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The Census of India
Government Publications Review, Vol. 16, pp. 429438, Primed in the USA. All rights reserved.
1989 Copyright
0277-9390189 $3.00 + .OO 0 1989 Pergamon Press plc
THE CENSUS OF INDIA A Discussion of Issues of Data Collection and Dissemination
P.R. GOSWAMI* Librarian,
Faculty of Management
Studies, Delhi University,
Delhi 110 007, India
Abstract - The census is the most high-profile example of information generation and dissemination by a government, and is known as the most important source of information on characteristics of human population. The results of the census that are usually disseminated in the form of printed data volumes are extensively used by planners, policy makers, and researchers. The purpose of this article is to discuss the various stages of census operation of the government of India with special emphasis on dissemination of data and also to acquaint users with its structure and contents.
INTRODUCTION The Census of India is perhaps the most prominent example of information generation and dissemination by a government agency in India. By measuring the scale of its operation and the magnitude of data collected through this operation, one can safely conclude that it is one of the largest administrative exercises in the world, and certainly so in the country itself. It is the source of maximum data on characteristics of human population. The United Nations has defined census as the total process of collecting, compiling, evaluating, analysing and publishing or disseminating demographic and other data pertaining at a specified time to all persons in a country or delimited territory. This definition suggests that census operations are not restricted to the collection of data alone but involve all types of compilation as well as publication of results. Moreover, census is not restricted to the publication of the enumeration of population alone; its scope covers publication of data in all its varied forms, which may include classification of persons by sex and age, marital status, rural/urban residence, educational standard, economic activity, etc. In India such data are primarily used for the purposes of economic and social planning as well as for monitoring and evaluation of various programmes under the five-year plans. The first concern of an administrator of a development plan programme is how many people there are in the development area and what demographic changes are occurring and are likely to occur in the near future. It makes a difference if the people are evenly distributed throughout the area or if they are clustered in one region or in villages and small cities [ 11. Data regarding composition of population, their livelihood, and the nature of their economic activity are important for the purpose of development planning. The population census seeks to meet all these data requirements. Apart from development planning, other important uses of census data are made by the Election Commission for the allocation of seats in the House of the People to the different constitutent states and for the division of each state into territorial constituencies. Census volumes
*P.R. Goswami was a former Librarian, statistical serials.
Central Statistical
Organisation,
429
India. He has written a few papers on official
430
P.R. GOSWAMI
as well as other demographic data sources are increasingly being used by planners and researchers as there is a close interrelationship between population trends and socioeconomic development. The first Census of India within the modern concept was conducted in 1872 and the next was taken in 1881. Since 1881 a census has been conducted in India every 10 years. Permanent legislation, Census of India Act (Act no. 37 of 1948), empowered the government to establish the date of the census and to appoint a Census Commissioner at centre and Directors of Census Operations in states. The law made it obligatory on the part of the citizen to answer the census questions. The scope and coverage of Indian census have been expanding over the years and the number of volumes disseminating census data have increased enormously. The purpose of this article is to discuss the various stages involved in generation and dissemination of the enormous and diverse data on human population with special reference to the structure and contents of census publications of the 1981 census. This article will also seek to identify certain source books and bibliographical tools that are useful for the purpose of bridging the gap between the census data and its potential and actual users. CENSUS
OF INDIA:
DATA COLLECTION
The census schedule or questionnaire is the main apparatus for the collection of data. ,The success of a census depends on the correct design and administration of the schedule. The design involves formulation of questions, the exact wording and arrangement of questions, and decisions on the format of the schedule [2]. During the last three decades the census organisation has introduced several innovations in its schedules to reflect the changing socioeconomic situations in the country [3]. New schedules have been introduced and tabulation programmes have been expanded correspondingly. Moreover, the pressure for certain types of data has resulted in the questionnaires becoming more detailed and concepts and definitions more complex. A comparison of the questions asked in different censuses would reveal that questions relating to name (for identification purposes), relationship to head of family, age, sex, marital status, birth place, mother tongue, literacy and occupation have always been included [4]. With the introduction of development planning after independence, the scope and coverage of these items of information have been expanded by breaking down details and extending tabulation programmes. This has resulted in the creation of special-purpose printed tables for specific users and has increased the number of census publications. It was thought that since India had undertaken a planned economy, more emphasis should be given to the collection of economic data in the future. If necessary, changes in the concepts and definitions adopted in the previous census should be made even at the risk of sacrificing the comparability of data. Table 1 provides a view of the innovations introduced in census data during the last three decades. In the 198 1 census, three basic quesitonnaires were administered: the Houselist, the Household Schedule, and the Individual Slip [9]. The Houselist was canvassed during the houselisting operations in 1980, while the Household Schedule and Individual Slip were canvassed during the census enumeration in February-March 198 1. Each of these formats sought to elicit information on various characteristics of the population, including basic information on housing. The Houselist contained identification particulars of census houses, the uses to which they were put, the number of members in each household, and the number of physically handicapped persons. The Household Schedule contained information pertaining to household size, the number of couples residing therein, housing condition and amenities available, tenurial status, land, and household cultivation. The Household Schedule also sought a list of members of the household and their demographic, economic and social characteristics. The Individual Slip of the 1981 Census was divided into two part-universal items and a set of sample items relating to migration and fertility, which were canvassed only in 20 percent of the
The census of India
Table
1. Significant Improvements
195 1
431
in the Censuses in the Post-Independence
Period [5]
Census of India, 1961
Census of India, 1971
To meet the requirements of development planning more emphasis was given to economic characteristics of population. Cross tabulation of data by livelihood and rural urban breakdown for all tables was incorporated.
This became the most comprehensive census in the form of questionnaires, tabulations, maps, ancillary studies and publication programme. To broaden the database, two new schedules, houselist and household schedule, were introduced.
A large number of basic tables were prepared quickly on 1 percent sample data, the use of electronic computers was introduced for processing and tabulating.
District Census Handbooks were released for the first time in the history of Indian census taking.
For the first time, comprehensive district data for the whole of India were made available on a large number of socioeconomic variables. These data were published in the All India Census Report.
Regarding economic data, more emphasis was given to the collection of data on industrial establishments of all sizes. A direct question on migration was introduced (with reference to last move only). New questions on childbirth and age at marriage were added.
There was a three-fold rise in the numbers of census volumes disseminating data (total number being 495) [6].
A Social Studies Division was created in the census organisation and scholars from universities and institutions were invited to compile monographs on different demographic subjects.
A sample registration system was introduced in 1969 by the census organisation to estimate birth and death rates. This came as a supplement to census data.
There was a nearly four-fold increase in the number of census volumes with the total number of volumes being more than 1700 [7]. Initially, the plan was to produce 1476 publications [8].
Considerable attention was devoted to the preparation of District Census Handbooks, Census Atlas, etc. This census also conducted socioeconomic surveys of over 200 towns and villages.
