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The CO2CRC Otway shallow CO2 controlled release experiment: Preparation for Phase 2
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
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Energyonline Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 Available onlineatat www.sciencedirect.com Available www.sciencedirect.com Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
ScienceDirect ScienceDirect
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Energy (2018) 000–000 145–150 EnergyProcedia Procedia154 00 (2017) www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage, CCUS 2018, Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Capture, Utilization and Storage, CCUS 2018, 27–29 JuneCarbon 2018, Perth, Australia 27–29 June 2018, Perth, Australia
The CO2CRC Otway shallow CO2 controlled release experiment: The CO2CRC Otway shallow CO2 on controlled release experiment: The 15th International Symposium District Heating and Cooling Preparation for Phase 2 Preparation for Phase 2 Assessing the feasibility of using thePevzner heat demand-outdoor a,b* a,c a,c Andrew Feitza,b*, Konstantin Tertyshnikov , Roman , Ludo Ricarda,d , Brett a,c a,c a,c a,e , Roman Pevznera,b, Ludo Ricarda,d, Brett a,c Andrew Feitz ,Schaa Konstantin Tertyshnikov temperature function for a long-term district heat demand forecast Harrisa,c , Ralf , Ulrike Schacht , Aleks Kalinowski , Stephanie Vialle , a,c a,c a,e a,b a,c a,c a,c Kalinowski , Stephanie Harris , Ralf Schaa , Ulrike SchachtLebedev , Aleks Stanislav Glubokovskikh , Maxim , Eric Tenthoreya,b , ZhejunVialle Pana,d ,, a,c b a,bc a,d a,b,c aa,c a c a,d a,b a,c a,b Stanislav Glubokovskikh , Wang Maxim , Hossein Eric , Zhejun Pan , I. Andrić *, A. Pina , P. Ferrão Lebedev Fournier ., B.Tenthorey Lacarrière O. Le Corre Jonathan Ennis-King , Liuqi ,, J.Shahadat , Tim Ransley , Bruce a,d f a,b a,c a,b a,d a Jonathan Ennis-King , Liuqi Wang Urosevic ,- Instituto Shahadat Hossein , Tim Ransley , Bruce Radke , Milovan , Rajindar IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research Superior Técnico, Av.Singh Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal f a,d a Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France Radke , Milovan Urosevic , Rajindar Singh a
b
a Ltd, Melbourne, Australia Département Systèmes Énergétiques et CO2CRC Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France b a Geoscience Canberra, Australia CO2CRCAustralia, Ltd, Melbourne, Australia c b Curtin University, Perth, Australia Geoscience Australia, Canberra, Australia c dCSIRO, Melbourne, Australia Curtin University, Perth, Australia e d University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia Abstract f e Eungella, Braidwood, Australia University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia f Eungella, Braidwood, Australia District heating networks are commonly addressed in the literature as one of the most effective solutions for decreasing the c
greenhouse gas emissions from the building sector. These systems require high investments which are returned through the heat Abstract sales. Due to the changed climate conditions and building renovation policies, heat demand in the future could decrease, Abstract prolonging the investment return period. CO2CRC its of partners are undertaking a feasibility for athe planned CO2 controlled and monitoring experiment on The mainand scope this paper is to assess the feasibilitystudy of using heat demand – outdoorrelease temperature function for heat demand aCO2CRC shallow fault at the CO2CRC Otway Research Facility. In this project we plan to image, using a diverse range of geophysical and its partners are undertaking a feasibility study for a planned CO controlled release and monitoring experiment 2 forecast. The district of Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of on 665 geochemical CO2 monitoring techniques, the Facility. migration COThree fault from controlled release point at approximately 30 aand shallow fault the in CO2CRC Otway Research Inofthis project we plan toa image, using a diverse range of geophysical 2 up aweather buildings that at vary both construction period and typology. scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district m depth. This paper thetechniques, results of the sitemigration characterisation andaTo modelling undertaken date.at Itapproximately also values includes and geochemical CO2describes monitoring of CO fault from awork controlled releasetopoint 30a 2 up renovation scenarios were developed (shallow, intermediate, deep). estimate the error, obtained heat demand were description of the activities planned that will enable for a more detailed characterization of the fault and proposed injection m depth. This paper describes the results of site characterisation and modelling work undertaken to date. It also includes a compared with results from a dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors. interval. Together these results will enable an assessment as to whether the planned injection experiment is feasible and how it description of the activities planned that will enable for a more detailed characterization of the fault and proposed injection The results showed that when only weather change is considered, the margin of error could be acceptable for some applications can optimally designed. interval. Together these resultswas willlower enablethan an 20% assessment to whether the planned injection experiment feasible and how it (thebeerror in annual demand for all as weather scenarios considered). However, after is introducing renovation can be optimally designed. scenarios, the error value increased up to 59.5% (depending on the weather and renovation scenarios combination considered). Copyright ©of 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. The value slope coefficient increased on © 2018 The©Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.average within the range of 3.8% up to 8% per decade, that corresponds to the Copyright 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. decrease in theaccess number of heating hours 22-139h during the(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) heating season (depending on the combination of weather and This is an open article under the CCofBY-NC-ND license Selection and peer-review under responsibility of hand, the scientific committee of the Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Carbon renovation considered). On the other function intercept of increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade on the Selection andscenarios peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee the Applied Energy Symposium and(depending Forum, Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage, CCUS 2018. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Carbon Capture, 2018. coupledUtilization scenarios).and TheStorage, values CCUS suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and Capture, andofStorage, CCUSestimations. 2018. improveUtilization the accuracy heat demand Keywords: fault; carbon dioxide; greenhouse gas; migration; modelling; monitoring Keywords: fault; carbon dioxide; greenhouse gas; migration; modelling; monitoring
