva et al., 2010, 2012) giving a new light on the steps of installation of the settlement and the construction of the dwellings from the available bones of the mammoth bone bed. The excavation of three new large dwellings has allowed linking the bones of a large dwelling and the mammoth carcasses of the bone bed for the first time.
Fig. 3. Dwelling of Kostienki 11/1a (photo L. Iakovleva).
Epigravettian culture, and dated between 15,000 and 14,000 BP by 14 C dates (Iakovleva and Djindjian, 2005). The area of the settlements varies between 500 and 2500 m2 depending on the completeness of the excavations. The site of Gontsy, including the promontory of the settlement and the bone bed, reached nearly 10,000 m2. The architectural tradition of this type of settlement is characterized by the presence of large dwellings 4e6 m in diameter surrounded by storage pits (which could be used as dumps) 1 to 2 or 3 m in diameter, mainly filled with bones of mammoths and other animals, and flint knapping. The dwellings are located 10e24 m apart. Iolated storage pits and some other constructions of smaller size and different shape (elongated walls, small dwellings) are present, well known in Gontsy and Mezine. Up to four large dwellings have been discovered at Gontsy, Dobranichivka, Mejiriche, and Ioudinovo (Fig. 4). The selection and the arrangement of the mammoth bones, considered as architectural elements of each dwelling, is varied. Inside are a central hearth (Gontsy, Dobranichivka, Mejiriche and Ioudinovo), several off-centered hearths (Mezine), or no hearths at all (Dobranichivka, Ioudinovo). The number of pits varies in the settlements. Nine pits surround dwelling n 1 of Gontsy, and six pits surround dwelling n 4 of Mejiriche. Four pits surround the four dwellings of Dobranichivka and the same number was found on the side of dwelling n 1 of Mezine. The location and function of the pits as their abandonment may be variable in each settlement. These structures are
4.1. Architecture and shape of the dwellings The architecture of mammoth bone dwellings is based on the large availability of bone raw material inside the territory of huntergatherers. Monumental constructions were erected with a very large number of bones and tusks of mammoths in Gontsy, Dobranichivka, Mezine, Mejiriche, Ioudinovo, Elisseevichi 1, Timonovka, and Suponevo (Chovkoplass, 1965, 1970, 1972; Polikarpovitch, 1968; Pidoplichko, 1969, 1976; Gladkikh and Korniez, 1979; Iakovleva, 1991, 2009; Abramova and Grigorieva, 1997). Despite their specificity, all the dwellings have the same common structure, erected with the most voluminous and heaviest bones of the mammoth skeleton. The complexity of this architecture may be analyzed especially in the large dwellings, made with a significant number of mammoth bones and tusks, which have a circular or oval shape 4e6 m in diameter, as in the settlements of Dobranichivka, Mezine, Mejiriche, Gontsy, Ioudinovo, and Suponevo (Table 1).
