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The Bioclimatic Performance of Towns and Settlements as Defined by Byzantine Building Codes
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect Procedia Environmental Sciences 38 (2017) 651 – 657
International Conference on Sustainable Synergies from Buildings to the Urban Scale, SBE16
The bioclimatic performance of towns and settlements as defined by Byzantine Building Codes F. Bougiatiotia*, A. Oikonomoub a
School of Architecture, National Technical University of Athens, Patision 42, Athens, 106-82, Greece b School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece
Abstract The Byzantine Building Codes aimed at defining in a very precise manner the way in which settlements and towns were built within the boundaries of the Byzantine Empire. Consequently, they contained rules that defined the front, side and rear distances between buildings of different uses, the number and dimensions of the windows, the depth and distances of the projections, etc. Many of these limitations and rules were mainly derived from issues of sanitation, privacy and views. Nevertheless, in many parts of the Codes, there is reference to the achievement of acceptable daylighting and ventilation conditions. This primary aim of this paper is to investigate the bioclimatic performance of the built environment, which was shaped based on these building codes, in terms of insolation, shading and daylighting, as well as air circulation and ventilation. The findings of the study will provide information concerning the bioclimatic performance of both the urban open spaces and the interior living spaces of buildings in Byzantine towns and settlements, whose form derived from Byzantine Building Codes. © 2017 2017The TheAuthors. Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license © Published by Elsevier B.V. This (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SBE16. Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SBE16. Keywords: byzantine settlements; byzantine regulations; insolation,; shading; daylighting
1. Introduction The building codes that were in effect during the period of the Byzantine Empire in its different towns and provinces have been the object of numerous studies. Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou1,2 presents in great detail the building codes that defined the production of the built environment, as well as issues directly or indirectly linked
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 210 772 3910; fax: +30 210 772 3898. E-mail address: [email protected]
1878-0296 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SBE16. doi:10.1016/j.proenv.2017.03.145
652
F. Bougiatioti and A. Oikonomou / Procedia Environmental Sciences 38 (2017) 651 – 657
with it, within the boundaries of the Byzantine Empire, from the Theodosian Code (313 A.D) until the Hexabiblos of Armenopoulos (1345), while Hakim3,4 presents in great deal the Treatise of Julian of Ascalon, as well as the various building and urban codes that were in use in the countries and areas around the Mediterranean Basin. The history, the sources, the books, the content, as well as the basic institutions of the Byzantine building codes, namely the proprietary rights and rights of praedial servitude2, are thoroughly analysed by the afore-mentioned authors and are thus completely excluded from the present study. Nevertheless, a synopsis of the Byzantine building codes, from which data are drawn and analysed in this paper is presented in Appendix A.1. 2. Methodology and Assumptions The analysis is based on the analysis and codification of the Byzantine urban and building legislation presented by V. Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou1,2 and mainly involves Istanbul, which was the capital of the Byzantine Empire, as well as towns in other, more southern parts of the Empire, where local variations of the Building Codes existed. The basic codes from which plans and sections are drawn1,2 are Zenon’s Edict (474-491) and Julian of Ascalon’s Treatise (532-533). These are used to draw typical sections, which are qualitatively assessed in terms of air circulation and ventilation, and to construct three-dimensional models, which are analysed in terms of insolation, shading and daylighting with the Ecotect Analysis software. The sections and the models are constructed in metric units (meters and centimeters), which are derived from the conversion of the byzantine foot. The metric system in the Byzantine Empire was based primarily on the foot and secondarily on the cubit. The dimensions of the foot varied over time, while there are also differences in the way in which the foot is connected with the cubit. Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou1,2 based her analysis on the foot of 31.23 cm and the cubit, which is equal to 1.5 times the foot, namely 46.8 cm. Consequently, this data is used for the present study, as well. Two typical street configurations are analysed: two-storeyed buildings facing a street with a width of 10 feet (3.123 m), which is the distance set by the Theodosian Code and the Treatise of Julian of Ascalon and of 12 feet (3.74 m), which is the distance set by Zenon’s Edict.1,2 (Fig. 1) The buildings have sloped roofs with eaves projecting by 1 foot (0.312 m). While this may have been true for Istanbul, buildings in the Middle East are more likely to have had flat roofs.
Fig. 1. Typical dimensions for street configurations redrawn after 1,2 (a) Street section; (b) Three-dimensional street model.