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
Keywords:Copyright Heat demand; Forecast; Climate change 1876-6102 © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Selection and peer-review under responsibility the scientific 1876-6102 Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All of rights reserved. committee of the Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Carbon Capture, Utilization andpeer-review Storage, CCUS Selection and under2018. responsibility of the scientific committee of the Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage, CCUS 2018. 1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. 1876-6102 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage, CCUS 2018. 10.1016/j.egypro.2018.11.024
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Andrew Feitz et al. / Energy Procedia 154 (2018) 145–150 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
1. Introduction Faults are widespread geological features in the crust, and can play a significant role in any carbon storage project. However, surprisingly our present understanding of faults is often insufficient to accurately predict how they are likely to influence CO2 migration, either inhibiting or enhancing migration. In a 2016 review by the International Energy Agency Greenhouse Gas Research and Development Programme (IEAGHG), it was recommended that generic fault fluid-flow models be tested against in-situ CO2 flow measurements in order to increase confidence in modelling predictions and establish guidelines for the inclusion of faults in geological storage risk assessments [1]. There is presently little empirical data to validate fault models against. The CO2CRC and its partners are undertaking a feasibility study for a planned CO2 controlled release and monitoring experiment on a shallow fault at the CO2CRC Otway Research Facility. In this project we plan to image, using a diverse range of geophysical and geochemical CO2 monitoring techniques, the migration of CO2 up a fault from a controlled release point at approximately 30 m depth. This will enable us to track where and how fast the CO2 migrates, and measure its geochemical impact on groundwater and soil. CO2CRC and its partners plan to model CO2 migration in a strike-slip fault by targeting the injection at dilational bends and jogs in the fault as these are likely to be high permeability zones based on fault theory and observations from the mineral and oil and gas sectors. As part of the experiment, it is also planned to test predictions of CO2 migration behaviour in the transition zone between saturated and unsaturated soil/rock. This behaviour is not well understood but is important for establishing an understanding of where CO2 is likely to migrate in the near surface and for designing effective monitoring strategies. 2. Phase 1 In Phase 1 of the project (2016-2017), a series of geophysical surveys and groundwater permeability assessments were conducted at the Otway Research Facility to ascertain whether a shallow fault at the site was present [2,3]. The data from the surveys have been integrated into a 3D model of the upper faulted shallow geology of the CO2CRC Otway site. Based on this data, five key model properties (hydrostratigraphic unit, horizontal permeability, vertical permeability, fault permeability and P-velocity from refraction tomography) were populated in the 3D grid to produce the final static model. The model has been developed to assist with designing the experiment and conceptualising the shallow stratigraphy of the Otway site. Based on the data collected to date, the shallow geology of the CO2CRC Otway study area can be described by three sequences [4]: 1. The uppermost relatively thin but clay-rich and impermeable Pliocene Hanson Plain Sand (3-5m thick); 2. The stratified and karstified Miocene Port Campbell Limestone, with wide ranging permeability depending on the depositional facies (121m thick); and 3. The comparatively impermeable and homogeneous Miocene Gellibrand Marl (335m thick). Multiple depositional cycles have been interpreted within the Port Campbell Limestone sequence and, within each cycle, permeability is highly variable, ranging from marly carbonate of poor permeability to an uppermost porous and permeable bioclastic grainstone interval. The top of the Port Campbell Limestone is regarded as a significant unconformity with karst development and an accumulation of a residual iron rich regolith. The water table within the Port Campbell Limestone appears to lie just below the base of the Hanson Plain Sand creating an uppermost unsaturated zone. Locally this unsaturated zone may be absent due to the irregular base of the overlying impermeable Hanson Plain Sand. The presence or absence of an unsaturated zone beneath the clay layer at the field site will strongly influence CO2 migration behaviour during the planned injection experiment and this is the subject of ongoing characterisation. The high resolution seismic data clearly showed the presence of a shallow fault [3]. This newly-identified shallow Brumbys Fault disrupts the sequence below the Hanson Plain Sand and appears to extend to the base of the Gellibrand Marl. Although Brumbys Fault does have a small vertical offset (~4.5m downthrown to the east), the fault is interpreted to have a predominantly strike-slip component because it is very steeply dipping and has a strike
Andrew Feitz et al. / Energy Procedia 154 (2018) 145–150 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
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that is approximately 30° to the local maximum horizontal stress direction [5,6]. The seismic reflection and refraction imagery define linear features and associated broader zones of lower P-wave velocity (Vp) that are oriented approximately parallel to the maximum horizontal stress. These are interpreted to be dilatant cracking and joint sets that have facilitated carbonate dissolution, enhancing permeability and porosity in the limestone sequence, as well as surface development of karst. Surface swales can be observed perpendicular to this trend and these may have been influenced by deposition or erosion processes aligning with folds that formed in advance of, or during fault formation. Such en-echelon fold sets are known to be associated with strike-slip faults. The contemporary stress regime has had a large influence on the orientation of newly-formed faults and also on the reactivation of previously existing faults [6]. Shallower rocks such as the Port Campbell Limestone would be expected to reflect the regional strike-slip faulting regime. Brumbys Fault is not uniformly linear, but rather possesses some bends and dilational jogs that are likely to be high strain zones. These may be of higher permeability and are the target of the planned CO2 injection experiment.