Table 1 Characteristics of the best known circular Gravettian and Epigravettian dwellings of Upper Palaeolithic settlements of central and eastern Europe. N
Settlement
Culture
Dwelling type
Dimensions
1 2 3 4 5 6
Dolni Vestonice n 1 Dolni Vestonice n 2 Pavlov n 5 Dolni Vestonice II n 3 Milovice G Pouchkari
Early Gravettian Early Gravettian Early Gravettian Early Gravettian Early Gravettian Late Gravettian
Tipi Tipi Tipi Tipi Tipi Tipi
Diameter Diameter Diameter Diameter Diameter Diameter
7 8 9
Pouchkari Gagarino Kostienki 4 Upper layer (2 dwellings) Kostienki11/1a Dwelling n 2 Kostienki 2 Mejiriche n 1
Late Gravettian Gravettian Gravettian
Tipi Tipi Tipi
Diameter 3e4 m Diameter 5.5 m Diameter 6m
Zamiatnine culture
Yaranga
Zamiatnine culture Mezinian
Yaranga
10 11 11
Type Type Type Type Type
B A C D? B
3e4 3e4 3e4 3e4 3e4 3e4
Hearth inside m m m m m m
Hearths outside
Pits
Wall Art
Parietal art
H H H H
H
Y
H H
H
Y Y
Diameter 9m
H
H
5
Y
Diameter 8m 6 6.5 m2
H H
? H
Sup. 2
Y
Mobile art
Excavation date
Y Y Y
1963 1963 1954e56 1980 1983 1932e33, 1937e39 1980e90 1926e27 1937e59
Y
1960
Y
Y
1953e56 1966
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Table 1 (continued ) N
Settlement
Culture
Dwelling type
Dimensions
Hearth inside
Hearths outside
Pits
Wall Art
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Mejiriche n 2 Mejiriche n 3 Mejiriche n 4 Dobranichivka Dobranichivka Dobranichivka Dobranichivka Gontsy n 1 Gontsy n 2
Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian
6 4.5 m2 5 4 m2 5.8 4.6 m2 Diameter 4 m Diameter 4 m Diameter 4 m Diameter 4 m Diameter 5.5 m 2.7 1.7 m2
H H H
H H H H H H H H H
Sup. 2 Sup. 2 6 Sup. 1 4 4 4 9 1
Y Y Y
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Gontsy n 3 Gontsy n 4 Gontsy n 5 Mezine n 1 Mezine Old excavations Ioudinovo n 1 Ioudinovo n 2 Ioudinovo n 3 Ioudinovo n 4 Suponevo n 1
Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Small Dwelling Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga ? Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga Yaranga
n 1 n 2 n 3 n 4
Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian Mezinian
7m Partial Sup a 2.6 4 m2 Diameter 8 m Diameter 5.5m ? Diameter 9 m Diameter 5 m 5 7 m2 5 7 m2 Diameter 5.5m
An exception is the first building of Ioudinovo, which has a diameter of 9 m, compared to the large dwelling n 5 of Gontsy which has a diameter of 8 m and the two dwellings of Kostienki 11/ 1a. The 3D museum reconstructions, from the remains of the collapsed dwellings n 1 of Mezine and n 1 of Mejiriche, are well known (Chovkoplass, 1965; Pidoplichko, 1969, 1976). There are discussions about these reconstructions based on ethnographic comparison with Siberian peoples. The bone composition of all the known dwellings highlights the characteristic features of this type of circular dwelling. It is possible to define three types of yaranga dwellings: - The standard dwelling (circular shape, 5 m diameter, or oval, 4 6 m2); - The large dwelling (8 m diameter); and - The small dwelling (oval, about 3 2 m2). The foundations of the dwellings are commonly made by pushing a large set of skulls of mammoths into the ground in a circle. The number of these skulls is highly variable. For example, for dwelling n 1 of Gontsy, 5, 5 m in diameter, 28 skulls of mammoths were used in the foundations. The circular foundation of ¼ dwelling n 1 of the same size of Mezine, consists of only 15 skulls of mammoths. There are two ways to pitch the skulls (always without the jaws) in the ground. In the first case, the front of the skull is pitched in the ground with the alveoli upwards; in the second, the position is reversed, the alveoli are buried. With the first and most common way, the mammoth skull is used with its own tusks, sometimes with other defenses in his own alveoli, or without its tusks. The mammoth tusks, thanks to their long bends, as well as wood poles embedded in the empty alveoli, may also have served as elements of elevation or timbers. Flat bones (scapulae and pelvis), long bones (humerus, femur, radius, tibia, ulna fibula), jaws, vertebrae in anatomical connection, arranged vertically, have been widely used for the construction of the walls. Numerous flat bones and long bones were drilled to allow attachments. The structure of the dwelling is also stabilized by long bones, which are planted vertically in the ground, such as poles, and extended by other bones or by wooden poles. The long bones are frequently nested in holes dug into the epiphysis. A long bone or the wooden pole can be inserted in a cavity of a tusk. Stone pebbles obtained from glacial moraines have also been used. Dwellings n 2,