Another assumption involves the climatic data. As the analysis is mainly based on Zenon’s Edict and on Julian of Ascalon’s Treatise, climatic data for Istanbul and the wider Gaza area in the Middle East is used for the analysis. It is obvious that present climatic conditions may differ considerably from those prevailing during the 5 th and the 6th century A.D., when the codes were written. Nevertheless, sun altitude and azimuth angles, which are used for the
F. Bougiatioti and A. Oikonomou / Procedia Environmental Sciences 38 (2017) 651 – 657
shading analysis, remain the same as they are solely latitude and longitude dependent. Similarly, the prevailing winds, and especially those blowing during the summer in the area of the Eastern Mediterranean, can also be considered as typical (ethesians or meltemia, which are northern to northeastern winds). Nevertheless, from recent years wind roses (Fig. 2), it can be seen that this is true for Istanbul, but not for the wider Gaza area. Prevailing W inds
Prevailing W inds
a Prevailing W inds
Prevailing W inds
b Fig. 2. Prevailing winds for the winter and the summer period for (a) Istanbul; (b) The wider Gaza area.
3. Presentation of the study 3.1. Air circulation and ventilation In the Byzantine building codes under consideration, air circulation and ventilation is primarily linked to nuisance caused by the smoke that is emitted from the furnace of buildings, whose function requires the burning of wood (e.g. baths, bakeries, etc.). Distances between these buildings and their surrounding residences are set based on four criteria: a) prevailing winds during the summer and winter period, b) the period of function of the furnace (continuous/all day, intermittent/few hours during the day), c) the course of smoke from the chimney, which due to
653
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F. Bougiatioti and A. Oikonomou / Procedia Environmental Sciences 38 (2017) 651 – 657
natural buyonancy tends to rise and d) human adaptive behaviour concerning the opening and closing of windows. 1 For example, baths (public or private) require the constant function of the furnace, which, apart from smoke, also causes the risk of fire. On the contrary, in bakeries, the furnace functions for a small period of the day (very early in the morning).1 The distances of the buildings surrounding a bath and a bakery are defined by Julian of Ascalon based primarily on the summer prevailing winds (N-NE), when people are most likely to have open windows, and secondarily on the southern to south-western winter prevailing winds. Apart from the above, the distances of the opposite buildings of a street, in combination with their heights, result in the following height to width (H/W) ratios: x H/W = 1.5, for buildings with a height of 15 feet (4.70 m) facing a 10 feet (3.12 m) wide street (Theodosios and Julian of Ascalon). x H/W = 1.25, for buildings with a height of 15 feet (4.70 m) facing a 12 feet (3.74 m) wide street (Zenon). In the case of winds blowing perpendicular to the street axis, it can be deduced that because the H/W ration is considerably larger than 0.7, the winds never entered the street 5, depriving the open space, as well as the buildings from natural ventilation and cooling, during the summer period. For higher buildings, where projections (open or closed balconies) were allowed at a height of 15 feet (4.70 m) from the street level, the minimum required distance between the projections was 10 feet (3.12 m), as well, resulting in even smaller H/W ratios. 3.2. Insolation and shading Insolation and shading analysis is performed for representative periods of the year (winter solstice, summer solstice and vernal/autumnal equinox) and hours of the day (09:00, 12:00, 15:00 and 18:00). Due to restrictions of space, only the analysis for noon is presented (Fig. 3 and 4). It can be seen that the roof eaves provide shade to the façade of the buildings in both locations and in two different street orientations.
a
b 21 December, 12:00
21 March, 12:00
21 21March, June, 12:00 12:00
Fig. 3. Insolation and shading analysis for a street with its axis running N-S for (a) Istanbul; (b) The wider Gaza area.
F. Bougiatioti and A. Oikonomou / Procedia Environmental Sciences 38 (2017) 651 – 657
a
b 21 December, 12:00
21 March, 12:00
21 21March, June, 12:00 12:00
Fig. 4. Insolation and shading analysis for a street with its axis running W-E for (a) Istanbul; (b) The wider Gaza area.
