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The concept of cluster schools and its relevance to educational development in Sri Lanka
In!. 1. Educni~ond Dewlopmmr. PnmrdanCreat Britain
Vol. 3. ?a
3. pp ?.li-252.
1983
07384XY3/83 53 W * 0.W Perpamon Preu Lid
THE CONCEPT OF CLUSTER SCHOOLS AND ITS RELEVANCE TO EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SRI LANKA JAYAMPATI Faculty of Education,
University
WANASINGHE of Colombo,
A critical assessment of the educational policies introduced in Sri Lanka since the inauguration of free education in 1945, indicates that the ideology of equality of educational opportunity reigned supreme in determining the country’s educational policy. Social pressures were brought to bear on the education system since prestigious and remunerative jobs went to those who received their education in the developed urban schools. Even to date, very wide disparities in educational opportunities exist between schools. There is a network of ‘superior’ schools situated in the urban areas. They possess the best qualified and experienced teaching staff, well equipped laboratory complexes, library facilities and other auxiliary aids to impart a sound education. A large proportion of the students come from affluent middle and upper class homes. Since the parents are economically powerful, socially and politically more influential, they are in a position to get the government in power to divert more resources to the best schools. The majority of the underdeveloped schools are located in rural areas. The rural dwellers are engaged mainly in agricultural or part time off farm activities. Their income is comparatively low. There is seasonal unemployment and under-employment. Although the rural poor are aware of the value of education, they are too inarticulate to make a strong case to get their schools improved by the government. Without effective agitation political leaders turn a blind eye to the needs of the underprivileged. In the face of stiff demands from the privileged groups, governments find that the neglect of schools in the underprivileged areas creates fewer problems.
Colombo,
Sri Lanka
It would therefore appear, at least on paper, that the concept of cluster schools is an honest attempt to help the poor and the underprivileged by offering social justice and equality of educational opportunity. A recent White Paper (Ministry of Education, 1981) proposes to divert the colossal amount of resources spent at pre,sent on developed schools to the underdeveloped and poor schools. This means that every underprivileged school, neglected so far, will get more resources for development. Further, the concept of cluster schools appears to ensure a more equitable distribution of resources amongst the schools. A ‘cluster’ according to the White Paper, ‘is a group of schools in cohesive geographical area’ which would be ‘developed and managed as one whole, to serve the educational needs of the entire area, using the resources available to the best advantage’ (p. III). ‘Each cluster will function as an administrative entity to meet the needs of the entire area it serves. Pupil admissions, requisition of supplies, capital expenditure and allocation of teachers will be on the basis that each cluster is one organizational unit. Thus the smallest unit for planning the development and organization of the school system will henceforth be the school cluster’ (P. 9). The Ministry of Education has initiated a pilot project to study the feasibility of establishing cluster schools in the whole island. After field trials, the Ministry has nut down the following objectives of clustkr schbols. (1) (2)
247
To eliminate inequitable distribution resources and to provide equality educational opportunities. To minimize/eliminate duplication wastage in the provision of facilities.
of of or
J. WANASINGHE
248
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
To shift the focus from
the individual school as a unit of planning to a cluster. The cluster is to function as a grassroot level planning unit responsible for allocation and deployment of resources within it. To achieve qualitative development in education through systematic and intensive supervision of the schools within the cluster. To upgrade the neglected and underdeveloped schools in order to bring about uniformity in standards. To establish national unity in a plural society through the inculcation of proper attitudes by promoting joint planning, development and management.
The Ministry of Education hopes to establish clusters to cater for approximately 90% of the pupil population. The proposed unitary schools and some isolated small schools will be left out. There are large urban based schools that are ‘rich in resources and can manage their affairs with much less state aid than the normal schools’ (p. 11). They are considered too large to be grouped with other schools into clusters. They are termed ‘unitary schools’ and are ‘given an opportunity to become more and more self-reliant’ (p. 11). A grant from the state would cover the salaries of the staff, any additional funds would have to be raised by the schools themselves without soliciting donations for pupil admission. Hundreds of small rural schools that are dispersed over a wide area are left out of the cluster system due to their isolation and inaccessibility. A school cluster is expected to have a pupil enrolment of 3000-5000. It will comprise lo-14 primary, secondary and collegiate schools. The focus of the cluster is the core school. The core school ‘will be developed, in general, to have superior laboratory, workshop, library, audiovisual and co-curricular facilities which will be shared by other schools within the cluster’ (p. 9). The cluster system aims to ‘reduce the under utilization and unnecessary duplication of specialist teachers, expensive equipment and other facilities and promote optimum utilization of the available resources’ (p. 9).