H H H H
H H
H H H H
Y Y
Parietal art
Mobile art
Excavation date
Y
1970 1972 1976 1953 1967 1969 1970 1915 1998
Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y
H H
H
Y Y Y Y
2006 2009 2011 1954 1909-30 1947 1947, 1967 1981 1983 1927
3, and 4 of Gontsy are characteristic of this type of architecture (Fig. 7). The dwellings in Gontsy are preserved in situ under a high protection hall. However, the disassembly of the dwellings of the other excavated sites revealed several recurring features of this original architecture. In 1955, during the disassembly of dwelling n 1 of Mezine (counting more than 300 bones of mammoths, wolves and reindeer antlers, including 273 bones of mammoths), an experiment took place, reassembling the skulls of mammoths with tusks, as well as the use of wooden poles, planted in the ground in the vicinity of the long bones vertically inserted into the ground (Fig. 9). This suggests the height and volume of the dwelling, with a total ground area of 25 m2 (Chovkoplass, 1965, p.45e46). In conclusion, these observations on mammoth bone architecture, deducted from the study of collapsed dwellings which have lost height and volume, indicate that the settlement and its dwellings, located on a promontory opening on the valley of the river, weare probably visible from afar. These mammoth bone dwellings are protected, sealed internally by the loess extracted from pits, and the roof covered by the skins of hunted animals. They offer a housed space of vital importance. They mark spectacularly the surrounding natural landscape and reveal a significant relationship of humans with nature, through the integration of the settlement in the landscape of the great plain at the glacial maximum where natural shelters were absent.
4.2. Wall ornamentation of the dwellings This monumental architecture reveals aesthetic and symbolic features illustrated by complex compositions of different types of bones and tusks of mammoths in the wall of the dwellings, bringing together utility functions and decorative functions. Differences in the bone anatomical composition give each dwelling its own architectural image, which distinguishes it from others, probably with a specific meaning (Iakovleva, 1991, 1999, p.109e112). The most expressive wall decor, erected from the same groups of bones, is visible in the dwellings of Gontsy, Mejiriche, Ioudinovo, Suponevo, Mezine, and Kostienki 11/1a (Tables 2 and 3).
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Table 2 Art objects of the Mezinian sites of the Dnepr basin. Art objects of Dnepr basin Mezinian sites Mezine 1 Mezine Gontsy 1 Gontsy 2 Gontsy 3 Gontsy 4 Gontsy 5 Mejiriche 1 Mejiriche 2 Mejiriche 3 Mejiriche 4 Dobranichivka 1 Dobranichivka 2 Dobranichivka 3 Dobranichivka 4 Ioudinovo 1 Ioudinovo 2 Ioudinovo 3 Ioudinovo 4 Kiev-Kirilovskaya Suponevo 1 Elisseevichi Semenivka Barmaki Obolonia
Architecture
Parietal Art dwelling
Female statuette
5 16+2 phallics
Chevrons Parallel lines Chevrons Parallel lines Parallel lines Chevron Chevrons Parallel lines Chevrons
Shell ornament
Engraved tusk
Bone & ivory ornament
x x x
x x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x
1 x 2 2
x
x
Tooth ornament
Engraved tool
x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x
1 1 1 Parallel Lines Chevrons, Parallel lines Chevrons, Parallel lines Parallel lines
x x x x
x x x x x x x
Chevrons 1
x x x x
x
x x x
x
x
x x
1
x
Table 3 Geometric figures of the Mezinian art. Main Mezinian geometric figures of Dnepr basin Mezine 1 Mezine Gontsy 1 Gontsy 2 Gontsy 3 Gontsy 4 Gontsy 5 Mejiriche 1 Mejiriche 2 Mejiriche 3 Mejiriche 4 Dobranichivka 1 Dobranichivka 2 Dobranichivka 3 Dobranichivka 4 Ioudinovo 1 Ioudinovo 2 Ioudinovo 3 Ioudinovo 4 Kiev-Kirilovskaya Suponevo 1 Elisseevichi Semenivka Barmaki Obolonia
Pubic triangle
Zig-Zag chevron
Lozenge
Meander
x
x x
x
x
x x
x x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x
x
x
The most elaborate architectural ornamentation is particularly well known in the outer walls of the four dwellings of Mejiriche. Richer and more homogeneous wall decoration marks dwelling n 1 of Mejiriche (Fig. 6). It was erected with many mammoth V-shape jaws, stacked up in the same anatomical position (chin down), showing a rhythmic decoration of chevrons (a column of jaws with up to 5 jaws in the same column) and zigzags (contiguous columns of jaws). The decor was completed by a set of long bones arranged vertically in the southern part of the wall. Only a few flat bones complete this composition in the wall.