Census of India,
sample blocks. In the universal items, a question on school attendance was added. The economic questions in the 198 1 census were modified to provide a comparative estimate of workers with both the 1961 and 1971 censuses. A new item “seeking/available for work,” was added to the economic questions in order to get an estimate of unemployment. In the sample part of the Individual Slip, a new question on reasons for migration was added. Similarly, questions on number of children ever born and number of children surviving (by sex) for every married women were introduced. All these innovations in the 1981 census have resulted in a more expanded tabulation programme compared to the 1971 census. This will no doubt provide more information to data users, but the comparability between the 1971 and the 1981 censuses has been lost to some extent at the tabulation stage [lo]. CENSUS
DATA PROCESSING
Data collection work is followed by data processing and subsequent publication of results in printed volumes. The Indian census over the years has mainly relied on manual processing. However, keeping in view that census operations are time consuming and expensive, the census organisation has decided that the manual system will be progressively replaced by a system that
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P.R. GOSWAMI
will permit “retrieval and reprocessing of data to serve specific and special needs. ” This led to the partial adoption of electronic data processing. The major disadvantage of manual processing is that the records get damaged and if adopted on a large scale, also get considerably mixed; afterwards it becomes difficult to retrieve manually stored data. Manual cross tabulation of data poses problems. It is desirable that the data collected in the Census of India at great expense should be readily available, and this can only be done through computerisation. Thus, the major advantage of computerisation is data preservation, and to serve specific and special needs of data users. Data on certain characteristics of the population do not need to be published at the micro level, that is village level, and therefore sampling techniques for processing of such data can be adopted. It is here that computerization is of the greatest utility because the volume of the database will be more manageable and capable of more refined processing and tabulation. Indeed, storage, retrieval, cross tabulation and analysis favor computerized over manual tabulation [ 1 I]. For the purpose of processing the data contained in the 198 1 census schedule, manual tabulation has been retained, but a much greater degree of computerisation has been envisaged for the future. The system of manual tabulation has been used to generate basic data that are required immediately after the census. These basic data are generally called primary data and relate to the size of the population by sex, literates, illiterates, workers and non-workers, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and rural-urban distribution. The volume containing these data is released soon after the census is over. For example, the Census of India 1981 Provisional Population Totals was released in March 1981 [ 121. In a subsequent publication entitled Paper 2 of 1981, provisional data highlighting the rural-urban distribution of population were released during August and September, 1981 [ 131. Such basic tables are generated at the lower level, that is, village, block and district level. The Census of India 1981 basic data were processed during a IO-month period following April 1981. The work was organised in about 135 regional offices all over the country. However, there is a wide variety of tables on other demographic features that are generated at a higher level, and it is in this latter process that computer data processing seems to have become most relevant and useful. Table 2 provides a sense of the size of the data as well as the sequence in which they were proposed to be processed through computers under the Census of India 1981 tabulation programme. Table 2 reveals that the only series to be produced through a manual system of tabulation was the A-Series tables, namely the General Population Tables, including the Primary Census Abstract. The sequencing regarding the processing of data via computer has been established as shown (see Table 2) so that publications at the appropriate geographic/administrative level are produced periodically. However, the volume of census data is so high that the system of processing and tabulation must take into consideration certain basic issues. These issues may include whether the entire data should be processed through the computer because of concommitment implications of cost and utilization of equipment after the peak period of processing is over. It also must be considered whether the quality of data would justify a very large degree of computerisation [ 171. CENSUS
DATA DISSEMINATION
The census organisation’s policy regarding dissemination of population data includes many facets: in what form the data are to be published, how to organise the reports, and how much support is to be provided to the users so that they can identify and use data [ 181. In India, census data or census results are primarily disseminated through printed tables that constitute the census volumes. These volumes are designed by the census organisation at centre as well as in states depending on geographical coverage and demographic characteristics. Keeping in view these two aspects, census volumes are released in different series and parts as shown in Table 3. The information presented in Table 3 is helpful in gaining an understanding of the structure of
The census of India
Table 2. Computerisation
Name and Size of Data Houselist (20% sample) Post-enumeration check and Census Evaluation Study [ 151
Volume of Input Records (million) 31.3 1.3
433
of Census of India, 1981 Data [14]
Tabulation Series to be Developed* H -
No. of Tables to be Develaped I
Levels of Presentation State, district, city
26
National
33.8
B,C,D,F
74
National
Individual Slips (15% samples) (95% samples of Union Territories, etc.)
122.2
B,C,D,F
74
State, district, city
Individual slips Additional (20% sample)
130.0
B,CD,F
74
State, district, city
Household Schedules (100% sample)
134.8
HH
8
(a) State, district city (b) State, district city, tehsil/ town [I61
SC/ST
3
(a) State, district, city (b) State, district
Individual Slips (5% Sample)
Individual Slips (SC/ST)
83.2
12 PCA and Village Directory Part A
1.3
Population Records (20% sample)
134.8
Balance of Individual
303.0
Total
-
C B,C,D,F
Slips
29
District, tehsilitaluk
1
State, district, city
74
State, district, city
975.7
*B Series - General Economic Tables C Series - Social and Cultural Tables D Series - Migration Tables F Series - Fertility Tables H Series - Tables on Houses and disabled population HH Series - Household Tables SC/ST Series - Special Tables for scheduled castes/tribes.
census volumes. Certain basic data are required to be published soon after the census is over. The volumes containing special purpose tables, research studies, etc., are usually released under the descriptor paper number or occasional paper numbers in a calendar year. In fact, the most intrinsic characteristic of a census volume is the coverage in terms of administrative region. As a first level classification, the mainstream census volumes are released in different series specified in Indo-Arabic numerals each representing an administrative region as illustrated in Table 3. The 1971 census volumes were released in 30 series. Series 1 covered all-India volumes, and Series 2
P.R. GOSWAMI
434
Table 3. Classification
Bibliographical Descriptor Used for Identification
Criteria of Classification of Census Reports/Volumes a. Ad hoc publications/basic tables
of Census Volumes
tables/special
purpose
paper no. during a calendar a. 1 Paper no./Occasional year, e.g., Paper No. I, 1981 Provisional
Population
Totals
a. 2 Census monographs during a particular subjects of topical interest.
census on
b. Geographic and administrative divisions covered, i.e., states, union territory, etc.
b. 1 Series [ 191 in Indo-Arabic numerals used as a descriptor, e.g., Series 1 India, Series 2 Andhra Pradesh, etc.
c. Demographic
c. 1 Part in Roman numbers used as a descriptor, e.g., Part 1 Administrative Report Part II General Population Tables, etc. These parts are further subdivided. c. 2 Series in Roman alphabets has also been used to denote the demographic variables covered in a volume, e.g., A Series General Population Tables, B Series General Economic Tables (See Table 2 footnote).