3.3. Daylighting Similar to insolation and shading analysis, daylighting analysis is performed for representative periods of the year (winter solstice, summer solstice and vernal/autumnal equinox) and hours of the day (09:00, 12:00, 15:00 and 18:00). Sky conditions were set to overcast for the winter solstice and clear for the summer solstice. The daylighting conditions of an upper storey room with openings only towards the street were analysed. As expected, daylighting levels are high in the immediate vicinity of the façade windows and drop considerably towards the back of the room. Also, daylighting levels are higher in the Middle East than in Istanbul.
a
b
Fig. 5. Daylighting analysis for an east-facing upper storey room, on the winter solstice (21/12, 12:00) with overcast sky conditions (a) Istanbul; (b) The wider Gaza area.
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a
b
Fig. 6. Daylighting analysis for a south-facing upper storey room, on the winter solstice (21/12, 12:00) with overcast sky conditions (a) Istanbul; (b) The wider Gaza area.
4. Conclusion The present study is a first approach to quantify the bioclimatic performance of Byzantine settlements based on their design, as described in the various building codes. It goes without saying that this study is purely theoretical, as the actual form of the Byzantine town is not known due to the complete lack of relevant archeological findings.2 Thus, the form deriving from the building codes may have varied considerably from the actual urban and building form. Nevertheless, what is undisputable is the way in which prevailing climatic conditions (solar radiation, daylighting, prevailing winds, etc.), in combination with the use and the form of the buildings, provided firm guidelines on the geometry of the urban fabric, as well as on the design of the buildings. These issues that were long forgotten and re-emerged within the scope of climate change and sustainable development during the last decades, were vital for the shaping of the built environment, not only during the Byzantine times, but also long before that, in ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Further and more detailed research should focus on the analysis and simulation of the microclimatic conditions (insolation, wind movement, air temperatures, etc.) prevailing in streets with the typical geometry defined above, but with different orientations (parametric analysis). Acknowledgements The drawings and models, which were presented and analysed in this paper, were redrawn after TourptsoglouStephanidou 1998 and 2014. Appendix A. Byzantine building codes and metrics A.1. Byzantine building codes Based on the information presented by Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou1,2, a synopsis of the various Byzantine building codes is presented in Table A.1.
F. Bougiatioti and A. Oikonomou / Procedia Environmental Sciences 38 (2017) 651 – 657
Table A.1. Synopsis of Byzantine Building Codes (Adopted after 1,2) Author
Building Code
Period of effect
Area of influence
Theodosian
Theodosian Code
313-438
Eastern parts
-
Syro-Roman Lawbook
468
Middle East
Zenon
Zenon’s Edict
474-491
Istanbul
Justinian
Zenon’s Edict in Justinian’s Code
531
All cities of the Empire
Corpus Juris Civilis
534
Novels
535-565
Julian of Ascalon’s Treatise or Julian of Ascalon’s Eparchika
532-533
Middle-East (Palestine)
10th c.
Istanbul
Nearae Dieataxis
886-907
Book of the Eparch
911-12
Istanbul
Procheiron Nomon or Hexabiblos
1345 and during Turkish Domination
Eastern parts of the Empire
Julian of Ascalon
Leo VI (Sofos)
Constantine Armenopoulos
A.2. Byzantine metric system The variations of the foot in the Byzantine building codes, as mentioned by Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou1, are presented in Table A.2. Table A.2. Variations of the Byzantine foot (Adopted after 1) Building Code (Author)
Dimension (cm)
Name
Julian of Ascalon’s Treatise or Julian of Ascalon’s Eparchika
31.5
ancient greek
29.75
roman
(Julian of Ascalon)
35.0
philetaerian
Egypt & The Middle East
31.23
byzantine
Istanbul
31.23
byzantine
Procheiron Nomon or Hexabiblos
Area of influence
(Constantine Armenopoulos)
References 1. Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou V. An outline of Byzantine building regulations: from Justinian to Harmenopoulos and their influence on the legislation of the New Hellenic State. Thessaloniki: Society of Macedonian Studies; 1998. 2. Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou V. The Roman-Byzantine building regulations. In: Hakim BS, editor. Mediterranean urbanism. Historic urban / Building rules and processes. Springer; 2014. p. 127-170. 3. Hakim BS. Julian of Ascalon’s treatise of construction and design rules from sixth-century Palestine. J. of the Society of Architectural Historians 2000; 60:1: 4-25. 4. Hakim BS. Mediterranean urban and building codes: origins, content, impact, and lessons. J Urban Design International 2008; 13; 21-40. 5. Santamouris M, et al. Ecological construction (Ikologiki domisi). Athens: Ellinika Grammata; 2000.