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration showing shallow stratigraphy below the CO2CRC Otway Research Facility, Brumbys Fault, and the proposed location of the groundwater observation wells. Well 1 will be equipped with a hydrid geophone- fibre optic cable and Well 2 will be equipped with dual fibre optic cables for distributed temperature sensing (DTS) measurements.
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Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 Andrew Feitz et al. / Energy Procedia 154 (2018) 145–150
3. Planned Phase 2 Operations Program 3.1. Groundwater observation wells and core analysis Phase 2 of the project will involve undertaking a more detailed characterisation of the site and fault. While the site appears suitable for the planned controlled release experiment, there is no core available for the Port Campbell Limestone to validate the 3D model against. In addition, the high resolution seismic can only image the fault to within 25m of the ground surface. It is presently unknown whether Brumbys Fault extends to the base of the clay layer and this is a significant gap in knowledge for the planned controlled release experiment. The plan is to drill two inclined appraisal wells through the Brumbys Fault (Fig. 1), collect core, and undertake extensive wireline logging of the wells. Well 1, which will be near vertical (10° from vertical), will be cored through the entire Port Campbell Limestone and partially into the Gellibrand Marl. Its function is primarily as a stratigraphic well, to optimise drilling procedures and core recovery techniques, and enable installation of a hydrid geophone – fibre optic cable on the outside of the well casing. Well 1 will be orientated to target a suspected lower permeability section of the fault at approximately 100m depth (Fig. 2).
Well 2
Hanson Plain Sand
Well 1
Gellibrand Marl
Fig. 2: Inferred variations in fault permeability on the modelled Brumby Fault surface, caused by alternating tight and dilational segments created with sinistral strike slip movement [4]. The planned fault intersection points for the proposed groundwater observation wells are shown (Well 1 = tight; Well 2 = dilated). XY coordinates are in metres.
Andrew Feitz et al. / Energy Procedia 154 (2018) 145–150 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
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Well 2 will be highly deviated and will be cored through the fault at 45° near the surface. The purpose of this well is to collect core from the suspected high permeability section of the fault (Figure 2), to determine the width of the fault and damage zone, ascertain whether the fault does extend towards to the surface, and to equip the well with dual fibre-optic cables for future Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) monitoring. Both wells will collect core through the fault enabling tie points for the fault model developed from the seismic data. It is planned to drill both wells using a combination of diamond and sonic drilling, optimized for core integrity and material recovery. Core from both wells will undergo extensive mineral and physical characterisation, which will enable estimation of the impact of CO2 injection on groundwater chemistry and provide analytical porosity, permeability and capillary pressure data for modelling the CO2 injection. 3.2. Piezometer array The current nature of the shallow groundwater system at the Otway site is unclear. Analysis of groundwater levels during Phase 1 of this project suggested there may be a dual aquifer system, with groundwater in the upper clay layer (Hanson Plain Sand) separated from the lower Port Campbell Limestone aquifer. It is planned to install an array of shallow groundwater piezometers to accurately measure the groundwater levels across the site and determine whether there is soil gas beneath the clay layer. Four pairs of shallow piezometers (completed in clay layer and Port Campbell Limestone) would be located at the perimeter of the research area. 3.3. VSP survey A vertical seismic profile (VSP) survey is planned for Well 1. The shallow VSP survey aims to provide an accurate velocity model of the near surface formations that will be used to complement processing of the surface seismic and the overall understanding of the geological model of the research area. The 3D VSP survey will be conducted using two sets of seismic receivers: 1) a hybrid cable housing fibre optic cores and hydrophones cemented behind the casing of the well; and 2) a string of 24 hydrophones deployed inside the bore. Acquiring data with various sensors (fibre optic and hydrophones) will enable a comparative feasibility study of application of different seismic technologies for shallow borehole monitoring. 3.4. Soil gas and soil flux survey A high-density soil gas and soil flux survey will be conducted across Brumbys Fault to establish a baseline of insitu conditions around the area above the fault. The survey will collect gas samples for baseline noble gas and isotopic analysis. A soil flux survey will be conducted to obtain background measurements of CO2 flux across the fault to establish the existing condition of the area above the fault. 4. Phase 2 Analysis and Modelling The information obtained for Phase 2 will be essential for correctly calibrating the 3D static model of the planned experimental site (i.e. stratigraphy, permeability, porosity). Coring provides material for rock strength testing, geomechanical analysis, CO2-water-rock dissolution experiments and enables characterisation of the fault properties. With this additional data, more informed modelling simulations could be performed to optimize the location of the injection well and the required CO2 injection rate and pressure. Dynamic CO2 simulation efforts to date [7] suggest that, depending on the permeability of the fault and injection facies, CO2 could be expected to migrate up the fault to the base of the clay layer, but better data on the maximum injection pressure and the permeability distribution in the near-surface region (including the continuity of the clay layer) is needed. Phase 2 is designed to enable collection of essential data from the Port Campbell Limestone and Hansen Plain Sand, including the key unknown parameters listed below: • Rock strength, which will be used to determine the maximum and safe injection pressure for the experiment.