The Principal of the core school will be the Executive Head of the cluster. The Cluster Principal will be responsible for the administration of the cluster schools and the supervision of education in these schools. His functions include the planning of the development of the whole cluster, supervision and organization of the curricular programmes. THE CONTEXT IN WHICH THE CLUSTER SYSTEM WILL HAVE TO OPERATE Sri Lanka is an island with more than 22,000 villages. Approximately 22% of its 14.5 million (1981) live in urban settlements. It has a plural society consisting of various racial and religious groups. As a result of historical and geographical factors in the evolution of the system of education, well established and developed schools are located in urban areas (Wanasinghe, 1982, p. 32). Recent studies by the author have shown that the gap between urban and rural schools is widening (Wanasinghe, 1982, p. 33). A system of free education from kindergarten to university was inaugurated as far back as 1945. The school-going population increased from 13% in 1943 to 21.7% in 1981 after the introduction of the free education scheme. Out of this schoolgoing population of 3.4 million, 2.1 and 1.I million, respectively, are in the primary and junior secondary schools. The balance of 0.2 million attend senior secondary schools. In 1981, out of a total of 9592 schools only 31 were managed by private organizations. The number of students in each school ranges from 5 to 7000. The education system employs 13 1,656 teachers. The general administration of the schools is in the charge of 275 Circuit Education Officers (Inspectors of Schools). On average the CEO manages about 35 schools. The expenditure on education has been increasing every year but the percentage of total government expenditure spent on general education was dropped from 11.09 in 1972 to 4.4 in 1980. Of the recurrent expenditure in 198 1 as much as 94.79% was spent on teachers’ salaries. Similarly, out of the capital expenditure, 80% was spent on equipment and 20% on buildings. This essentially means that on the
THE CONCEPT
OF CLUSTER
average only Rs 2602 is spent on buildings and Rs 10,560 on equipment per school. People accept education as a prime agent of social mobility. To date, schools have developed as separate units and parents have played a significant role in the development of the schools which their children attend. With all the drawbacks, Sri Lanka can boast of a system of schools where every school in the country has developed to some extent mainly because of well-wishers and parents. Sri Lankans continuously agitate to organize education on egalitarian principals. Up to 1972, equality of educational opportunity meant equal access to prestigious and developed urban schools. The educational reforms of 1972 attempted to give an extended meaning to the concept of educational opportunities. These reforms strove to establish common or comprehensive schools to transmit a common culture. Although those reforms were not able to abolish the prestigious schools, a common curriculum was established in all schools. It is in the light of this context that the feasibility of cluster schools should be assessed. An attempt was made by the writer to assess the feasibility of the cluster system in the Sri Lankan situation. The Ministry of Education has initiated 19 clusters as pilot projects. At the very outset one can observe that it is not a representative sample. The clusters are rural based. It is therefore justifiable to assume that some of the problems related to urban clusters will not surface in such a study. One of the main aims of the cluster system is to eliminate the inequitable distribution of resources and provide equality of educational opportunities. Yet, at the outset it must be pointed out that the most developed, best endowed prestigious urban schools have been left out of the cluster system. According to the White Paper these unitary schools will have to find their own funds for development and maintenance. Only the salaries of the staff members will be paid by the state. Since donations for admissions will not be permitted, these schools will have to find funds through voluntary contributions. In such circumstances, places in such schools will not be decided on social justice but on the ability of the parents to make worthwhile voluntary contributions.