657
ScienceDirect Procedia Environmental Sciences 38 (2017) 651 – 657
International Conference on Sustainable Synergies from Buildings to the Urban Scale, SBE16
The bioclimatic performance of towns and settlements as defined by Byzantine Building Codes F. Bougiatiotia*, A. Oikonomoub a
School of Architecture, National Technical University of Athens, Patision 42, Athens, 106-82, Greece b School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece
Abstract The Byzantine Building Codes aimed at defining in a very precise manner the way in which settlements and towns were built within the boundaries of the Byzantine Empire. Consequently, they contained rules that defined the front, side and rear distances between buildings of different uses, the number and dimensions of the windows, the depth and distances of the projections, etc. Many of these limitations and rules were mainly derived from issues of sanitation, privacy and views. Nevertheless, in many parts of the Codes, there is reference to the achievement of acceptable daylighting and ventilation conditions. This primary aim of this paper is to investigate the bioclimatic performance of the built environment, which was shaped based on these building codes, in terms of insolation, shading and daylighting, as well as air circulation and ventilation. The findings of the study will provide information concerning the bioclimatic performance of both the urban open spaces and the interior living spaces of buildings in Byzantine towns and settlements, whose form derived from Byzantine Building Codes. © 2017 2017The TheAuthors. Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license © Published by Elsevier B.V. This (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SBE16. Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SBE16. Keywords: byzantine settlements; byzantine regulations; insolation,; shading; daylighting
1. Introduction The building codes that were in effect during the period of the Byzantine Empire in its different towns and provinces have been the object of numerous studies. Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou1,2 presents in great detail the building codes that defined the production of the built environment, as well as issues directly or indirectly linked
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 210 772 3910; fax: +30 210 772 3898. E-mail address: [email protected]
1878-0296 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SBE16. doi:10.1016/j.proenv.2017.03.145
652
F. Bougiatioti and A. Oikonomou / Procedia Environmental Sciences 38 (2017) 651 – 657
with it, within the boundaries of the Byzantine Empire, from the Theodosian Code (313 A.D) until the Hexabiblos of Armenopoulos (1345), while Hakim3,4 presents in great deal the Treatise of Julian of Ascalon, as well as the various building and urban codes that were in use in the countries and areas around the Mediterranean Basin. The history, the sources, the books, the content, as well as the basic institutions of the Byzantine building codes, namely the proprietary rights and rights of praedial servitude2, are thoroughly analysed by the afore-mentioned authors and are thus completely excluded from the present study. Nevertheless, a synopsis of the Byzantine building codes, from which data are drawn and analysed in this paper is presented in Appendix A.1. 2. Methodology and Assumptions The analysis is based on the analysis and codification of the Byzantine urban and building legislation presented by V. Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou1,2 and mainly involves Istanbul, which was the capital of the Byzantine Empire, as well as towns in other, more southern parts of the Empire, where local variations of the Building Codes existed. The basic codes from which plans and sections are drawn1,2 are Zenon’s Edict (474-491) and Julian of Ascalon’s Treatise (532-533). These are used to draw typical sections, which are qualitatively assessed in terms of air circulation and ventilation, and to construct three-dimensional models, which are analysed in terms of insolation, shading and daylighting with the Ecotect Analysis software. The sections and the models are constructed in metric units (meters and centimeters), which are derived from the conversion of the byzantine foot. The metric system in the Byzantine Empire was based primarily on the foot and secondarily on the cubit. The dimensions of the foot varied over time, while there are also differences in the way in which the foot is connected with the cubit. Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou1,2 based her analysis on the foot of 31.23 cm and the cubit, which is equal to 1.5 times the foot, namely 46.8 cm. Consequently, this data is used for the present study, as well. Two typical street configurations are analysed: two-storeyed buildings facing a street with a width of 10 feet (3.123 m), which is the distance set by the Theodosian Code and the Treatise of Julian of Ascalon and of 12 feet (3.74 m), which is the distance set by Zenon’s Edict.1,2 (Fig. 1) The buildings have sloped roofs with eaves projecting by 1 foot (0.312 m). While this may have been true for Istanbul, buildings in the Middle East are more likely to have had flat roofs.
Fig. 1. Typical dimensions for street configurations redrawn after 1,2 (a) Street section; (b) Three-dimensional street model.