Vertical Horizontal lines
Zoomorphic figures
x x x x x x x x x x x
Abstract decoration on tusk x x
x
x
x x x x x x x
x
x
x
x
x
x x
x
Mammoth jaws were also used in the circular wall of the dwelling n 1 of Mezine. They are grouped in the southern and eastern parts of the dwelling. Although the layout of the jaws is less spectacular, two jaws grouped in the southern part of the wall were colored with a red geometric painting of chevrons, which shows the variety of artistic manifestations expressed around the same theme. The three jaws, which are located in the eastern part of the wall, may have originally belonged to a column of jaws forming chevrons, which, after collapse, have been partially displaced and have therefore lost their initial position.
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Fig. 4. Map of the dwellings of Mejiriche (drawing L. Iakovleva from excavation data of I. Pidoplitchko, M. Gladkikh, and N. Korniez).
In the outer wall of dwelling n 1 of Suponevo, preferentially consisting of mammoth skulls and jaws, decorative elements have been also identified, as well as in the walls of dwellings n 2 and n 3 of Ioudinovo. The geometric decoration of the outer wall of the dwelling n 2 of Mejiriche has been built preferentially with long bones, grouped in parallel and vertically. Such a preference emphasizes the origicor with a pattern of vertical parallel nality of this architectural de lines. In the eastern part, a single chevron pattern is represented by a single jaw placed in the normal anatomical position (chin down). Only two jaws have been found in this dwelling. Flat bones (scapulae and pelvis) are also present in the eastern part of the wall. In dwelling n 3 of Mejiriche, the outer wall has been erected, preferentially, with flat bones (scapulae and pelvis) and long bones. The geometric decoration in the western part of the dwelling is figured by grouped long bones stacked horizontally (four stacks)
forming horizontal parallel lines, and associated with a stack of two jaws in the normal anatomical position (chin down) showing a nested chevron pattern. The third jaw found nearby was probably part of the same composition, which was originally a stack of three jaws. Long bones, stacked in the horizontal position, have been systematically placed in the outer walls of the four dwellings of Ioudinovo. In addition, the same association of nested jaws and long bones grouped in horizontal position is visible in the western outer wall of dwelling n 3 at Ioudinovo. The presence, in the western part of the outer wall of dwelling n 2, of a mammoth skull and a jaw placed in the normal anatomical position (chin down), repeats the chevron pattern. The outer wall of dwelling n 4 of Mejiriche is erected with different mammoth bones (flat bones, long bones, skulls, jaws, part of vertebral spine in anatomical connection) according to an
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Fig. 5. Map of the dwelling n 1 of Mezine with the spatial distribution of painted bones (drawing L. Iakovleva from excavation data of I. Chovkoplass).
established order and rhythm. The geometric decoration of the eleven jaws located in the western part of the dwelling forms a pattern with chevrons and zigzags. The centre of this ornamental composition consists of a single and large jaw, which is located in position “chin up” forming an inverted chevron. This central jaw is surrounded symmetrically on both sides by stacks of other jaws, which follow a precise rhythm: two columns with two jaws in each column on one side and two columns with three jaws in each column on the other side. All stacks of jaws are arranged in the same normal anatomical position (chin down), forming joined chevrons and zigzags through their rhythmic grouping. In the outer wall of dwelling n 1 of Suponevo, jaws are arranged in an inverted position (chin up), forming inverted chevrons. The southern part of the wall of the dwelling is also built with several jaws. The collapse of the outer wall has destroyed their original disposition. However, it is possible to distinguish a column of two stacked jaws, showing a chevron top oriented. A third jaw in the same orientation is located in the direct vicinity. The architectural chevrons echo the engraved chevrons, which were executed with the technique of fine engraving on two small fragments of tusks found in Suponevo. The four dwellings of Mejiriche illustrate the particularity of each dwelling, which shows the deliberate choice of different mammoth bones and their specific disposition. In the outer walls of the dwellings, the geometric wall decoration is made with two types of mammoth bones: long bones creating vertical parallel lines (dwellings n 1 and n 2); horizontal parallel lines (dwelling n 3) and the jaws creating chevrons (dwelling n 1 and n 4) and zigzags (dwelling n 1 and n 4).