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• Formation and fault permeability, which will enable modelling (+ max injection pressure) to estimate the total volume of CO2 that can be safely injected. • Mineralogy, which will enable modelling to estimate the extent of impact on groundwater chemistry. • Relative permeability through special core analysis (SCAL), which determines the effective permeability of the water and gas phases to allow more accurate modelling of gas and water flow. • Capillary pressure measurements (using a mercury injection capillary porosimeter, MICP), which determines the minimum pressure required to initiate gas flow through water bearing layers. With these properties measured, an improved modelling assessment can be conducted which can be then used to estimate the quantity of CO2 required for the experiment, the likelihood of CO2 migration up the fault, and its impact on the Port Campbell Limestone aquifer. It will also enable improved design of the layout of the injection experiment and its monitoring program. 5. Future injection experiment (Phase 3) Depending on the findings from Phase 2 and the modelling simulations, an assessment will be made as to whether the planned injection experiment is feasible. Early modelling results suggest that the size of the injection would be in the order of 10s of tonnes of CO2 but this will be confirmed during Phase 2. If the experiment does proceed, the CO2 injection is likely to take place over a period of weeks. The CO2 migration behaviour would be monitored and imaged using a variety of geophysical and geochemical techniques (to be defined as part of Phase 3). It is envisaged that this will result in a rich dataset that could be used to validate and improve geomechanical and fluid flow fault modelling predictions. Acknowledgements We thank the CO2CRC and their corporate sponsors for supporting this project. A. Feitz, A. Kalinowski and E. Tenthorey publish this paper with the permission of the Chief Executive Officer, Geoscience Australia. References [1] IEAGHG (2016) Fault Permeabilty, 2016/13, IEAGHG, Cheltenham. [2] Bailey, A.H.E., Pevzner, R., Urosevic, M., Popik, D. and Feitz, A.J. (2016) Shallow geology of the CO2CRC Otway Site: Evidence for previously undetected neotectonic features, Energy Procedia, 114, 4424 – 4435. [3] Feitz, A.J, Pevzner, R, Harris, B., Schaa, R., Tertyshnikov, K., Ziramov, S., Gunning, M., Ransley, T.R., Lai, E., Bailey, A.H., Schacht, U., Fomin, T. and Urosevic, M. (2017) The CO2CRC Otway shallow CO2 controlled release experiment: Site suitability assessment, Energy Procedia, 114, 3671-3678. [4] Feitz, A., Radke, B., Hossain, M., Harris, B., Schaa, R., Pethick, A., Ziramov, S., Urosevic, M., Tenthorey, E., Pan, Z., Ennis-King, J., Wang, L., Gunning, M., Lai, E., Ransley, T., Tan, K., Schacht, U., Kalinowski, A., Black, J., Pevzner, R.1 (2018) The CO2CRC Otway shallow CO2 controlled release experiment: Geological model and CO2 migration simulations, GHGT14, Melbourne (submitted). [5] Vidal-Gilbert, S., Tenthorey, E., Dewhurst, D., Ennis-King, J., van Ruth, P., Hillis,R., 2010. Geomechanical analysis of the Naylor Field, Otway Basin, Australia:implications for CO2injection and storage. Int. J. Greenhouse Gas Control v4, 827–839. [6] Tenthorey, E. 2014. Gemechanical Investigations. In: Cook, P.J. (Ed.) 2014, Geologically storing carbon: Learning from the Otway experience. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. [7] Wang, L., Pan, Z., Ennis-King, J. and Feitz, A. (2018) Dynamic modelling for feasibility study of the shallow CO2 injection experiment at the CO2CRC Otway site, Victoria, Australia. GHGT14, Melbourne (submitted).