SCHOOLS
249
They will cater mostly for the children of affluent parents and will become elitist schools with a culture of their own. The cluster schools will be for the masses. This is exactly what the masses have been opposed to since Independence. Under this setup even the most unsophisticated person can see that there will not be equality of educational opportunity. Once the unitary schools are excluded from the cluster system, the Ministry will be left with poorly equipped schools. The general criticism that clusters situated in rural areas will have to share poverty is borne out by the fact that on average as little as Rs 2602 and Rs 10,560 per school are spent on buildings and equipment respectively. The money allocated for a single school is not sufficient to whitewash the school buildings or buy 40 desks and chairs. Unless there is an increase in the amount allocated, the sharing of scarce resources will not be feasible. At present the 9592 schools are administered by 275 Circuit Education Officers. With the introduction of the cluster system the CEOs will cease to function. Each cluster will be administered by a Cluster Principal, who will function as the Principal of the core school as well as that of the whole cluster. Reforms envisage that the core school should have an additional Principal to attend to the daily administrative problems. Assuming that each cluster would consist of 10 schools, the Ministry expects that there would be approximately 900 clusters when remote schools and unitary schools are excluded. This essentially means that the general administration and supervision of the schools will be conducted by 900 Cluster Principals instead of 275 CEOs. Both categories are placed on the same salary structure. As such the Ministry would have to spend 3.3 times the present amount on salaries alone. In addition, travelling expenses will have to be paid to 900 Cluster Principals. The cluster system is already facing financial problems since the Treasury has turned down a request for Rs 200 per month for Cluster Principals to meet travelling expenses. The Treasury has continuously shown its reluctance to increase the budgetary allowance for education. In fact the expenditure on education as a percentage of the total voted expenditure gradually dropped from 14.5
250
J. WANASINGHE
in 1969 to 7.3 in 1981. The expenditure projected for 1982183 is assessed at 6.6% of the total budgetary expenditure of the government. ‘A significant reversal of the trend is unlikely to occur in the near future as the present government is faced with the gargantuan task of accelerating economic development’ (Ministry of Education, 1978, p. 16). This means that the annual resources available for the Ministry of Education are inadequate. Under these circumstances, the cluster schools appear to be an acceptable solution, but certain problems are bound to arise when sharing meagre resources among several schools. The Ministry of Education has accumulated overwhelming evidence to show that the cluster school system will operate successfully in Sri Lanka. On close scrutiny it can be observed that almost all the data have been obtained from two clusters situated in two remote areas, viz. Debaraweva in Hambantota District and Palabeddala in Ratnapura District. If Karl Popper’s criterion of testing a theory is used in this context, one can conclude that the data collected would not confirm the theory that cluster schools are feasible in Sri Lanka: ‘One should not look for confirmation or verification but attempt to falsify the theory. The theory can be accepted only if the theory cannot be falsified’ (Popper, 1958). If one looks for confirmations only, then astrology too could be considered as a genuine theory to predict one’s future. On this criterion it is possible to claim that the Ministry has used biased methodology and biased data to show that the concept of cluster schools is applicable to Sri Lanka. Coombs (1968) has put forward two conditions for an educational reform to succeed. Firstly, all concerned should be convinced that the reform is worthwhile and accept it wholeheartedly. Secondly, the system of education must be equipped with means for innovation. The writer wished to assess the feasibility of these reforms using the two conditions put forward by Coombs. A detailed study of six clusters was conducted and teachers, Principals and parents were interviewed. The study showed that the teachers, Principals and even parents are sharply divided on the need to reorganize the schools as clusters. As much as
72% of those interviewed felt that such a reorganization was not in the best interests of the country. Their main argument centred around the idea that cluster schools are an arrangement to re-instate privilege in education (Table 1). Some responded with more than one reason. Table
I. Reasons against the introduction
of cluster schools
o;O
Reasons Best endowed schools for the rich and the rest for the masses
89
2.
Enhances
62
3.
Lose identity and individuality the small schools in the cluster
4.
A scheme to share the poor schools
5.
Lead to administrative chaos as there are not sufficient resources to share
57
6.
Core Principal will develop his school at the expense of others
65
1.
A scheme to close down smaller schools located in rural areas
48
Schools belonging to racial minorities and religious groups will get neglected
24
I.
8.
inquality
in education
poverty
of 65
amongst 14
Even before Sri Lanka gained independence the masses agitated against privilege in education. In fact almost all the major educational policies introduced since 1945 have been aimed towards achieving this goal. Demonstrations were organised against the White Paper when it was discussed in Parliament. Some of the fears mentioned in the above table were also expressed in Parliament. The general view among parents, past and present pupils and teachers is that once the cluster begins to function the identity and individuality of schools, other than the core school will be lost. There is a fear that the Core Principal will think of developing only the core school. The minorities want the Tamil or Muslim schools in a cluster to function separately because ‘there is a genuine fear that they will be squeezed out of existence’ (Amirthalingam, 1982). Thus it is evident that Coombs’ first condition for an educational reform to be successful
THE CONCEPT
OF CLUSTER
