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The concerns-based adoption model in the netherlands, flanders and the united kingdom: State of the art and perspective
Studies in Educational Evaluation. Vol.19, pp.51-63, 1993
0191-491X/93$24.00 © 1993PergamonPressLtd
PrintedinGreatBritain.All rightsreserved.
THE CONCERNS-BASED A D O P T I O N M O D E L IN T H E NETHERLANDS, FLANDERS AND THE UNITED KINGDOM: STATE OF THE ART AND PERSPECTIVE Rudolf van den Berg Department of Education, University of Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Nether~ands
Introduction
In this contribution, first of all an indication is given of how the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM) and its instruments were developed in the Netherlands, Flanders (Belgium) and the United Kingdom during the eighties. In relation to the continued use of the instruments, attention will be paid to the validity of the 'developmental' theory behind the instruments. At the end of the eighties, a reexamination of the performance of organizations was considered increasingly to be very important. New organizational concepts and management philosophies are being developed. Central to this is the idea that schools are strategic organizations and not purely implementers of, for example, a government policy. Within this framework attention needs to be paid to the development of a school policy which makes it possible to appeal to the responsibility and creativity of those involved. One way of giving shape to this approach is offered by CBAM. This model appears to make it possible to offer schools assistance in becoming more competent in dealing with the many changes they are confronted with. The model offers an interesting framework for the study of changing organizations.
The Life-cycle of CBAM in the Netherlands, Flanders and the United Kingdom Development and Use of CBAM In 1981 the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM) and its instruments were presented in the Netherlands and Flanders by Van den Berg and Vandenberghe (1981). CBAM was developed in particular to diagnose the needs of teachers and school leaders involved in implementation of an innovation. The set of instruments is used in several American states (Hall & Hord, 1987), in some parts of Australia and in a number of West-European countries. For the Dutch-Belgian situation, the set of instruments, which 51
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was developed in the USA (Rutherford & Hall, 1991), was not just translated but also reassessed and to an important extent adapted, revised and supplemented. Because there are social-cultural differences between countries, only translating instruments is not a valid procedure from a research point of view. Later in this article we will describe the differences between the U.S.A. approach and the data collected in Europe. The concept 'concem' refers to personal experiences teachers have when they are involved in i m p r o v e m e n t projects. The composite representation of the feelings, preoccupations, thoughts and considerations related to a particular issue or task is called 'concern'. C B A M assumes that a person is the most important unit one works with. If one wants a person to change, one first of all has to assess what his/her abilities, needs and concerns are. Next it is of importance to act in such a way as to satisfy those needs. The CBAM instruments consist of: - the questionnaire 'Stages of concern'; - the interview 'Levels of use of an innovation' (an interview schedule, questions for the structured interview, the scoring method, model interviews and coding exercises); - a procedure for describing configurations of innovations; - a procedure enabling a change facilitator to develop adapted interventions. (1)
Stages-of-Concern The Stages-of-Concem questionnaire is structured around three areas of concerns: self (concerns about personal ability), task (concems about the performance of the task) and other concems (concerns about the cooperation among colleagues). For example: In the area of self-concerns, teachers will often wonder what the innovation will actually mean for themselves. Recurring considerations are: - Can I manage this? - Am I functioning well enough? I have just reorganized things. Do I have to change again? - How much more does it demand of me and will I benefit from it at the end? -
Task-concerns are related to the possible impact of the innovation on one's task. Questions and problems which are representative here, are for example: Is that which is presented as being new efficient? - Is the invested time proportionate to the required results? - The means are lacking for the realization of the innovation. - The innovation is proceeding too rapidly in my opinion. After this area of task-concerns, an area usually follows in which attention is primarily focused upon the functioning of others: the other-concern. These others can be parents, the governing body, the headmaster or the colleagues. At the same time, there is a concern for the pupils involved in the innovation. The emphasis, however, is upon the co-operation between colleagues. Problems arising in this area can be: - It is always the same group of people who take part in an innovation project. - Sometimes it is very difficult to exchange ideas on the innovation with somebody else. - What more can be asked of the teachers as far as team-work is concerned? Observations or different interpretations are not appreciated by my colleagues. The areas of concern refer to the attitudes, the problems and the experiences of teachers or schools when involved in an innovation. The short presentation indicates that these attitudes can be either positive or negative. But anyone who is confronted with an -
-
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53
innovation will have 'concerns'. To some extent the development of concerns can be
predicted.
/ 100 90
',\ 7O
~/
60
50 -.
40
•
',.
.
.
."
"
,.