ScienceDirect ScienceDirect
Energyonline Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 Available onlineatat www.sciencedirect.com Available www.sciencedirect.com Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
ScienceDirect ScienceDirect
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Energy (2018) 000–000 145–150 EnergyProcedia Procedia154 00 (2017) www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage, CCUS 2018, Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Capture, Utilization and Storage, CCUS 2018, 27–29 JuneCarbon 2018, Perth, Australia 27–29 June 2018, Perth, Australia
The CO2CRC Otway shallow CO2 controlled release experiment: The CO2CRC Otway shallow CO2 on controlled release experiment: The 15th International Symposium District Heating and Cooling Preparation for Phase 2 Preparation for Phase 2 Assessing the feasibility of using thePevzner heat demand-outdoor a,b* a,c a,c Andrew Feitza,b*, Konstantin Tertyshnikov , Roman , Ludo Ricarda,d , Brett a,c a,c a,c a,e , Roman Pevznera,b, Ludo Ricarda,d, Brett a,c Andrew Feitz ,Schaa Konstantin Tertyshnikov temperature function for a long-term district heat demand forecast Harrisa,c , Ralf , Ulrike Schacht , Aleks Kalinowski , Stephanie Vialle , a,c a,c a,e a,b a,c a,c a,c Kalinowski , Stephanie Harris , Ralf Schaa , Ulrike SchachtLebedev , Aleks Stanislav Glubokovskikh , Maxim , Eric Tenthoreya,b , ZhejunVialle Pana,d ,, a,c b a,bc a,d a,b,c aa,c a c a,d a,b a,c a,b Stanislav Glubokovskikh , Wang Maxim , Hossein Eric , Zhejun Pan , I. Andrić *, A. Pina , P. Ferrão Lebedev Fournier ., B.Tenthorey Lacarrière O. Le Corre Jonathan Ennis-King , Liuqi ,, J.Shahadat , Tim Ransley , Bruce a,d f a,b a,c a,b a,d a Jonathan Ennis-King , Liuqi Wang Urosevic ,- Instituto Shahadat Hossein , Tim Ransley , Bruce Radke , Milovan , Rajindar IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research Superior Técnico, Av.Singh Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal f a,d a Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France Radke , Milovan Urosevic , Rajindar Singh a
b
a Ltd, Melbourne, Australia Département Systèmes Énergétiques et CO2CRC Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France b a Geoscience Canberra, Australia CO2CRCAustralia, Ltd, Melbourne, Australia c b Curtin University, Perth, Australia Geoscience Australia, Canberra, Australia c dCSIRO, Melbourne, Australia Curtin University, Perth, Australia e d University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia Abstract f e Eungella, Braidwood, Australia University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia f Eungella, Braidwood, Australia District heating networks are commonly addressed in the literature as one of the most effective solutions for decreasing the c
greenhouse gas emissions from the building sector. These systems require high investments which are returned through the heat Abstract sales. Due to the changed climate conditions and building renovation policies, heat demand in the future could decrease, Abstract prolonging the investment return period. CO2CRC its of partners are undertaking a feasibility for athe planned CO2 controlled and monitoring experiment on The mainand scope this paper is to assess the feasibilitystudy of using heat demand – outdoorrelease temperature function for heat demand aCO2CRC shallow fault at the CO2CRC Otway Research Facility. In this project we plan to image, using a diverse range of geophysical and its partners are undertaking a feasibility study for a planned CO controlled release and monitoring experiment 2 forecast. The district of Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of on 665 geochemical CO2 monitoring techniques, the Facility. migration COThree fault from controlled release point at approximately 30 aand shallow fault the in CO2CRC Otway Research Inofthis project we plan toa image, using a diverse range of geophysical 2 up aweather buildings that at vary both construction period and typology. scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district m depth. This paper thetechniques, results of the sitemigration characterisation andaTo modelling undertaken date.at Itapproximately also values includes and geochemical CO2describes monitoring of CO fault from awork controlled releasetopoint 30a 2 up renovation scenarios were developed (shallow, intermediate, deep). estimate the error, obtained heat demand were description of the activities planned that will enable for a more detailed characterization of the fault and proposed injection m depth. This paper describes the results of site characterisation and modelling work undertaken to date. It also includes a compared with results from a dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors. interval. Together these results will enable an assessment as to whether the planned injection experiment is feasible and how it description of the activities planned that will enable for a more detailed characterization of the fault and proposed injection The results showed that when only weather change is considered, the margin of error could be acceptable for some applications can optimally designed. interval. Together these resultswas willlower enablethan an 20% assessment to whether the planned injection experiment feasible and how it (thebeerror in annual demand for all as weather scenarios considered). However, after is introducing renovation can be optimally designed. scenarios, the error value increased up to 59.5% (depending on the weather and renovation scenarios combination considered). Copyright ©of 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. The value slope coefficient increased on © 2018 The©Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.average within the range of 3.8% up to 8% per decade, that corresponds to the Copyright 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. decrease in theaccess number of heating hours 22-139h during the(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) heating season (depending on the combination of weather and This is an open article under the CCofBY-NC-ND license Selection and peer-review under responsibility of hand, the scientific committee of the Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Carbon renovation considered). On the other function intercept of increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade on the Selection andscenarios peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee the Applied Energy Symposium and(depending Forum, Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage, CCUS 2018. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Carbon Capture, 2018. coupledUtilization scenarios).and TheStorage, values CCUS suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and Capture, andofStorage, CCUSestimations. 2018. improveUtilization the accuracy heat demand Keywords: fault; carbon dioxide; greenhouse gas; migration; modelling; monitoring Keywords: fault; carbon dioxide; greenhouse gas; migration; modelling; monitoring