is not satisfied. Data given above indicates that the concept of cluster schools is not accepted by the majority of Sri Lankans. The detailed study of six of the existing clusters showed that some objectives of the cluster system can be achieved under certain conditions. An independent study of the two clusters that function satisfactorily brings out the fact that the success depends almost entirely on the Principal of the core school. Further, the District Director of Education has to extend his cooperation in every way possible to make this a success. The Core Principal has to be a wise, mature, democratic leader; a good school administrator who possesses a sound knowledge of the theory and practice of education. He should be kind, considerate and be prepared to serve the schools in the cluster with considerable devotion and dedication. His work should not be confined to school hours only. He should be able to sacrifice his leisure hours and a part of his income. He has to give the correct leadership to all other principals and teachers to such an extent that they are convinced that he is a friend, guide and philosopher. Although he is delegated with some power and authority he should be prepared to get the cooperation of all concerned with the least use of rules and regulations. He should be able to lead the group of principals to arrive at correct decisions with regard to the needs of each school. Each decision has to be almost unanimous. Further, he should be able to convince the District Director of Education and obtain at least the minimum requirements for the schools in his cluster. He must cease to think only of the needs of his school; persuade others to share the resources and motivate teachers who are mostly professionally ill-equipped, poorly paid and generally discontented. An almost insurmountable problem in the implementation of the cluster concept is the lack of principals who could serve as Core Principals. As pointed out earlier they have to possess certain special qualities to be successful Core Principals. In the 19 pilot projects only two principals appear to possess the necessary qualifications, experience and other special qualities. From the pilot projects initiated so far we may infer that at present only about 10%
SCHOOLS
251
of the Core Principals would be suitable for the task entrusted to them. The two clusters that function satisfactorily work under very favourable conditions. They have been given the necessary resources to function smoothly and they are constantly supervised by the District Director of Education and the officials of the Ministry. Foreign experts who wish to study or observe the functioning of the cluster schools are directed to those two clusters. Thus the motivational factor within the two clusters is very high indeed. The two Core Principals have not yet been given extra remuneration or travelling expenses for the supervision and management of the cluster. However, there is room to think that the two Principals expect recognition in ample measure for the selfless service rendered. It was observed that Cluster Principals had not received at least the minimum requirements depending on the requested. However, initiative, resourcefulness and leadership of the Cluster Principal attempts have been made to explore the possibility of sharing the existing resources in the schools. It was observed that, with the exception of the two above mentioned clusters, the Principal and the teachers show some reluctance to share resources. However, the survey showed that it is possible to share library books, audio-visual equipment, science apparatus and playgrounds. Since all schools follow a common curriculum at the junior secondary level some lessons are taught at the same time in all the schools. Further, assessments are made at cluster level and common question papers are set for the entire cluster. In general, principals and teachers offer this as an excuse for not agreeing to share the resources available. In instances where they agree to share the equipment, those are given on loan for a short period of less than a week. Teachers often complain that this new arrangement has not helped them. The teachers are reluctant to travel to another school since they have a full time table of teaching hours in their own schools. No teacher has expressed his willingness to work after school hours even if travelling expenses are paid. The cluster does not have financial resources to provide an extra remuneration for teachers who are willing to do extra work in the
252
J. WANASINGHE
afternoons. Therefore pilot projects have shown beyond doubt that sharing of the services of teachers is an ideal beyond implementation. However, there are instances where the teachers have been transferred permanently from one school to another within the cluster. For instance, at the senior secondary level if a subject like Commerce is offered at GCE (A Level) in two schools and only one teacher is available, this teacher can be transferred to the school where the need is greater. The students in the other school can be transferred with the teacher. The pilot projects have shown that the quality of learning and teaching can be considerably improved through better supervision depending on the initiative of the Cluster Principal. To do this, the Principal has to visit the schools often. This necessarily involves travelling and he has to be given an allowance for travelling and an extra remuneration for the additional work undertaken. Although the Ministry of Education has acknowledged the need for such payment the Treasury has turned down this request. At present no Cluster Principal receives an extra allowance. Therefore Coombs’ second condition necessary for a
reform to succeed, is also not satisfied. In the present situation, the cluster school concept will not function successfully in Sri Lanka. In conclusion, the remarks made by the Ministry of Education regarding reforms are quite appropriate in this context: ‘An ill-conceived solution to a fundamental problem may, while providing a measure of temporary relief aggravate the problem in the long run and thereby adversely affect the lives of millions of innocent pupils’ (Ministry of Education, 1978, p. 16). REFERENCES Amirthalingam, A. (1982) Hunsard, 22nd January 1982, p. 674. Government Press, Sri Lanka. Coombs, P. H. (1968) The World Educarional Crisis - A Sysfems Analysis, pp. 166-167. Oxford University Press, New York. Ministry of Education (1978) Educafion in Sri Lanka, p. 16. State Printing Corporation, Sri Lanka. Ministry of Education (1981) Education Proposuls for Reform. p. 111. State Printing Corporation, Sri Lanka. Popper, K. (1958) The Logic o/ Scientific Discovery, p. I1 I. Hutchinson. (Quoted in Schools Curriculum Bulletin 3, Changes in Science Teaching. Evans/ Methuen Educational, 1970, p. IO). Wanasinghe, J. (1982) The equality of educational opportunity to study science at Senior Secondary Schools in Sri Lanka: a quantative assessment. Economic Review, May.