variables
to Series 30 were allotted for the census volumes of each of the states and union territories in alphabetical order. Census of India 198 1 volumes are being released in 32 series as a result of the formation of new states and union territories. In the second level of classification, the census volumes are released in several parts containing data on a particular demographic feature. The part numbers are common for all series publications, all-India as well as states. The subject coverage and publication plan under different parts can be better understood through use of Table 4. In addition to these, the census organization also plans certain special purpose tables and papers under its publication programme. The Census of India 1981 had planned to release the following categories of ancillary studies. 0 Special research studies taken up 0 Special area surveys l Special tables for standard urban 0 Language survey reports l Post enumeration check reports l Age tables l Life tables l Report on estimate of intercensal l Development of vital statistics of
by Director of Census Operations areas
birth and death rates using 1971-81 life tables and age data India
In addition to geographical area and demographic characteristic census publications can also be grouped by the level of presentation of data. Census publications are in fact published at three levels: all-India tables, state and union territory tables, and district census handbooks. While the all-India reports present data at the national, state, and sometimes at district level, the state reports provide information at the state, district and tehsil/taluka levels, and the district census handbooks contain important details for each revenue village for the rural population and enumerators’ block for urban population. District Census Handbooks are being increasingly used by students engaged in the study of problems relating to regional development and area planning. In order to provide an insight into the structure and contents of different census volumes, a
The census of India
Table 4. Publication Census of India, Part1
435
of Census Volumes [20] Census of India, 1981
1971
General Report
Part1
Administrative
Report
Part II
General Population
Tables
Part III
General Economic
Part IIC
Social and Cultural Tables
Part IV
Social and Cultural Tables
Part IID
Migration
PartV
Migration
Part III
Establishment Tables
Part VI
Fertility Tables
Part IV
Housing
Part VII
Tables on Houses and Disabled Population
PartV
Special Tables on Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe
Part VIII
Household
Part VI
Town Directory, Reports
Part IX
Special Tables on Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe
Part VII
Special Tables on Degree Holders and Technical Personnel
PartX
Town Directory and Survey Reports on Towns and Village
Part IIA
General Population
Part IIB
Economic
Tables
Tables Report and
Report and Tables
Survey
Tables Tables
Tables
Tables
Part VIII
Administrative
Part IX
Census Atlas
Report Part XI
Ethnographic Notes and Special Studies on Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe
PartX
District Census Handbook
Part XII
Census Atlas
Part XIII
District Census Handbook
number of auxiliary tools or guidebooks have been published by the census organisation. For instance, Indian Census in Perspective, 1983, attempts to provide an historical setting for the census [21]. Besides the essential features of the census operation, it also includes the concepts and implications of various forms used in the census. A chapter has been devoted to the preparatory measures taken in previous censuses; a tabular statement comparing the census questionnaires and concepts used in Indian censuses since 1872 is provided in this publication. The most important part of this compilation is a statement describing the tables included in Indian censuses since 1872. In addition to this, Census of India, 1981 Tabulation Plan provides a comprehensive view of the scope and coverage of various statistical tables to be included in the 1981 census volumes. It also includes descriptive notes on the tables, their basic purpose their content and their likely utility. An extract from this publication illustrates how the contents of different tables have been enumerated. [see Table 51. Apart from these special publications designed and released by the census organisation, certain general purpose guides contain reference to the structure and contents of census volumes. Guide to Oficial Statistics 1985 contains a chapter on demographic statistics in which the different series of census volumes have been described based on the type of data available, method of collection, classification of data, and level at which data are available [22]. From the viewpoint of the users of official statistics, this guide is most important largely due to its subject-oriented treatment of different serials and the publications index that enables the user to find the details of a particular serial. Directory of Statistics (1976) supplements the above guide to a certain extent by providing
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P.R. GOSWAMI
Table 5. Enumeration
in Census of India, 1981 Tabulation
Plan
Priority Series/Table No. Priority -I
All India Volume
Title tables
State Volume
-
A Series
General population
A.1
Area houses and populations
District
A.2
Decadal Variation in Population Since 1901
State
District
A.3
Villages Classified Population Size
District
Tehsil
A.4
Towns and Urban Agglomerations Classified by Population in 1981 with Variation since 1901.
Town
Town
A.5
Standard Urban Area
by
Town and outgrowth of town
TehsiVTown
Town and outgrowth of town
access to the contents of the serials through an index to various statistical series [23]. Both these guides have been compiled by the Central Statistical Organisation [24].
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
CONTROL
AND TIMELINESS
FACTOR
One way of making census data volumes readily accessible is the compilation of bibliographies, documentation lists and the cataloging of concept definitions, methodology, error rates, etc. The key to literature or guidebooks type of publications mentioned in the previous section is helpful in understanding the concepts and terms used in the Indian census, but does not serve any purpose as a bibliographical tool. The bibliographical details of census volumes published during a particular period do not figure in their contents. A close look at these so-called reference guides reveals that there is a lack of professionalism in their compilation. In order to develop these guides as retrieval tools, the statistical agencies should involve the professional documentalists as done by the foreign statistical offices. For example, Guide to Official Statistics 1980 compiled by the Central Statistical Office (United Kingdom) has a keyword index prepared by a professional librarian that provides correlation with about 5000 keywords in the main text of the guide. Documentation services available for the purpose of census data retrieval are still at the fledgling stage. In 1959, a project to compile a bibliography of Indian census publications from 1860 to 1951 was started at the National Library (Calcutta) at the request of The Registrar General; the project continued for three years. The aim was to produce a standard cross-indexed bibliography of all census publications. Another attempt was made to compile a bibliography after the 1961 census; the result was Bibliography of Census Publications published in 1972 as a census centenary volume [25]. In this compilation, the volumes belonging to the first integrated census at the country level in 1872 through to and including the census of 1961 were covered. The census reports of provincial level prior to 1872 were included, and a list of pre-census estimates and counts of the 18th and 19th centuries were also provided as an appendix. However, the list of 1961 census publications covers only those released by the end of 1971. A number of institutions, scholars and libraries were involved in its compilation. The preliminary work was done in 1965 and was circulated among
The census of India
437
institutions so that gaps in the entries could be detected. Consequently, a number of fresh references were received and incorporated in the revised compilation. The catalogs of the libraries of the office of the Indian Registrar General, National Archives, and National Library were also scrutinised. In spite of all these efforts, this bibliography cannot be treated as a complete inventory, for as its preface reads, “Even now it is difficult to say that no census publication has been left out.” This bibliography as of yet has not been updated. The census organization lists currently published census volumes in the quarterly publication, Registrar General’s Newsletter [26]. The accessibility of census data also depends on how quickly and effectively published data are disseminated to the users. Proper dissemination of data is closely interwoven with the workings of the publication department and its publicity work. It often has been contended that Indian statistical agencies do not pay adequate attention to giving wide publicity to various statistical series maintained by them [27]. There is a considerable time lag in published census volumes. The delay in getting the census volumes printed via busy government presses is perhaps the most important reason for delay. It has been alleged that the government press does not handle census printing on a priority basis, and as a result census data remain in manuscript form for years [28]. Timeliness in dissemination of data connotes both speed and punctuality; punctuality meaning that the data are made available on or near the date of release that has been announced in advance. For census volumes, except for certain basic tables, there is no predetermined date on which one can expect the release of specific volumes. One still cannot be certain whether all the volumes planned for the 1971 census have been released. The census organisation can only hope that all the publications of the 1981 census will be released by 1991. Due to a decentralised system of distribution it is difficult to have access to District Census Handbooks as they are published by the respective state governments. In fact, very little effort has been made to streamline census data dissemination. So far, the emphasis has been on the expansion of the database rather than on consolidation and improvement in the quality and accessibility of the data.