cor, the marking of the Despite the uniqueness of each wall de four dwellings by chevrons is one of the characteristic features of the architecture of Mejiriche. The architectural decoration using jaws forming chevrons and zigzags, with a composition different for each dwelling, recalls the same geometric decoration engraved on the female statuettes, found in these dwellings or in the vicinity (Fig. 6). This pattern probably reveals a complex coding ‛woman e mammoth e dwelling’, similar in dwelling architecture, sculpture, and geometric engraving (Iakovleva, 2013, p.52e53). A socio e symbolic code may also be seen in the outer wall of the large dwelling n 5 of Gontsy, under excavation (Fig. 7). An original composition of mammoth jaws was discovered in the southern part of the wall. The mammoth bones are organized as follows (from west to east): a scapula e a first jaw (chin up) with a long bone placed vertically between the two teeth e a second jaw (chin down) e a third jaw in the same position as the previous e a skull with buried alveoli e and a fifth mandible (chin down) on which is placed a baby mammoth skull and a scapula (Figs. 7 and 8). They reveal a symbolism “women e mammoths” integrated in the dwelling. The richness of this coding reveals the surprising overlay of an adult mammoth jaw with the skull of a baby mammoth, which finished the set of the zigzag mammoth jaws in the outer southern wall of dwelling n 5 of Gontsy. Such an architectural composition invites us to wonder about the cosignification the female theme and the mammoth theme, considering that the herd of mammoths, led by a female matriarch, is composed of females, sub-adults, young, and babies.
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4.3. Painted decorations of dwelling n 1 of Mezine
Fig. 6. Dwelling n 4 of Mejiriche (photo M. Gladkikh).
Fig. 7. Dwelling n 4 of Gontsy (Excavations and photo L. Iakovleva and F. Djindjian).
Fig. 8. Mammoth jaw with a baby mammoth skull in the outer wall of the dwelling n 4 of Gontsy (Excavations and photo L. Iakovleva and F. Djindjian).
Dwelling n 1 of Mezine has a bone wall decoration of geometric painting in red hematite and in yellow jarosite (Iakovleva, 1999, p.112e113, Fig. 14; 2009, p.106e107, Fig. 9). The six painted bones come from mammoth bones used in dwelling n 1 (Fig. 5): a scapula, a pelvis, two jaws, a skull, and a femur which has also a geometric engraving. A group of painted bone consisting of two jaws and a large fragment of a half right pelvis, associated with a scapula, another pelvis without decoration, and a large stone, is located between the two skulls with tusks in their alveoli forming the southern part of the outer wall of the dwelling. The location of the geometric decoration on one side of each bone is explained by their architectural layout and their visibility in the wall. The painted decoration is represented on the same surface of the right side of the two nested jaws in oblique position, and the painted area is oriented outward. Each jaw has an individualized decoration. The composition of short lines parallel and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bone is superimposed under an obtuse angle by long parallel lines, forming a chevron pattern. Thanks to the constant rhythm and the red color of the decor, the right side of a young mammoth jaw is highlighted especially. Red paint decoration, consisting of short parallel lines attached with an obtuse angle, is located on the right side of an adult mammoth jaw. The surface quality of this jaw prevents the complete reconstruction of the ornamentation. A geometric composition, difficult to see actually, is composed of a red great spot, parallel lines, and chevrons, located on a part of the surface of a right mammoth pelvis. A more visible geometric composition is located on a large part of the medial surface of an adult mammoth scapula. The geometric red and yellow decorations are composed primarily of zigzags, which were supplemented with a few marginal chevrons made with the same obtuse angle as for all the composition. The aesthetic value of this ornamentation is revealed by the positions of the ranks of the regular and tight parallel zigzags, as well as chevrons which are composed according to a well respected rhythm of the same width, 0.8e0.9 cm, as well as the same interval between each of these ornamental items. A painted and engraved femur was driven vertically into the ground in the center of the