Vol. 3. ?a
3. pp ?.li-252.
1983
07384XY3/83 53 W * 0.W Perpamon Preu Lid
THE CONCEPT OF CLUSTER SCHOOLS AND ITS RELEVANCE TO EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SRI LANKA JAYAMPATI Faculty of Education,
University
WANASINGHE of Colombo,
A critical assessment of the educational policies introduced in Sri Lanka since the inauguration of free education in 1945, indicates that the ideology of equality of educational opportunity reigned supreme in determining the country’s educational policy. Social pressures were brought to bear on the education system since prestigious and remunerative jobs went to those who received their education in the developed urban schools. Even to date, very wide disparities in educational opportunities exist between schools. There is a network of ‘superior’ schools situated in the urban areas. They possess the best qualified and experienced teaching staff, well equipped laboratory complexes, library facilities and other auxiliary aids to impart a sound education. A large proportion of the students come from affluent middle and upper class homes. Since the parents are economically powerful, socially and politically more influential, they are in a position to get the government in power to divert more resources to the best schools. The majority of the underdeveloped schools are located in rural areas. The rural dwellers are engaged mainly in agricultural or part time off farm activities. Their income is comparatively low. There is seasonal unemployment and under-employment. Although the rural poor are aware of the value of education, they are too inarticulate to make a strong case to get their schools improved by the government. Without effective agitation political leaders turn a blind eye to the needs of the underprivileged. In the face of stiff demands from the privileged groups, governments find that the neglect of schools in the underprivileged areas creates fewer problems.
Colombo,
Sri Lanka
It would therefore appear, at least on paper, that the concept of cluster schools is an honest attempt to help the poor and the underprivileged by offering social justice and equality of educational opportunity. A recent White Paper (Ministry of Education, 1981) proposes to divert the colossal amount of resources spent at pre,sent on developed schools to the underdeveloped and poor schools. This means that every underprivileged school, neglected so far, will get more resources for development. Further, the concept of cluster schools appears to ensure a more equitable distribution of resources amongst the schools. A ‘cluster’ according to the White Paper, ‘is a group of schools in cohesive geographical area’ which would be ‘developed and managed as one whole, to serve the educational needs of the entire area, using the resources available to the best advantage’ (p. III). ‘Each cluster will function as an administrative entity to meet the needs of the entire area it serves. Pupil admissions, requisition of supplies, capital expenditure and allocation of teachers will be on the basis that each cluster is one organizational unit. Thus the smallest unit for planning the development and organization of the school system will henceforth be the school cluster’ (P. 9). The Ministry of Education has initiated a pilot project to study the feasibility of establishing cluster schools in the whole island. After field trials, the Ministry has nut down the following objectives of clustkr schbols. (1) (2)
247
To eliminate inequitable distribution resources and to provide equality educational opportunities. To minimize/eliminate duplication wastage in the provision of facilities.
of of or
J. WANASINGHE
248
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
To shift the focus from
the individual school as a unit of planning to a cluster. The cluster is to function as a grassroot level planning unit responsible for allocation and deployment of resources within it. To achieve qualitative development in education through systematic and intensive supervision of the schools within the cluster. To upgrade the neglected and underdeveloped schools in order to bring about uniformity in standards. To establish national unity in a plural society through the inculcation of proper attitudes by promoting joint planning, development and management.
The Ministry of Education hopes to establish clusters to cater for approximately 90% of the pupil population. The proposed unitary schools and some isolated small schools will be left out. There are large urban based schools that are ‘rich in resources and can manage their affairs with much less state aid than the normal schools’ (p. 11). They are considered too large to be grouped with other schools into clusters. They are termed ‘unitary schools’ and are ‘given an opportunity to become more and more self-reliant’ (p. 11). A grant from the state would cover the salaries of the staff, any additional funds would have to be raised by the schools themselves without soliciting donations for pupil admission. Hundreds of small rural schools that are dispersed over a wide area are left out of the cluster system due to their isolation and inaccessibility. A school cluster is expected to have a pupil enrolment of 3000-5000. It will comprise lo-14 primary, secondary and collegiate schools. The focus of the cluster is the core school. The core school ‘will be developed, in general, to have superior laboratory, workshop, library, audiovisual and co-curricular facilities which will be shared by other schools within the cluster’ (p. 9). The cluster system aims to ‘reduce the under utilization and unnecessary duplication of specialist teachers, expensive equipment and other facilities and promote optimum utilization of the available resources’ (p. 9).