CONCLUSION The Census of India is the most important source of data on the human population of the Asian subcontinent [29]. During the last three decades its scope has increased tremendously. It is now used to collect data on ethnic, social, and economic characteristics of human population to fulfill the changing needs of socioeconomic planners and administrators. Census volumes are also being used by applied social science researchers. Considering the insatiable need for data and the expenditure involved in the census operation, one can emphasize that the census organisation should strengthen the dissemination function of its operation to facilitate widespread use. This would include compilation of bibliographies, documentation of concept definitions, and streamlining the distribution system of census volumes. The census organization should have its own printing operation with the most modem printing equipment and graphic facilities. As per the suggestion of the Review Committee (1980), a national inventory of census data should be implemented by the census organisation in collaboration with the Indian Council for Social Science Research (ICSSR), and other user groups. Such interaction between the user of the data and the statistical agency responsible for the compilation and distribution of the data would be beneficial in determining the content and the form of bibliographical and other auxiliary tools. This will enable the census organisation to provide a more user-oriented mode of dissemination such as machine readable data. Although computerisation of census data is being introduced in stages, certain basic issues need to be resolved before vigorous computerization can be begun. The 1981 census experience will be most useful in providing insight on these matters as India works ahead to its 1991 Census.
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NOTES 1. U.S. National Research Council, Data Collecrion: A Sfaremenr for Administrarors (Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1981), 2 2. D. Natarajan, “1961 Census Schedule,” The Economic Weekly 12 (April 16, 1960):616. 3. The authority to conduct the Census of India and to implement the vital registration system is vested with the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, 2 A Man Singh Road, New Delhi 110011. It functions under the administrative control of Ministry of Home Affairs. Before 1951, there was no permanent Census Organisation, and generally Census Commissioners were appointed on the eve of the census year. The permanent organisation was created in 1949 under the Census Act. 4. Natarajan, “1961 Census Schedule,” 620-21. 5. Ashish Bose, “Census of India: An Appraisal, ” in Popularion Statishcs in India, Ashish Bose, Devendra B. Gupta and Gauri Shankar Roychoudhary, ed. (New Delhi: Vikas, 1977). 19-28. 6. B.K. Roy Burman, ed. Bibliography of Census Publications in India, Census Centenary Publication 5 (New Delhi: Office of the Registrar General, 1972), 473. 7. Bose, ‘Census of India,” 23. 8. S.C. Srivastava, Indian Census in Perspective, 3rd ed. (New Delhi: Office of the Registrar General, 1983), 85. 9. Another questionnaire, Enterprise List, was also canvassed but the records were passed on to the Central Statistical Organisation for the processing and preparation of the results of the economic census. 10. Mahendra K. Premi, “Opportunities for Research and Analytical Work from the Available Demographic Data in India,” Demography India 14 (July 1985):261-273. II. P. Padmanabha, “Computetisation of Census Data,” Economic and Political Weekly 16 (April 18, 1981):717-20. 12. India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Office of the Registrar Genera1 and Census Commissioner, Census of India 1981: Provisional Popularion Totals, Paper 1 of 1981, Series 1 India (New Delhi, 1981). 13. India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Census of India 1981. Provisional Popularion Totals, Rural Urban Distribution, Paper 2 of 1981 Series 1 India (New Delhi, 1981). 14. Padmanabha, “Computerisation of Census Data,” 718. 15. Post Enumeration Checks (PEC) were conducted during the 1981 census to evaluate the results. They were primarily meant to assess the extent of omissions and duplication in the population count along with the coverage error and count, 16. In India, Tehsil or Taluka, is generally known as a constituent administrative unit of a district in rural areas. A cluster of villages constitutes a TehsilfTaluka. 17. It has been said that responses in a Indian census questionnaire are generally broad and crude in certain cases. Answers are often in general terms and they often do not lend themselves readily to detailed classification. It would, therefore, be rather doubtful whether such data would stand the editing and tabulation required by sophisticated computers. Computerisation cannot impove the quality of data. 18. Vincent B. Barabba, “Data Dissemination Policy with the Help of Knowledge Utilization Theory,” Paper presented at 43rd session of the International Statistical Institute, Buenos Aires, Argentina, November 1981, 19. Series as a bibliographical descriptor has been used for a dual purpose in census publications, numerical series is used to denote geographical or administrative area coverage in the volume, and alphabetical series signifies the demographic characteristics represented in the volume. This anamoly had come up during 1971 census when it was decided that instead of assigning a volume number to each State and Union Territory, as was the previous practice, it would be better to assign a distinctive series number. 20. India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Census of India 1981: Tabularion Plan (New Delhi, 1981). 21. Srivastava, Indian Census in Perspective, 6. 22. India, Department of Statistics, Central Statistical Organisation, Guide to Oficial Sfafisfics 2nd ed. (New Delhi, 1985). 23. India, Department of Statistics, Central Statistical Organisation, Directory of Statistics in India 1976 (New Delhi: 1976). 24. The Central Statistical Organisation is the apex statistical agency in India coordinating the activities of other agencies at centre as well as in states. It collects, processes and disseminates data on national income, industry, etc., and releases certain secondary data compendia. It functions under the administrative control of the Ministry of Planning. The address of its head office is Sardar Patal Bhavan, Parliament Street, New Delhi 110001. 25. Burman, Bibliography of Census Publications, 3. 26. India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Newsletter (New Delhi). 27. India, Department of Statistics, Report of the Committee to Review the National Statistical System; June 1980 (New Delhi, 1981). 28. Ashish Bose, “Utilization of Demographic Data for Policy Making, Planning, Monitoring, and Evaluation,” Economic and Political Weekly 22 (March 14, 1987):471-474. 29. However, the census is not the only source of population statistics in India. Other sources are sample surveys, civil registration, and sample registration systems. Population data collected through these methods are largely meant for supplementing the census data, particularly during the period between the two censuses.