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
Keywords:Copyright Heat demand; Forecast; Climate change 1876-6102 © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Selection and peer-review under responsibility the scientific 1876-6102 Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All of rights reserved. committee of the Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Carbon Capture, Utilization andpeer-review Storage, CCUS Selection and under2018. responsibility of the scientific committee of the Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage, CCUS 2018. 1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. 1876-6102 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Applied Energy Symposium and Forum, Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage, CCUS 2018. 10.1016/j.egypro.2018.11.024
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Andrew Feitz et al. / Energy Procedia 154 (2018) 145–150 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
1. Introduction Faults are widespread geological features in the crust, and can play a significant role in any carbon storage project. However, surprisingly our present understanding of faults is often insufficient to accurately predict how they are likely to influence CO2 migration, either inhibiting or enhancing migration. In a 2016 review by the International Energy Agency Greenhouse Gas Research and Development Programme (IEAGHG), it was recommended that generic fault fluid-flow models be tested against in-situ CO2 flow measurements in order to increase confidence in modelling predictions and establish guidelines for the inclusion of faults in geological storage risk assessments [1]. There is presently little empirical data to validate fault models against. The CO2CRC and its partners are undertaking a feasibility study for a planned CO2 controlled release and monitoring experiment on a shallow fault at the CO2CRC Otway Research Facility. In this project we plan to image, using a diverse range of geophysical and geochemical CO2 monitoring techniques, the migration of CO2 up a fault from a controlled release point at approximately 30 m depth. This will enable us to track where and how fast the CO2 migrates, and measure its geochemical impact on groundwater and soil. CO2CRC and its partners plan to model CO2 migration in a strike-slip fault by targeting the injection at dilational bends and jogs in the fault as these are likely to be high permeability zones based on fault theory and observations from the mineral and oil and gas sectors. As part of the experiment, it is also planned to test predictions of CO2 migration behaviour in the transition zone between saturated and unsaturated soil/rock. This behaviour is not well understood but is important for establishing an understanding of where CO2 is likely to migrate in the near surface and for designing effective monitoring strategies. 2. Phase 1 In Phase 1 of the project (2016-2017), a series of geophysical surveys and groundwater permeability assessments were conducted at the Otway Research Facility to ascertain whether a shallow fault at the site was present [2,3]. The data from the surveys have been integrated into a 3D model of the upper faulted shallow geology of the CO2CRC Otway site. Based on this data, five key model properties (hydrostratigraphic unit, horizontal permeability, vertical permeability, fault permeability and P-velocity from refraction tomography) were populated in the 3D grid to produce the final static model. The model has been developed to assist with designing the experiment and conceptualising the shallow stratigraphy of the Otway site. Based on the data collected to date, the shallow geology of the CO2CRC Otway study area can be described by three sequences [4]: 1. The uppermost relatively thin but clay-rich and impermeable Pliocene Hanson Plain Sand (3-5m thick); 2. The stratified and karstified Miocene Port Campbell Limestone, with wide ranging permeability depending on the depositional facies (121m thick); and 3. The comparatively impermeable and homogeneous Miocene Gellibrand Marl (335m thick). Multiple depositional cycles have been interpreted within the Port Campbell Limestone sequence and, within each cycle, permeability is highly variable, ranging from marly carbonate of poor permeability to an uppermost porous and permeable bioclastic grainstone interval. The top of the Port Campbell Limestone is regarded as a significant unconformity with karst development and an accumulation of a residual iron rich regolith. The water table within the Port Campbell Limestone appears to lie just below the base of the Hanson Plain Sand creating an uppermost unsaturated zone. Locally this unsaturated zone may be absent due to the irregular base of the overlying impermeable Hanson Plain Sand. The presence or absence of an unsaturated zone beneath the clay layer at the field site will strongly influence CO2 migration behaviour during the planned injection experiment and this is the subject of ongoing characterisation. The high resolution seismic data clearly showed the presence of a shallow fault [3]. This newly-identified shallow Brumbys Fault disrupts the sequence below the Hanson Plain Sand and appears to extend to the base of the Gellibrand Marl. Although Brumbys Fault does have a small vertical offset (~4.5m downthrown to the east), the fault is interpreted to have a predominantly strike-slip component because it is very steeply dipping and has a strike
Andrew Feitz et al. / Energy Procedia 154 (2018) 145–150 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
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that is approximately 30° to the local maximum horizontal stress direction [5,6]. The seismic reflection and refraction imagery define linear features and associated broader zones of lower P-wave velocity (Vp) that are oriented approximately parallel to the maximum horizontal stress. These are interpreted to be dilatant cracking and joint sets that have facilitated carbonate dissolution, enhancing permeability and porosity in the limestone sequence, as well as surface development of karst. Surface swales can be observed perpendicular to this trend and these may have been influenced by deposition or erosion processes aligning with folds that formed in advance of, or during fault formation. Such en-echelon fold sets are known to be associated with strike-slip faults. The contemporary stress regime has had a large influence on the orientation of newly-formed faults and also on the reactivation of previously existing faults [6]. Shallower rocks such as the Port Campbell Limestone would be expected to reflect the regional strike-slip faulting regime. Brumbys Fault is not uniformly linear, but rather possesses some bends and dilational jogs that are likely to be high strain zones. These may be of higher permeability and are the target of the planned CO2 injection experiment.