30
2o 10
19
32
35
54
87
Principals / Coordinators
(N = 22)
Teachers
(N = 192)
78
66
Figure 1: Stages of Concern Profiles for Principals (coordinators) and Teachers of the MAVOproject
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R. van den Berg
In the USA the Stages of Concerns Questionnaire (Hall, 1978; Hall, George, & Rutherford, 1977) consists of 35-items which are responded to on a seven point Likert scale. The questionnaire - different from what is used to measure levels of use - has been adapted for the Dutch-Belgian situation and additional items have been formulated (seven sub-scales: 52 items: completion time: + 15 minutes). Differences between the questionnaire developed in the USA and the Dutch-Belgian questionnaire are the following: the Dutch-Belgian questionnaire has 52 items and the U.S.A. - 35 items. Also the sequence of stages is different as well as the numbers of items within the stages. The Dutch-Belgian questionnaire which is based on several factor-analyses consists of seven subscales, with the following alpha coefficients (a):
Area of self-concerns
{- Awareness: c~ = .769 {- Personal/Informational: c~ = .895 {- Consequences for pupils: c~ = .801
Area of task-concerns
{- Management: ot = .876
Area of other-concems
{- Collaboration: c~ = .845 {- Refocusing based on experiences { with pupils: c~ = .730 {- Refocusing: ex = .744
The subscale scores can be converted into percentile scores and put into profiles (see Figure 1). An illustration: The group of school-leaders/co-ordinators clearly distinguishes itself from the group of teachers on three sub-scales, namely Awareness, Collaboration and Refocusing based on experiences with pupils. A greater concern for co-operation amongst those responsible, has also been detected in other projects. The fact that the group of school-leaders/coordinators is especially responsible for the progress of an innovation project and perhaps even the fact that this group is more closely concerned in the further development and thus also better informed, causes higher scores on Refocusing based on experience with pupils and lower scores on Awareness. (2)
Levels of Use The Levels of Use interview (Loucks, 1977) makes it possible to analyze the way in which, or the level at which, teachers actually apply and give shape to an innovation. The following levels are distinguished: Level 0 : non-use Level I : orientation Level II: preparation These levels concern the early stages of the innovation. The persons involved are still orienting themselves. Level III: mechanical use Level IVa: routine
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The main occupation on these levels is with the job and the way it has to be carded out. Level IVb: refinement Level V: integration These levels are reached when there is a clear orientation towards other people (colleagues, pupils, parents) who are also involved in the particular innovation. Level VI: refocusing With the help of the interview it is possible to make the levels of use of an innovation visible (using diagrams) and to observe differences among teachers in the way an innovation is used. Data about several improvement projects (n = 2500) were collected. Stages of concern and Levels of use provide two key ways of describing and understanding the individual involved in a change. (3)
Innovation Configuration The third dimension of CBAM focuses on the content of the innovation. The concept of Innovation Configuration was developed as a way to understand and describe the different forms of an innovation. In order to describe e.g. the teacher's patterns of use, or configurations, a configuration checklist can be composed te respond questions such as: What are the critical components of individualized instruction? And what might be observed when individualized instruction is operational with classroom teachers?What is actually being done in different locations may differ dramatically. In any case the innovation is likely to be adapted or mutated to fit the needs and context of each user. The innovation exists in different operational forms or configurations. Procedures are developed for determining innovation configurations. (4)
Interventions Analyzing and developing interventions is a fourth dimension of CBAM (Hall & Hord, 1987; Van den Berg, 1987; Van Wijlick, 1987). The three described CBAMinstruments provide the change facilitator with the diagnostic tools and frame of reference to design and conduct concerns-based interventions. Many schemes and descriptions of interventions were analyzed within many innovation projects all over the world. In order to realize this, classification systems and intervention charts were developed. CBAM assumes that different interventions have different effects, depending on the individual's Stage of concern and Level of use. Research Using the CBAM-instruments, it becomes possible to answer the following questions with respect to a particular innovation. What are the feelings, needs and expectations? What levels of use were reached? What configurations in respect of the innovation can be identified? What interventions are developed? How did these interventions develop during the innovation? Were the interventions well-chosen in accordance with the concerns, the levels of use and the configurations? Several innovation projects were analysed using the CBAM-instruments (Van den Berg & Vandenberghe, 1981; 1986; Janssens, 1987).