1989 Copyright
0277-9390189 $3.00 + .OO 0 1989 Pergamon Press plc
THE CENSUS OF INDIA A Discussion of Issues of Data Collection and Dissemination
P.R. GOSWAMI* Librarian,
Faculty of Management
Studies, Delhi University,
Delhi 110 007, India
Abstract - The census is the most high-profile example of information generation and dissemination by a government, and is known as the most important source of information on characteristics of human population. The results of the census that are usually disseminated in the form of printed data volumes are extensively used by planners, policy makers, and researchers. The purpose of this article is to discuss the various stages of census operation of the government of India with special emphasis on dissemination of data and also to acquaint users with its structure and contents.
INTRODUCTION The Census of India is perhaps the most prominent example of information generation and dissemination by a government agency in India. By measuring the scale of its operation and the magnitude of data collected through this operation, one can safely conclude that it is one of the largest administrative exercises in the world, and certainly so in the country itself. It is the source of maximum data on characteristics of human population. The United Nations has defined census as the total process of collecting, compiling, evaluating, analysing and publishing or disseminating demographic and other data pertaining at a specified time to all persons in a country or delimited territory. This definition suggests that census operations are not restricted to the collection of data alone but involve all types of compilation as well as publication of results. Moreover, census is not restricted to the publication of the enumeration of population alone; its scope covers publication of data in all its varied forms, which may include classification of persons by sex and age, marital status, rural/urban residence, educational standard, economic activity, etc. In India such data are primarily used for the purposes of economic and social planning as well as for monitoring and evaluation of various programmes under the five-year plans. The first concern of an administrator of a development plan programme is how many people there are in the development area and what demographic changes are occurring and are likely to occur in the near future. It makes a difference if the people are evenly distributed throughout the area or if they are clustered in one region or in villages and small cities [ 11. Data regarding composition of population, their livelihood, and the nature of their economic activity are important for the purpose of development planning. The population census seeks to meet all these data requirements. Apart from development planning, other important uses of census data are made by the Election Commission for the allocation of seats in the House of the People to the different constitutent states and for the division of each state into territorial constituencies. Census volumes
*P.R. Goswami was a former Librarian, statistical serials.
Central Statistical
Organisation,
429
India. He has written a few papers on official
430
P.R. GOSWAMI
as well as other demographic data sources are increasingly being used by planners and researchers as there is a close interrelationship between population trends and socioeconomic development. The first Census of India within the modern concept was conducted in 1872 and the next was taken in 1881. Since 1881 a census has been conducted in India every 10 years. Permanent legislation, Census of India Act (Act no. 37 of 1948), empowered the government to establish the date of the census and to appoint a Census Commissioner at centre and Directors of Census Operations in states. The law made it obligatory on the part of the citizen to answer the census questions. The scope and coverage of Indian census have been expanding over the years and the number of volumes disseminating census data have increased enormously. The purpose of this article is to discuss the various stages involved in generation and dissemination of the enormous and diverse data on human population with special reference to the structure and contents of census publications of the 1981 census. This article will also seek to identify certain source books and bibliographical tools that are useful for the purpose of bridging the gap between the census data and its potential and actual users. CENSUS
OF INDIA:
DATA COLLECTION
The census schedule or questionnaire is the main apparatus for the collection of data. ,The success of a census depends on the correct design and administration of the schedule. The design involves formulation of questions, the exact wording and arrangement of questions, and decisions on the format of the schedule [2]. During the last three decades the census organisation has introduced several innovations in its schedules to reflect the changing socioeconomic situations in the country [3]. New schedules have been introduced and tabulation programmes have been expanded correspondingly. Moreover, the pressure for certain types of data has resulted in the questionnaires becoming more detailed and concepts and definitions more complex. A comparison of the questions asked in different censuses would reveal that questions relating to name (for identification purposes), relationship to head of family, age, sex, marital status, birth place, mother tongue, literacy and occupation have always been included [4]. With the introduction of development planning after independence, the scope and coverage of these items of information have been expanded by breaking down details and extending tabulation programmes. This has resulted in the creation of special-purpose printed tables for specific users and has increased the number of census publications. It was thought that since India had undertaken a planned economy, more emphasis should be given to the collection of economic data in the future. If necessary, changes in the concepts and definitions adopted in the previous census should be made even at the risk of sacrificing the comparability of data. Table 1 provides a view of the innovations introduced in census data during the last three decades. In the 198 1 census, three basic quesitonnaires were administered: the Houselist, the Household Schedule, and the Individual Slip [9]. The Houselist was canvassed during the houselisting operations in 1980, while the Household Schedule and Individual Slip were canvassed during the census enumeration in February-March 198 1. Each of these formats sought to elicit information on various characteristics of the population, including basic information on housing. The Houselist contained identification particulars of census houses, the uses to which they were put, the number of members in each household, and the number of physically handicapped persons. The Household Schedule contained information pertaining to household size, the number of couples residing therein, housing condition and amenities available, tenurial status, land, and household cultivation. The Household Schedule also sought a list of members of the household and their demographic, economic and social characteristics. The Individual Slip of the 1981 Census was divided into two part-universal items and a set of sample items relating to migration and fertility, which were canvassed only in 20 percent of the
The census of India
Table
1. Significant Improvements
195 1
431
in the Censuses in the Post-Independence
Period [5]
Census of India, 1961
Census of India, 1971
To meet the requirements of development planning more emphasis was given to economic characteristics of population. Cross tabulation of data by livelihood and rural urban breakdown for all tables was incorporated.
This became the most comprehensive census in the form of questionnaires, tabulations, maps, ancillary studies and publication programme. To broaden the database, two new schedules, houselist and household schedule, were introduced.
A large number of basic tables were prepared quickly on 1 percent sample data, the use of electronic computers was introduced for processing and tabulating.
District Census Handbooks were released for the first time in the history of Indian census taking.
For the first time, comprehensive district data for the whole of India were made available on a large number of socioeconomic variables. These data were published in the All India Census Report.
Regarding economic data, more emphasis was given to the collection of data on industrial establishments of all sizes. A direct question on migration was introduced (with reference to last move only). New questions on childbirth and age at marriage were added.
There was a three-fold rise in the numbers of census volumes disseminating data (total number being 495) [6].
A Social Studies Division was created in the census organisation and scholars from universities and institutions were invited to compile monographs on different demographic subjects.
A sample registration system was introduced in 1969 by the census organisation to estimate birth and death rates. This came as a supplement to census data.
There was a nearly four-fold increase in the number of census volumes with the total number of volumes being more than 1700 [7]. Initially, the plan was to produce 1476 publications [8].
Considerable attention was devoted to the preparation of District Census Handbooks, Census Atlas, etc. This census also conducted socioeconomic surveys of over 200 towns and villages.