The Principal of the core school will be the Executive Head of the cluster. The Cluster Principal will be responsible for the administration of the cluster schools and the supervision of education in these schools. His functions include the planning of the development of the whole cluster, supervision and organization of the curricular programmes. THE CONTEXT IN WHICH THE CLUSTER SYSTEM WILL HAVE TO OPERATE Sri Lanka is an island with more than 22,000 villages. Approximately 22% of its 14.5 million (1981) live in urban settlements. It has a plural society consisting of various racial and religious groups. As a result of historical and geographical factors in the evolution of the system of education, well established and developed schools are located in urban areas (Wanasinghe, 1982, p. 32). Recent studies by the author have shown that the gap between urban and rural schools is widening (Wanasinghe, 1982, p. 33). A system of free education from kindergarten to university was inaugurated as far back as 1945. The school-going population increased from 13% in 1943 to 21.7% in 1981 after the introduction of the free education scheme. Out of this schoolgoing population of 3.4 million, 2.1 and 1.I million, respectively, are in the primary and junior secondary schools. The balance of 0.2 million attend senior secondary schools. In 1981, out of a total of 9592 schools only 31 were managed by private organizations. The number of students in each school ranges from 5 to 7000. The education system employs 13 1,656 teachers. The general administration of the schools is in the charge of 275 Circuit Education Officers (Inspectors of Schools). On average the CEO manages about 35 schools. The expenditure on education has been increasing every year but the percentage of total government expenditure spent on general education was dropped from 11.09 in 1972 to 4.4 in 1980. Of the recurrent expenditure in 198 1 as much as 94.79% was spent on teachers’ salaries. Similarly, out of the capital expenditure, 80% was spent on equipment and 20% on buildings. This essentially means that on the
THE CONCEPT
OF CLUSTER
average only Rs 2602 is spent on buildings and Rs 10,560 on equipment per school. People accept education as a prime agent of social mobility. To date, schools have developed as separate units and parents have played a significant role in the development of the schools which their children attend. With all the drawbacks, Sri Lanka can boast of a system of schools where every school in the country has developed to some extent mainly because of well-wishers and parents. Sri Lankans continuously agitate to organize education on egalitarian principals. Up to 1972, equality of educational opportunity meant equal access to prestigious and developed urban schools. The educational reforms of 1972 attempted to give an extended meaning to the concept of educational opportunities. These reforms strove to establish common or comprehensive schools to transmit a common culture. Although those reforms were not able to abolish the prestigious schools, a common curriculum was established in all schools. It is in the light of this context that the feasibility of cluster schools should be assessed. An attempt was made by the writer to assess the feasibility of the cluster system in the Sri Lankan situation. The Ministry of Education has initiated 19 clusters as pilot projects. At the very outset one can observe that it is not a representative sample. The clusters are rural based. It is therefore justifiable to assume that some of the problems related to urban clusters will not surface in such a study. One of the main aims of the cluster system is to eliminate the inequitable distribution of resources and provide equality of educational opportunities. Yet, at the outset it must be pointed out that the most developed, best endowed prestigious urban schools have been left out of the cluster system. According to the White Paper these unitary schools will have to find their own funds for development and maintenance. Only the salaries of the staff members will be paid by the state. Since donations for admissions will not be permitted, these schools will have to find funds through voluntary contributions. In such circumstances, places in such schools will not be decided on social justice but on the ability of the parents to make worthwhile voluntary contributions.