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration showing shallow stratigraphy below the CO2CRC Otway Research Facility, Brumbys Fault, and the proposed location of the groundwater observation wells. Well 1 will be equipped with a hydrid geophone- fibre optic cable and Well 2 will be equipped with dual fibre optic cables for distributed temperature sensing (DTS) measurements.
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3. Planned Phase 2 Operations Program 3.1. Groundwater observation wells and core analysis Phase 2 of the project will involve undertaking a more detailed characterisation of the site and fault. While the site appears suitable for the planned controlled release experiment, there is no core available for the Port Campbell Limestone to validate the 3D model against. In addition, the high resolution seismic can only image the fault to within 25m of the ground surface. It is presently unknown whether Brumbys Fault extends to the base of the clay layer and this is a significant gap in knowledge for the planned controlled release experiment. The plan is to drill two inclined appraisal wells through the Brumbys Fault (Fig. 1), collect core, and undertake extensive wireline logging of the wells. Well 1, which will be near vertical (10° from vertical), will be cored through the entire Port Campbell Limestone and partially into the Gellibrand Marl. Its function is primarily as a stratigraphic well, to optimise drilling procedures and core recovery techniques, and enable installation of a hydrid geophone – fibre optic cable on the outside of the well casing. Well 1 will be orientated to target a suspected lower permeability section of the fault at approximately 100m depth (Fig. 2).
Well 2
Hanson Plain Sand
Well 1
Gellibrand Marl
Fig. 2: Inferred variations in fault permeability on the modelled Brumby Fault surface, caused by alternating tight and dilational segments created with sinistral strike slip movement [4]. The planned fault intersection points for the proposed groundwater observation wells are shown (Well 1 = tight; Well 2 = dilated). XY coordinates are in metres.
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Well 2 will be highly deviated and will be cored through the fault at 45° near the surface. The purpose of this well is to collect core from the suspected high permeability section of the fault (Figure 2), to determine the width of the fault and damage zone, ascertain whether the fault does extend towards to the surface, and to equip the well with dual fibre-optic cables for future Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) monitoring. Both wells will collect core through the fault enabling tie points for the fault model developed from the seismic data. It is planned to drill both wells using a combination of diamond and sonic drilling, optimized for core integrity and material recovery. Core from both wells will undergo extensive mineral and physical characterisation, which will enable estimation of the impact of CO2 injection on groundwater chemistry and provide analytical porosity, permeability and capillary pressure data for modelling the CO2 injection. 3.2. Piezometer array The current nature of the shallow groundwater system at the Otway site is unclear. Analysis of groundwater levels during Phase 1 of this project suggested there may be a dual aquifer system, with groundwater in the upper clay layer (Hanson Plain Sand) separated from the lower Port Campbell Limestone aquifer. It is planned to install an array of shallow groundwater piezometers to accurately measure the groundwater levels across the site and determine whether there is soil gas beneath the clay layer. Four pairs of shallow piezometers (completed in clay layer and Port Campbell Limestone) would be located at the perimeter of the research area. 3.3. VSP survey A vertical seismic profile (VSP) survey is planned for Well 1. The shallow VSP survey aims to provide an accurate velocity model of the near surface formations that will be used to complement processing of the surface seismic and the overall understanding of the geological model of the research area. The 3D VSP survey will be conducted using two sets of seismic receivers: 1) a hybrid cable housing fibre optic cores and hydrophones cemented behind the casing of the well; and 2) a string of 24 hydrophones deployed inside the bore. Acquiring data with various sensors (fibre optic and hydrophones) will enable a comparative feasibility study of application of different seismic technologies for shallow borehole monitoring. 3.4. Soil gas and soil flux survey A high-density soil gas and soil flux survey will be conducted across Brumbys Fault to establish a baseline of insitu conditions around the area above the fault. The survey will collect gas samples for baseline noble gas and isotopic analysis. A soil flux survey will be conducted to obtain background measurements of CO2 flux across the fault to establish the existing condition of the area above the fault. 4. Phase 2 Analysis and Modelling The information obtained for Phase 2 will be essential for correctly calibrating the 3D static model of the planned experimental site (i.e. stratigraphy, permeability, porosity). Coring provides material for rock strength testing, geomechanical analysis, CO2-water-rock dissolution experiments and enables characterisation of the fault properties. With this additional data, more informed modelling simulations could be performed to optimize the location of the injection well and the required CO2 injection rate and pressure. Dynamic CO2 simulation efforts to date [7] suggest that, depending on the permeability of the fault and injection facies, CO2 could be expected to migrate up the fault to the base of the clay layer, but better data on the maximum injection pressure and the permeability distribution in the near-surface region (including the continuity of the clay layer) is needed. Phase 2 is designed to enable collection of essential data from the Port Campbell Limestone and Hansen Plain Sand, including the key unknown parameters listed below: • Rock strength, which will be used to determine the maximum and safe injection pressure for the experiment.