Census of India,
sample blocks. In the universal items, a question on school attendance was added. The economic questions in the 198 1 census were modified to provide a comparative estimate of workers with both the 1961 and 1971 censuses. A new item “seeking/available for work,” was added to the economic questions in order to get an estimate of unemployment. In the sample part of the Individual Slip, a new question on reasons for migration was added. Similarly, questions on number of children ever born and number of children surviving (by sex) for every married women were introduced. All these innovations in the 1981 census have resulted in a more expanded tabulation programme compared to the 1971 census. This will no doubt provide more information to data users, but the comparability between the 1971 and the 1981 censuses has been lost to some extent at the tabulation stage [lo]. CENSUS
DATA PROCESSING
Data collection work is followed by data processing and subsequent publication of results in printed volumes. The Indian census over the years has mainly relied on manual processing. However, keeping in view that census operations are time consuming and expensive, the census organisation has decided that the manual system will be progressively replaced by a system that
432
P.R. GOSWAMI
will permit “retrieval and reprocessing of data to serve specific and special needs. ” This led to the partial adoption of electronic data processing. The major disadvantage of manual processing is that the records get damaged and if adopted on a large scale, also get considerably mixed; afterwards it becomes difficult to retrieve manually stored data. Manual cross tabulation of data poses problems. It is desirable that the data collected in the Census of India at great expense should be readily available, and this can only be done through computerisation. Thus, the major advantage of computerisation is data preservation, and to serve specific and special needs of data users. Data on certain characteristics of the population do not need to be published at the micro level, that is village level, and therefore sampling techniques for processing of such data can be adopted. It is here that computerization is of the greatest utility because the volume of the database will be more manageable and capable of more refined processing and tabulation. Indeed, storage, retrieval, cross tabulation and analysis favor computerized over manual tabulation [ 1 I]. For the purpose of processing the data contained in the 198 1 census schedule, manual tabulation has been retained, but a much greater degree of computerisation has been envisaged for the future. The system of manual tabulation has been used to generate basic data that are required immediately after the census. These basic data are generally called primary data and relate to the size of the population by sex, literates, illiterates, workers and non-workers, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and rural-urban distribution. The volume containing these data is released soon after the census is over. For example, the Census of India 1981 Provisional Population Totals was released in March 1981 [ 121. In a subsequent publication entitled Paper 2 of 1981, provisional data highlighting the rural-urban distribution of population were released during August and September, 1981 [ 131. Such basic tables are generated at the lower level, that is, village, block and district level. The Census of India 1981 basic data were processed during a IO-month period following April 1981. The work was organised in about 135 regional offices all over the country. However, there is a wide variety of tables on other demographic features that are generated at a higher level, and it is in this latter process that computer data processing seems to have become most relevant and useful. Table 2 provides a sense of the size of the data as well as the sequence in which they were proposed to be processed through computers under the Census of India 1981 tabulation programme. Table 2 reveals that the only series to be produced through a manual system of tabulation was the A-Series tables, namely the General Population Tables, including the Primary Census Abstract. The sequencing regarding the processing of data via computer has been established as shown (see Table 2) so that publications at the appropriate geographic/administrative level are produced periodically. However, the volume of census data is so high that the system of processing and tabulation must take into consideration certain basic issues. These issues may include whether the entire data should be processed through the computer because of concommitment implications of cost and utilization of equipment after the peak period of processing is over. It also must be considered whether the quality of data would justify a very large degree of computerisation [ 171. CENSUS
DATA DISSEMINATION
The census organisation’s policy regarding dissemination of population data includes many facets: in what form the data are to be published, how to organise the reports, and how much support is to be provided to the users so that they can identify and use data [ 181. In India, census data or census results are primarily disseminated through printed tables that constitute the census volumes. These volumes are designed by the census organisation at centre as well as in states depending on geographical coverage and demographic characteristics. Keeping in view these two aspects, census volumes are released in different series and parts as shown in Table 3. The information presented in Table 3 is helpful in gaining an understanding of the structure of
The census of India
Table 2. Computerisation
Name and Size of Data Houselist (20% sample) Post-enumeration check and Census Evaluation Study [ 151
Volume of Input Records (million) 31.3 1.3
433
of Census of India, 1981 Data [14]
Tabulation Series to be Developed* H -
No. of Tables to be Develaped I
Levels of Presentation State, district, city
26
National
33.8
B,C,D,F
74
National
Individual Slips (15% samples) (95% samples of Union Territories, etc.)
122.2
B,C,D,F
74
State, district, city
Individual slips Additional (20% sample)
130.0
B,CD,F
74
State, district, city
Household Schedules (100% sample)
134.8
HH
8
(a) State, district city (b) State, district city, tehsil/ town [I61
SC/ST
3
(a) State, district, city (b) State, district
Individual Slips (5% Sample)
Individual Slips (SC/ST)
83.2
12 PCA and Village Directory Part A
1.3
Population Records (20% sample)
134.8
Balance of Individual
303.0
Total
-
C B,C,D,F
Slips
29
District, tehsilitaluk
1
State, district, city
74
State, district, city
975.7
*B Series - General Economic Tables C Series - Social and Cultural Tables D Series - Migration Tables F Series - Fertility Tables H Series - Tables on Houses and disabled population HH Series - Household Tables SC/ST Series - Special Tables for scheduled castes/tribes.
census volumes. Certain basic data are required to be published soon after the census is over. The volumes containing special purpose tables, research studies, etc., are usually released under the descriptor paper number or occasional paper numbers in a calendar year. In fact, the most intrinsic characteristic of a census volume is the coverage in terms of administrative region. As a first level classification, the mainstream census volumes are released in different series specified in Indo-Arabic numerals each representing an administrative region as illustrated in Table 3. The 1971 census volumes were released in 30 series. Series 1 covered all-India volumes, and Series 2
P.R. GOSWAMI
434
Table 3. Classification
Bibliographical Descriptor Used for Identification
Criteria of Classification of Census Reports/Volumes a. Ad hoc publications/basic tables
of Census Volumes
tables/special
purpose
paper no. during a calendar a. 1 Paper no./Occasional year, e.g., Paper No. I, 1981 Provisional
Population
Totals
a. 2 Census monographs during a particular subjects of topical interest.
census on
b. Geographic and administrative divisions covered, i.e., states, union territory, etc.
b. 1 Series [ 191 in Indo-Arabic numerals used as a descriptor, e.g., Series 1 India, Series 2 Andhra Pradesh, etc.
c. Demographic
c. 1 Part in Roman numbers used as a descriptor, e.g., Part 1 Administrative Report Part II General Population Tables, etc. These parts are further subdivided. c. 2 Series in Roman alphabets has also been used to denote the demographic variables covered in a volume, e.g., A Series General Population Tables, B Series General Economic Tables (See Table 2 footnote).