SCHOOLS
249
They will cater mostly for the children of affluent parents and will become elitist schools with a culture of their own. The cluster schools will be for the masses. This is exactly what the masses have been opposed to since Independence. Under this setup even the most unsophisticated person can see that there will not be equality of educational opportunity. Once the unitary schools are excluded from the cluster system, the Ministry will be left with poorly equipped schools. The general criticism that clusters situated in rural areas will have to share poverty is borne out by the fact that on average as little as Rs 2602 and Rs 10,560 per school are spent on buildings and equipment respectively. The money allocated for a single school is not sufficient to whitewash the school buildings or buy 40 desks and chairs. Unless there is an increase in the amount allocated, the sharing of scarce resources will not be feasible. At present the 9592 schools are administered by 275 Circuit Education Officers. With the introduction of the cluster system the CEOs will cease to function. Each cluster will be administered by a Cluster Principal, who will function as the Principal of the core school as well as that of the whole cluster. Reforms envisage that the core school should have an additional Principal to attend to the daily administrative problems. Assuming that each cluster would consist of 10 schools, the Ministry expects that there would be approximately 900 clusters when remote schools and unitary schools are excluded. This essentially means that the general administration and supervision of the schools will be conducted by 900 Cluster Principals instead of 275 CEOs. Both categories are placed on the same salary structure. As such the Ministry would have to spend 3.3 times the present amount on salaries alone. In addition, travelling expenses will have to be paid to 900 Cluster Principals. The cluster system is already facing financial problems since the Treasury has turned down a request for Rs 200 per month for Cluster Principals to meet travelling expenses. The Treasury has continuously shown its reluctance to increase the budgetary allowance for education. In fact the expenditure on education as a percentage of the total voted expenditure gradually dropped from 14.5
250
J. WANASINGHE
in 1969 to 7.3 in 1981. The expenditure projected for 1982183 is assessed at 6.6% of the total budgetary expenditure of the government. ‘A significant reversal of the trend is unlikely to occur in the near future as the present government is faced with the gargantuan task of accelerating economic development’ (Ministry of Education, 1978, p. 16). This means that the annual resources available for the Ministry of Education are inadequate. Under these circumstances, the cluster schools appear to be an acceptable solution, but certain problems are bound to arise when sharing meagre resources among several schools. The Ministry of Education has accumulated overwhelming evidence to show that the cluster school system will operate successfully in Sri Lanka. On close scrutiny it can be observed that almost all the data have been obtained from two clusters situated in two remote areas, viz. Debaraweva in Hambantota District and Palabeddala in Ratnapura District. If Karl Popper’s criterion of testing a theory is used in this context, one can conclude that the data collected would not confirm the theory that cluster schools are feasible in Sri Lanka: ‘One should not look for confirmation or verification but attempt to falsify the theory. The theory can be accepted only if the theory cannot be falsified’ (Popper, 1958). If one looks for confirmations only, then astrology too could be considered as a genuine theory to predict one’s future. On this criterion it is possible to claim that the Ministry has used biased methodology and biased data to show that the concept of cluster schools is applicable to Sri Lanka. Coombs (1968) has put forward two conditions for an educational reform to succeed. Firstly, all concerned should be convinced that the reform is worthwhile and accept it wholeheartedly. Secondly, the system of education must be equipped with means for innovation. The writer wished to assess the feasibility of these reforms using the two conditions put forward by Coombs. A detailed study of six clusters was conducted and teachers, Principals and parents were interviewed. The study showed that the teachers, Principals and even parents are sharply divided on the need to reorganize the schools as clusters. As much as
72% of those interviewed felt that such a reorganization was not in the best interests of the country. Their main argument centred around the idea that cluster schools are an arrangement to re-instate privilege in education (Table 1). Some responded with more than one reason. Table
I. Reasons against the introduction
of cluster schools
o;O
Reasons Best endowed schools for the rich and the rest for the masses
89
2.
Enhances
62
3.
Lose identity and individuality the small schools in the cluster
4.
A scheme to share the poor schools
5.
Lead to administrative chaos as there are not sufficient resources to share
57
6.
Core Principal will develop his school at the expense of others
65
1.
A scheme to close down smaller schools located in rural areas
48
Schools belonging to racial minorities and religious groups will get neglected
24
I.
8.
inquality
in education
poverty
of 65
amongst 14
Even before Sri Lanka gained independence the masses agitated against privilege in education. In fact almost all the major educational policies introduced since 1945 have been aimed towards achieving this goal. Demonstrations were organised against the White Paper when it was discussed in Parliament. Some of the fears mentioned in the above table were also expressed in Parliament. The general view among parents, past and present pupils and teachers is that once the cluster begins to function the identity and individuality of schools, other than the core school will be lost. There is a fear that the Core Principal will think of developing only the core school. The minorities want the Tamil or Muslim schools in a cluster to function separately because ‘there is a genuine fear that they will be squeezed out of existence’ (Amirthalingam, 1982). Thus it is evident that Coombs’ first condition for an educational reform to be successful
THE CONCEPT
OF CLUSTER