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• Formation and fault permeability, which will enable modelling (+ max injection pressure) to estimate the total volume of CO2 that can be safely injected. • Mineralogy, which will enable modelling to estimate the extent of impact on groundwater chemistry. • Relative permeability through special core analysis (SCAL), which determines the effective permeability of the water and gas phases to allow more accurate modelling of gas and water flow. • Capillary pressure measurements (using a mercury injection capillary porosimeter, MICP), which determines the minimum pressure required to initiate gas flow through water bearing layers. With these properties measured, an improved modelling assessment can be conducted which can be then used to estimate the quantity of CO2 required for the experiment, the likelihood of CO2 migration up the fault, and its impact on the Port Campbell Limestone aquifer. It will also enable improved design of the layout of the injection experiment and its monitoring program. 5. Future injection experiment (Phase 3) Depending on the findings from Phase 2 and the modelling simulations, an assessment will be made as to whether the planned injection experiment is feasible. Early modelling results suggest that the size of the injection would be in the order of 10s of tonnes of CO2 but this will be confirmed during Phase 2. If the experiment does proceed, the CO2 injection is likely to take place over a period of weeks. The CO2 migration behaviour would be monitored and imaged using a variety of geophysical and geochemical techniques (to be defined as part of Phase 3). It is envisaged that this will result in a rich dataset that could be used to validate and improve geomechanical and fluid flow fault modelling predictions. Acknowledgements We thank the CO2CRC and their corporate sponsors for supporting this project. A. Feitz, A. Kalinowski and E. Tenthorey publish this paper with the permission of the Chief Executive Officer, Geoscience Australia. References [1] IEAGHG (2016) Fault Permeabilty, 2016/13, IEAGHG, Cheltenham. [2] Bailey, A.H.E., Pevzner, R., Urosevic, M., Popik, D. and Feitz, A.J. (2016) Shallow geology of the CO2CRC Otway Site: Evidence for previously undetected neotectonic features, Energy Procedia, 114, 4424 – 4435. [3] Feitz, A.J, Pevzner, R, Harris, B., Schaa, R., Tertyshnikov, K., Ziramov, S., Gunning, M., Ransley, T.R., Lai, E., Bailey, A.H., Schacht, U., Fomin, T. and Urosevic, M. (2017) The CO2CRC Otway shallow CO2 controlled release experiment: Site suitability assessment, Energy Procedia, 114, 3671-3678. [4] Feitz, A., Radke, B., Hossain, M., Harris, B., Schaa, R., Pethick, A., Ziramov, S., Urosevic, M., Tenthorey, E., Pan, Z., Ennis-King, J., Wang, L., Gunning, M., Lai, E., Ransley, T., Tan, K., Schacht, U., Kalinowski, A., Black, J., Pevzner, R.1 (2018) The CO2CRC Otway shallow CO2 controlled release experiment: Geological model and CO2 migration simulations, GHGT14, Melbourne (submitted). [5] Vidal-Gilbert, S., Tenthorey, E., Dewhurst, D., Ennis-King, J., van Ruth, P., Hillis,R., 2010. Geomechanical analysis of the Naylor Field, Otway Basin, Australia:implications for CO2injection and storage. Int. J. Greenhouse Gas Control v4, 827–839. [6] Tenthorey, E. 2014. Gemechanical Investigations. In: Cook, P.J. (Ed.) 2014, Geologically storing carbon: Learning from the Otway experience. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. [7] Wang, L., Pan, Z., Ennis-King, J. and Feitz, A. (2018) Dynamic modelling for feasibility study of the shallow CO2 injection experiment at the CO2CRC Otway site, Victoria, Australia. GHGT14, Melbourne (submitted).