dwelling. In a cavity, dug inside the femur epiphysis, was inserted another narrower and smaller long bone, as a pole, part of a system of poles planted vertically in the ground inside the dwelling. The geometric painted decoration on both sides (back and side) of the femur is composed of short parallel lines, oblique against the length of the bone. A long row of about twenty short and oblique red lines decorates the back surface of the bone. This ornamentation is superimposed on a dozen double and fine lines engraved at 90 to the longitudinal axis of the bone. In addition, two superimposed oblique and parallel short lines, of yellow color, are painted on the flattened end of the lateral surface. A great red spot is painted on the other end of the same surface. The geometric painted decoration of this long sequence is well done through a regular alternation of lines of 6e7 cm in length and roughly of the same width, 1 cm, with the same interval of 1 cm between each line. A red and yellow geometric painting also marks the skull of a mammoth from the northern outer wall of the same dwelling. The tradition of marking the mammoth skulls is also known in Mejiriche. In the northwest outer wall of dwelling n 4 of Mejiriche, the painting is represented by large spots of red hematite on two skulls of mammoths. A red geometric figure, with a decoration of chevrons and parallel lines, was painted on a mammoth skull near the entrance inside dwelling n 1.
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L. Iakovleva / Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e11
Fig. 9. Reconstitution of the dwelling n 1 of Mezine by the team of Ivan Chovkoplass (photo Archives of the Institute of Archaeology NAS Ukraine).
The geometrical composition of the painted bones of dwelling n 1 of Mezine, as well as the architectural compositions of all the dwellings, distinguishes the characteristic use of chevrons, zigzags, and parallel lines in wall decoration, as well as in geometric engravings on mobile art objects of the same sites. In addition, the parietal symbolic notation of the dwellings of Mezine and Mejiriche is consistent with the decoration of the statuettes and certain types of ornaments and tools (Iakovleva, 1991, 2009, p.749e750). 5. Conclusion The architecture of the dwellings shows various decorations which are the elements of a complex socio-symbolic system. Firstly, settlements with their monumental decorated mammoth bone dwellings are prominent in the natural environment of the valley of the plain, as a socialized and symbolized place of the territory occupied by the network of human groups. The bone decor of the outer walls of the dwellings of Kostienki 11/1a, Gontsy, Mejiriche, and Mezine shows the same decorative theme as the decoration of the statuettes and certain types of body ornaments and tools. If the mobile art objects and the decorated domestic tools provide these functions in the space of the settlement, the monumental dwellings mark spectacularly the natural landscape of the great plain during the ice age in the territory. In addition, the specificity of the female theme, one of the overriding Palaeolithic art themes, is systematically expressed in the different forms of the mobile sculpture, the engraved geometric decoration, but also the architectural decoration. It reflects the expression of a coded artistic system implemented in the settlement. As a corollary, the scarcity of schematic animal sculpture is linked to the development of the architecture, which implicitly includes the theme of the mammoth and the theme of the female through complex compositions involving a large number of mammoth bones, which played a fundamental role in the economy of this people. Thus, the art of dwelling architecture and mobile ornaments, by its original and varied forms, illuminates the vision of the universal ideology of the societies of Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers, with spiritual elaborations on the essential value of life and death of the human groups, strongly embedded in the animal world. One of the core concepts of this universal ideology is given by a constant and
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Please cite this article in press as: Iakovleva, L., The architecture of mammoth bone circular dwellings of the Upper Palaeolithic settlements in Central and Eastern Europe and their socio-symbolic meanings, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.050