Another assumption involves the climatic data. As the analysis is mainly based on Zenon’s Edict and on Julian of Ascalon’s Treatise, climatic data for Istanbul and the wider Gaza area in the Middle East is used for the analysis. It is obvious that present climatic conditions may differ considerably from those prevailing during the 5 th and the 6th century A.D., when the codes were written. Nevertheless, sun altitude and azimuth angles, which are used for the
F. Bougiatioti and A. Oikonomou / Procedia Environmental Sciences 38 (2017) 651 – 657
shading analysis, remain the same as they are solely latitude and longitude dependent. Similarly, the prevailing winds, and especially those blowing during the summer in the area of the Eastern Mediterranean, can also be considered as typical (ethesians or meltemia, which are northern to northeastern winds). Nevertheless, from recent years wind roses (Fig. 2), it can be seen that this is true for Istanbul, but not for the wider Gaza area. Prevailing W inds
Prevailing W inds
a Prevailing W inds
Prevailing W inds
b Fig. 2. Prevailing winds for the winter and the summer period for (a) Istanbul; (b) The wider Gaza area.
3. Presentation of the study 3.1. Air circulation and ventilation In the Byzantine building codes under consideration, air circulation and ventilation is primarily linked to nuisance caused by the smoke that is emitted from the furnace of buildings, whose function requires the burning of wood (e.g. baths, bakeries, etc.). Distances between these buildings and their surrounding residences are set based on four criteria: a) prevailing winds during the summer and winter period, b) the period of function of the furnace (continuous/all day, intermittent/few hours during the day), c) the course of smoke from the chimney, which due to
653
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F. Bougiatioti and A. Oikonomou / Procedia Environmental Sciences 38 (2017) 651 – 657
natural buyonancy tends to rise and d) human adaptive behaviour concerning the opening and closing of windows. 1 For example, baths (public or private) require the constant function of the furnace, which, apart from smoke, also causes the risk of fire. On the contrary, in bakeries, the furnace functions for a small period of the day (very early in the morning).1 The distances of the buildings surrounding a bath and a bakery are defined by Julian of Ascalon based primarily on the summer prevailing winds (N-NE), when people are most likely to have open windows, and secondarily on the southern to south-western winter prevailing winds. Apart from the above, the distances of the opposite buildings of a street, in combination with their heights, result in the following height to width (H/W) ratios: x H/W = 1.5, for buildings with a height of 15 feet (4.70 m) facing a 10 feet (3.12 m) wide street (Theodosios and Julian of Ascalon). x H/W = 1.25, for buildings with a height of 15 feet (4.70 m) facing a 12 feet (3.74 m) wide street (Zenon). In the case of winds blowing perpendicular to the street axis, it can be deduced that because the H/W ration is considerably larger than 0.7, the winds never entered the street 5, depriving the open space, as well as the buildings from natural ventilation and cooling, during the summer period. For higher buildings, where projections (open or closed balconies) were allowed at a height of 15 feet (4.70 m) from the street level, the minimum required distance between the projections was 10 feet (3.12 m), as well, resulting in even smaller H/W ratios. 3.2. Insolation and shading Insolation and shading analysis is performed for representative periods of the year (winter solstice, summer solstice and vernal/autumnal equinox) and hours of the day (09:00, 12:00, 15:00 and 18:00). Due to restrictions of space, only the analysis for noon is presented (Fig. 3 and 4). It can be seen that the roof eaves provide shade to the façade of the buildings in both locations and in two different street orientations.
a
b 21 December, 12:00
21 March, 12:00
21 21March, June, 12:00 12:00
Fig. 3. Insolation and shading analysis for a street with its axis running N-S for (a) Istanbul; (b) The wider Gaza area.
F. Bougiatioti and A. Oikonomou / Procedia Environmental Sciences 38 (2017) 651 – 657
a
b 21 December, 12:00
21 March, 12:00
21 21March, June, 12:00 12:00
Fig. 4. Insolation and shading analysis for a street with its axis running W-E for (a) Istanbul; (b) The wider Gaza area.