variables
to Series 30 were allotted for the census volumes of each of the states and union territories in alphabetical order. Census of India 198 1 volumes are being released in 32 series as a result of the formation of new states and union territories. In the second level of classification, the census volumes are released in several parts containing data on a particular demographic feature. The part numbers are common for all series publications, all-India as well as states. The subject coverage and publication plan under different parts can be better understood through use of Table 4. In addition to these, the census organization also plans certain special purpose tables and papers under its publication programme. The Census of India 1981 had planned to release the following categories of ancillary studies. 0 Special research studies taken up 0 Special area surveys l Special tables for standard urban 0 Language survey reports l Post enumeration check reports l Age tables l Life tables l Report on estimate of intercensal l Development of vital statistics of
by Director of Census Operations areas
birth and death rates using 1971-81 life tables and age data India
In addition to geographical area and demographic characteristic census publications can also be grouped by the level of presentation of data. Census publications are in fact published at three levels: all-India tables, state and union territory tables, and district census handbooks. While the all-India reports present data at the national, state, and sometimes at district level, the state reports provide information at the state, district and tehsil/taluka levels, and the district census handbooks contain important details for each revenue village for the rural population and enumerators’ block for urban population. District Census Handbooks are being increasingly used by students engaged in the study of problems relating to regional development and area planning. In order to provide an insight into the structure and contents of different census volumes, a
The census of India
Table 4. Publication Census of India, Part1
435
of Census Volumes [20] Census of India, 1981
1971
General Report
Part1
Administrative
Report
Part II
General Population
Tables
Part III
General Economic
Part IIC
Social and Cultural Tables
Part IV
Social and Cultural Tables
Part IID
Migration
PartV
Migration
Part III
Establishment Tables
Part VI
Fertility Tables
Part IV
Housing
Part VII
Tables on Houses and Disabled Population
PartV
Special Tables on Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe
Part VIII
Household
Part VI
Town Directory, Reports
Part IX
Special Tables on Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe
Part VII
Special Tables on Degree Holders and Technical Personnel
PartX
Town Directory and Survey Reports on Towns and Village
Part IIA
General Population
Part IIB
Economic
Tables
Tables Report and
Report and Tables
Survey
Tables Tables
Tables
Tables
Part VIII
Administrative
Part IX
Census Atlas
Report Part XI
Ethnographic Notes and Special Studies on Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe
PartX
District Census Handbook
Part XII
Census Atlas
Part XIII
District Census Handbook
number of auxiliary tools or guidebooks have been published by the census organisation. For instance, Indian Census in Perspective, 1983, attempts to provide an historical setting for the census [21]. Besides the essential features of the census operation, it also includes the concepts and implications of various forms used in the census. A chapter has been devoted to the preparatory measures taken in previous censuses; a tabular statement comparing the census questionnaires and concepts used in Indian censuses since 1872 is provided in this publication. The most important part of this compilation is a statement describing the tables included in Indian censuses since 1872. In addition to this, Census of India, 1981 Tabulation Plan provides a comprehensive view of the scope and coverage of various statistical tables to be included in the 1981 census volumes. It also includes descriptive notes on the tables, their basic purpose their content and their likely utility. An extract from this publication illustrates how the contents of different tables have been enumerated. [see Table 51. Apart from these special publications designed and released by the census organisation, certain general purpose guides contain reference to the structure and contents of census volumes. Guide to Oficial Statistics 1985 contains a chapter on demographic statistics in which the different series of census volumes have been described based on the type of data available, method of collection, classification of data, and level at which data are available [22]. From the viewpoint of the users of official statistics, this guide is most important largely due to its subject-oriented treatment of different serials and the publications index that enables the user to find the details of a particular serial. Directory of Statistics (1976) supplements the above guide to a certain extent by providing
436
P.R. GOSWAMI
Table 5. Enumeration
in Census of India, 1981 Tabulation
Plan
Priority Series/Table No. Priority -I
All India Volume
Title tables
State Volume
-
A Series
General population
A.1
Area houses and populations
District
A.2
Decadal Variation in Population Since 1901
State
District
A.3
Villages Classified Population Size
District
Tehsil
A.4
Towns and Urban Agglomerations Classified by Population in 1981 with Variation since 1901.
Town
Town
A.5
Standard Urban Area
by
Town and outgrowth of town
TehsiVTown
Town and outgrowth of town
access to the contents of the serials through an index to various statistical series [23]. Both these guides have been compiled by the Central Statistical Organisation [24].
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
CONTROL
AND TIMELINESS
FACTOR
One way of making census data volumes readily accessible is the compilation of bibliographies, documentation lists and the cataloging of concept definitions, methodology, error rates, etc. The key to literature or guidebooks type of publications mentioned in the previous section is helpful in understanding the concepts and terms used in the Indian census, but does not serve any purpose as a bibliographical tool. The bibliographical details of census volumes published during a particular period do not figure in their contents. A close look at these so-called reference guides reveals that there is a lack of professionalism in their compilation. In order to develop these guides as retrieval tools, the statistical agencies should involve the professional documentalists as done by the foreign statistical offices. For example, Guide to Official Statistics 1980 compiled by the Central Statistical Office (United Kingdom) has a keyword index prepared by a professional librarian that provides correlation with about 5000 keywords in the main text of the guide. Documentation services available for the purpose of census data retrieval are still at the fledgling stage. In 1959, a project to compile a bibliography of Indian census publications from 1860 to 1951 was started at the National Library (Calcutta) at the request of The Registrar General; the project continued for three years. The aim was to produce a standard cross-indexed bibliography of all census publications. Another attempt was made to compile a bibliography after the 1961 census; the result was Bibliography of Census Publications published in 1972 as a census centenary volume [25]. In this compilation, the volumes belonging to the first integrated census at the country level in 1872 through to and including the census of 1961 were covered. The census reports of provincial level prior to 1872 were included, and a list of pre-census estimates and counts of the 18th and 19th centuries were also provided as an appendix. However, the list of 1961 census publications covers only those released by the end of 1971. A number of institutions, scholars and libraries were involved in its compilation. The preliminary work was done in 1965 and was circulated among
The census of India
437
institutions so that gaps in the entries could be detected. Consequently, a number of fresh references were received and incorporated in the revised compilation. The catalogs of the libraries of the office of the Indian Registrar General, National Archives, and National Library were also scrutinised. In spite of all these efforts, this bibliography cannot be treated as a complete inventory, for as its preface reads, “Even now it is difficult to say that no census publication has been left out.” This bibliography as of yet has not been updated. The census organization lists currently published census volumes in the quarterly publication, Registrar General’s Newsletter [26]. The accessibility of census data also depends on how quickly and effectively published data are disseminated to the users. Proper dissemination of data is closely interwoven with the workings of the publication department and its publicity work. It often has been contended that Indian statistical agencies do not pay adequate attention to giving wide publicity to various statistical series maintained by them [27]. There is a considerable time lag in published census volumes. The delay in getting the census volumes printed via busy government presses is perhaps the most important reason for delay. It has been alleged that the government press does not handle census printing on a priority basis, and as a result census data remain in manuscript form for years [28]. Timeliness in dissemination of data connotes both speed and punctuality; punctuality meaning that the data are made available on or near the date of release that has been announced in advance. For census volumes, except for certain basic tables, there is no predetermined date on which one can expect the release of specific volumes. One still cannot be certain whether all the volumes planned for the 1971 census have been released. The census organisation can only hope that all the publications of the 1981 census will be released by 1991. Due to a decentralised system of distribution it is difficult to have access to District Census Handbooks as they are published by the respective state governments. In fact, very little effort has been made to streamline census data dissemination. So far, the emphasis has been on the expansion of the database rather than on consolidation and improvement in the quality and accessibility of the data.