is not satisfied. Data given above indicates that the concept of cluster schools is not accepted by the majority of Sri Lankans. The detailed study of six of the existing clusters showed that some objectives of the cluster system can be achieved under certain conditions. An independent study of the two clusters that function satisfactorily brings out the fact that the success depends almost entirely on the Principal of the core school. Further, the District Director of Education has to extend his cooperation in every way possible to make this a success. The Core Principal has to be a wise, mature, democratic leader; a good school administrator who possesses a sound knowledge of the theory and practice of education. He should be kind, considerate and be prepared to serve the schools in the cluster with considerable devotion and dedication. His work should not be confined to school hours only. He should be able to sacrifice his leisure hours and a part of his income. He has to give the correct leadership to all other principals and teachers to such an extent that they are convinced that he is a friend, guide and philosopher. Although he is delegated with some power and authority he should be prepared to get the cooperation of all concerned with the least use of rules and regulations. He should be able to lead the group of principals to arrive at correct decisions with regard to the needs of each school. Each decision has to be almost unanimous. Further, he should be able to convince the District Director of Education and obtain at least the minimum requirements for the schools in his cluster. He must cease to think only of the needs of his school; persuade others to share the resources and motivate teachers who are mostly professionally ill-equipped, poorly paid and generally discontented. An almost insurmountable problem in the implementation of the cluster concept is the lack of principals who could serve as Core Principals. As pointed out earlier they have to possess certain special qualities to be successful Core Principals. In the 19 pilot projects only two principals appear to possess the necessary qualifications, experience and other special qualities. From the pilot projects initiated so far we may infer that at present only about 10%
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of the Core Principals would be suitable for the task entrusted to them. The two clusters that function satisfactorily work under very favourable conditions. They have been given the necessary resources to function smoothly and they are constantly supervised by the District Director of Education and the officials of the Ministry. Foreign experts who wish to study or observe the functioning of the cluster schools are directed to those two clusters. Thus the motivational factor within the two clusters is very high indeed. The two Core Principals have not yet been given extra remuneration or travelling expenses for the supervision and management of the cluster. However, there is room to think that the two Principals expect recognition in ample measure for the selfless service rendered. It was observed that Cluster Principals had not received at least the minimum requirements depending on the requested. However, initiative, resourcefulness and leadership of the Cluster Principal attempts have been made to explore the possibility of sharing the existing resources in the schools. It was observed that, with the exception of the two above mentioned clusters, the Principal and the teachers show some reluctance to share resources. However, the survey showed that it is possible to share library books, audio-visual equipment, science apparatus and playgrounds. Since all schools follow a common curriculum at the junior secondary level some lessons are taught at the same time in all the schools. Further, assessments are made at cluster level and common question papers are set for the entire cluster. In general, principals and teachers offer this as an excuse for not agreeing to share the resources available. In instances where they agree to share the equipment, those are given on loan for a short period of less than a week. Teachers often complain that this new arrangement has not helped them. The teachers are reluctant to travel to another school since they have a full time table of teaching hours in their own schools. No teacher has expressed his willingness to work after school hours even if travelling expenses are paid. The cluster does not have financial resources to provide an extra remuneration for teachers who are willing to do extra work in the
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afternoons. Therefore pilot projects have shown beyond doubt that sharing of the services of teachers is an ideal beyond implementation. However, there are instances where the teachers have been transferred permanently from one school to another within the cluster. For instance, at the senior secondary level if a subject like Commerce is offered at GCE (A Level) in two schools and only one teacher is available, this teacher can be transferred to the school where the need is greater. The students in the other school can be transferred with the teacher. The pilot projects have shown that the quality of learning and teaching can be considerably improved through better supervision depending on the initiative of the Cluster Principal. To do this, the Principal has to visit the schools often. This necessarily involves travelling and he has to be given an allowance for travelling and an extra remuneration for the additional work undertaken. Although the Ministry of Education has acknowledged the need for such payment the Treasury has turned down this request. At present no Cluster Principal receives an extra allowance. Therefore Coombs’ second condition necessary for a
reform to succeed, is also not satisfied. In the present situation, the cluster school concept will not function successfully in Sri Lanka. In conclusion, the remarks made by the Ministry of Education regarding reforms are quite appropriate in this context: ‘An ill-conceived solution to a fundamental problem may, while providing a measure of temporary relief aggravate the problem in the long run and thereby adversely affect the lives of millions of innocent pupils’ (Ministry of Education, 1978, p. 16). REFERENCES Amirthalingam, A. (1982) Hunsard, 22nd January 1982, p. 674. Government Press, Sri Lanka. Coombs, P. H. (1968) The World Educarional Crisis - A Sysfems Analysis, pp. 166-167. Oxford University Press, New York. Ministry of Education (1978) Educafion in Sri Lanka, p. 16. State Printing Corporation, Sri Lanka. Ministry of Education (1981) Education Proposuls for Reform. p. 111. State Printing Corporation, Sri Lanka. Popper, K. (1958) The Logic o/ Scientific Discovery, p. I1 I. Hutchinson. (Quoted in Schools Curriculum Bulletin 3, Changes in Science Teaching. Evans/ Methuen Educational, 1970, p. IO). Wanasinghe, J. (1982) The equality of educational opportunity to study science at Senior Secondary Schools in Sri Lanka: a quantative assessment. Economic Review, May.