3.3. Daylighting Similar to insolation and shading analysis, daylighting analysis is performed for representative periods of the year (winter solstice, summer solstice and vernal/autumnal equinox) and hours of the day (09:00, 12:00, 15:00 and 18:00). Sky conditions were set to overcast for the winter solstice and clear for the summer solstice. The daylighting conditions of an upper storey room with openings only towards the street were analysed. As expected, daylighting levels are high in the immediate vicinity of the façade windows and drop considerably towards the back of the room. Also, daylighting levels are higher in the Middle East than in Istanbul.
a
b
Fig. 5. Daylighting analysis for an east-facing upper storey room, on the winter solstice (21/12, 12:00) with overcast sky conditions (a) Istanbul; (b) The wider Gaza area.
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a
b
Fig. 6. Daylighting analysis for a south-facing upper storey room, on the winter solstice (21/12, 12:00) with overcast sky conditions (a) Istanbul; (b) The wider Gaza area.
4. Conclusion The present study is a first approach to quantify the bioclimatic performance of Byzantine settlements based on their design, as described in the various building codes. It goes without saying that this study is purely theoretical, as the actual form of the Byzantine town is not known due to the complete lack of relevant archeological findings.2 Thus, the form deriving from the building codes may have varied considerably from the actual urban and building form. Nevertheless, what is undisputable is the way in which prevailing climatic conditions (solar radiation, daylighting, prevailing winds, etc.), in combination with the use and the form of the buildings, provided firm guidelines on the geometry of the urban fabric, as well as on the design of the buildings. These issues that were long forgotten and re-emerged within the scope of climate change and sustainable development during the last decades, were vital for the shaping of the built environment, not only during the Byzantine times, but also long before that, in ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Further and more detailed research should focus on the analysis and simulation of the microclimatic conditions (insolation, wind movement, air temperatures, etc.) prevailing in streets with the typical geometry defined above, but with different orientations (parametric analysis). Acknowledgements The drawings and models, which were presented and analysed in this paper, were redrawn after TourptsoglouStephanidou 1998 and 2014. Appendix A. Byzantine building codes and metrics A.1. Byzantine building codes Based on the information presented by Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou1,2, a synopsis of the various Byzantine building codes is presented in Table A.1.
F. Bougiatioti and A. Oikonomou / Procedia Environmental Sciences 38 (2017) 651 – 657
Table A.1. Synopsis of Byzantine Building Codes (Adopted after 1,2) Author
Building Code
Period of effect
Area of influence
Theodosian
Theodosian Code
313-438
Eastern parts
-
Syro-Roman Lawbook
468
Middle East
Zenon
Zenon’s Edict
474-491
Istanbul
Justinian
Zenon’s Edict in Justinian’s Code
531
All cities of the Empire
Corpus Juris Civilis
534
Novels
535-565
Julian of Ascalon’s Treatise or Julian of Ascalon’s Eparchika
532-533
Middle-East (Palestine)
10th c.
Istanbul
Nearae Dieataxis
886-907
Book of the Eparch
911-12
Istanbul
Procheiron Nomon or Hexabiblos
1345 and during Turkish Domination
Eastern parts of the Empire
Julian of Ascalon
Leo VI (Sofos)
Constantine Armenopoulos
A.2. Byzantine metric system The variations of the foot in the Byzantine building codes, as mentioned by Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou1, are presented in Table A.2. Table A.2. Variations of the Byzantine foot (Adopted after 1) Building Code (Author)
Dimension (cm)
Name
Julian of Ascalon’s Treatise or Julian of Ascalon’s Eparchika
31.5
ancient greek
29.75
roman
(Julian of Ascalon)
35.0
philetaerian
Egypt & The Middle East
31.23
byzantine
Istanbul
31.23
byzantine
Procheiron Nomon or Hexabiblos
Area of influence
(Constantine Armenopoulos)
References 1. Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou V. An outline of Byzantine building regulations: from Justinian to Harmenopoulos and their influence on the legislation of the New Hellenic State. Thessaloniki: Society of Macedonian Studies; 1998. 2. Tourptsoglou-Stephanidou V. The Roman-Byzantine building regulations. In: Hakim BS, editor. Mediterranean urbanism. Historic urban / Building rules and processes. Springer; 2014. p. 127-170. 3. Hakim BS. Julian of Ascalon’s treatise of construction and design rules from sixth-century Palestine. J. of the Society of Architectural Historians 2000; 60:1: 4-25. 4. Hakim BS. Mediterranean urban and building codes: origins, content, impact, and lessons. J Urban Design International 2008; 13; 21-40. 5. Santamouris M, et al. Ecological construction (Ikologiki domisi). Athens: Ellinika Grammata; 2000.
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