CONCLUSION The Census of India is the most important source of data on the human population of the Asian subcontinent [29]. During the last three decades its scope has increased tremendously. It is now used to collect data on ethnic, social, and economic characteristics of human population to fulfill the changing needs of socioeconomic planners and administrators. Census volumes are also being used by applied social science researchers. Considering the insatiable need for data and the expenditure involved in the census operation, one can emphasize that the census organisation should strengthen the dissemination function of its operation to facilitate widespread use. This would include compilation of bibliographies, documentation of concept definitions, and streamlining the distribution system of census volumes. The census organization should have its own printing operation with the most modem printing equipment and graphic facilities. As per the suggestion of the Review Committee (1980), a national inventory of census data should be implemented by the census organisation in collaboration with the Indian Council for Social Science Research (ICSSR), and other user groups. Such interaction between the user of the data and the statistical agency responsible for the compilation and distribution of the data would be beneficial in determining the content and the form of bibliographical and other auxiliary tools. This will enable the census organisation to provide a more user-oriented mode of dissemination such as machine readable data. Although computerisation of census data is being introduced in stages, certain basic issues need to be resolved before vigorous computerization can be begun. The 1981 census experience will be most useful in providing insight on these matters as India works ahead to its 1991 Census.
438
P.R. GOSWAMI
NOTES 1. U.S. National Research Council, Data Collecrion: A Sfaremenr for Administrarors (Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1981), 2 2. D. Natarajan, “1961 Census Schedule,” The Economic Weekly 12 (April 16, 1960):616. 3. The authority to conduct the Census of India and to implement the vital registration system is vested with the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, 2 A Man Singh Road, New Delhi 110011. It functions under the administrative control of Ministry of Home Affairs. Before 1951, there was no permanent Census Organisation, and generally Census Commissioners were appointed on the eve of the census year. The permanent organisation was created in 1949 under the Census Act. 4. Natarajan, “1961 Census Schedule,” 620-21. 5. Ashish Bose, “Census of India: An Appraisal, ” in Popularion Statishcs in India, Ashish Bose, Devendra B. Gupta and Gauri Shankar Roychoudhary, ed. (New Delhi: Vikas, 1977). 19-28. 6. B.K. Roy Burman, ed. Bibliography of Census Publications in India, Census Centenary Publication 5 (New Delhi: Office of the Registrar General, 1972), 473. 7. Bose, ‘Census of India,” 23. 8. S.C. Srivastava, Indian Census in Perspective, 3rd ed. (New Delhi: Office of the Registrar General, 1983), 85. 9. Another questionnaire, Enterprise List, was also canvassed but the records were passed on to the Central Statistical Organisation for the processing and preparation of the results of the economic census. 10. Mahendra K. Premi, “Opportunities for Research and Analytical Work from the Available Demographic Data in India,” Demography India 14 (July 1985):261-273. II. P. Padmanabha, “Computetisation of Census Data,” Economic and Political Weekly 16 (April 18, 1981):717-20. 12. India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Office of the Registrar Genera1 and Census Commissioner, Census of India 1981: Provisional Popularion Totals, Paper 1 of 1981, Series 1 India (New Delhi, 1981). 13. India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Census of India 1981. Provisional Popularion Totals, Rural Urban Distribution, Paper 2 of 1981 Series 1 India (New Delhi, 1981). 14. Padmanabha, “Computerisation of Census Data,” 718. 15. Post Enumeration Checks (PEC) were conducted during the 1981 census to evaluate the results. They were primarily meant to assess the extent of omissions and duplication in the population count along with the coverage error and count, 16. In India, Tehsil or Taluka, is generally known as a constituent administrative unit of a district in rural areas. A cluster of villages constitutes a TehsilfTaluka. 17. It has been said that responses in a Indian census questionnaire are generally broad and crude in certain cases. Answers are often in general terms and they often do not lend themselves readily to detailed classification. It would, therefore, be rather doubtful whether such data would stand the editing and tabulation required by sophisticated computers. Computerisation cannot impove the quality of data. 18. Vincent B. Barabba, “Data Dissemination Policy with the Help of Knowledge Utilization Theory,” Paper presented at 43rd session of the International Statistical Institute, Buenos Aires, Argentina, November 1981, 19. Series as a bibliographical descriptor has been used for a dual purpose in census publications, numerical series is used to denote geographical or administrative area coverage in the volume, and alphabetical series signifies the demographic characteristics represented in the volume. This anamoly had come up during 1971 census when it was decided that instead of assigning a volume number to each State and Union Territory, as was the previous practice, it would be better to assign a distinctive series number. 20. India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Census of India 1981: Tabularion Plan (New Delhi, 1981). 21. Srivastava, Indian Census in Perspective, 6. 22. India, Department of Statistics, Central Statistical Organisation, Guide to Oficial Sfafisfics 2nd ed. (New Delhi, 1985). 23. India, Department of Statistics, Central Statistical Organisation, Directory of Statistics in India 1976 (New Delhi: 1976). 24. The Central Statistical Organisation is the apex statistical agency in India coordinating the activities of other agencies at centre as well as in states. It collects, processes and disseminates data on national income, industry, etc., and releases certain secondary data compendia. It functions under the administrative control of the Ministry of Planning. The address of its head office is Sardar Patal Bhavan, Parliament Street, New Delhi 110001. 25. Burman, Bibliography of Census Publications, 3. 26. India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Newsletter (New Delhi). 27. India, Department of Statistics, Report of the Committee to Review the National Statistical System; June 1980 (New Delhi, 1981). 28. Ashish Bose, “Utilization of Demographic Data for Policy Making, Planning, Monitoring, and Evaluation,” Economic and Political Weekly 22 (March 14, 1987):471-474. 29. However, the census is not the only source of population statistics in India. Other sources are sample surveys, civil registration, and sample registration systems. Population data collected through these methods are largely meant for supplementing the census data, particularly during the period between the two censuses.