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With regard to the question whether the interventions are well-chosen in terms of the concerns of the people involved, we have done research in many large-scale innovation projects in western Europe. "Large scale" can be considered as a bundle of innovations. This implies that a number of important goals must be realized simultaneously and coherently. Besides many schools are involved in these projects (Van den Berg & Vandenberghe, 1986). Their large scale is a characteristic of many west-European innovations. After three years of innovation in 40% (sometimes hundreds) of the schools we still see very high self concerns. External supporters and change facilitators however develop interventions expecting the schools are in the domain of other concerns. They teach the schools to form planning groups, to structure mutual responsibilities, to improve communication abilities, to solve conflicts between people, etcetera. In essence, these interventions are not in accordance with the high self concerns of many people in the schools. In our opinion it is for this reason that many large scale innovation projects do not reach the results aimed at by policy. After the development and reassessment phase a great number of workshops were organized for the staff of the National Pedagogical Centres, the staff of a number of research institutes and a large number of educational support staff. In the Netherlands a total of about a thousand people (for the greatest part support staff) got acquainted with the model and the instruments during training sessions. As a result the instruments are used now at several places for different purposes. In Flanders, CBAM-workshops were organized for external change facilitators involved in a large-scale improvement project (The Renewed Primary School). The configuration procedure was used for a large-scale assessment of the way 'remedial teaching' was organized in Primary Schools. In the United Kingdom J. Harrison (1991) uses the CBAM with the aim of facilitating the development to teacher assessment. In England and Wales, the Education Reform Act (1988) has established a common curriculum and statutory requirements for the assessment of pupils by their teachers. A review of interventions designed to promote and develop teacher assessment, at school, district and national levels, within this context, is being developed. Major issues are addressed such as the effectiveness of support, the types of interventions and the planning process in large-scale projects. Research concerns effects of differences between countries and specific system conditions in terms of utilization of the Concerns-Based Adoption Model. Hopkins (1990) made a study of teacher personality and school climate in the United Kingdom. The design took a sample of 30 teachers from six primary schools. Hopkins used three main data-collecting techniques: interviews, questionnaires and participant observation. The Levels of Use instrument was used to analyze the individual teacher's use of educational ideas. The finding of this study points to the existence of a positive relationship among school climate, the nature of the individual teacher, and the use of educational ideas. In 1986 a CBAM-network was established. The aim of this network was to get more insight into the various possible applications of the model. The total number of participants in this network amounted to about 200, 30 of whom were very active. As from 1986 reports on a yearly two-day symposium were published. In these reports the experiences of the various researchers and support staff with the model and the instruments are described. Not only is attention paid to the questionnaire "Stages of
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concern" and the interview instrument 'Levels of use' in various ways, but some attention is also given to the extent to which the procedure for describing different configurations of an innovation is used. In addition many change facilitators also appear to have a clear need for a development of their capacity to plan and implement interventions. In the eighties researchers and support staff have explored ways to further extend the applications of the model and the instruments. The instruments were used in a great variety of areas and in different situations ranging from, for example, a training programme within the banking world, to an analysis of the implementation of initial reading in primary education. The CBAM-assumptions have increasingly given support to the elaboration of interventions. Further Research into the Validity of the CBAM Theory Researchers in particular do not adopt the model and the set of instruments without questioning some of the underlying assumptions. Questions are regularly asked about the validity of the theory behind the instruments (Akkermans & Van de Grift, 1990). A start has been made with the construction of a new version of the questionnaire. About 1400 people are involved in this, Teachers involved in different kinds of innovation projects in the Netherlands as well as in Belgium, have filled out the new questionnaire. Using these data the researchers are currently trying to reduce the number of sub-scales. There is an option for a division into three sub-scales. An attempt is being made to construct scales that meet the methodological requirements of the Rasch-model. The first requirement is that of unidimensionality: The items in a scale must represent one dimension. The second requirement is that all the curves of the items must have the exact same shape. This is a requirement for the parallellism of the itemcharacteristic curves. The third requirement is that the correlation between the various items of the scale may not be caused by a third variable. This is the requirement of local stochastic independence. The scales found up until now are: scale 1: information need: knowledge of the innovation; scale 2: reported use of the innovation: knowledge of the working methods used in the innovation; scale 3: impact on the consequences of the innovation. The possibility exists that scale 1 and scale 2 can be integrated under the provisional title: From knowing to reflecting in use (action) (Houtveen, 1991). Each scale now consists of 7 to 8 items with different 'degrees of difficulty'. The scales are presented in the form of a thermometer, whose scale runs from -3 to 3+. If someone obtains a score of -.83, for example, on the scale 'information need', that person gave a positive answer for the last three items of that scale. (The provisional scale is presented in Figure 2.) To the left of the thermometer scale one constantly sees what the implications of a certain score are for the development of supporting activities. A score of around 1 on the information need scale, for example, means that the subject already has a fair idea of what the innovation is about. The aims and starting points are known. The support staff can concentrate mainly on what the innovation will look like in the real situation. A three year longitudinal study is examining the extent to which these scales can indeed be seen as indicators of the three variants of concerns (self-concerns, taskconcerns and other concems [impact] ). In this study the reliability and validity of the scales will be meticulously tested.
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INTERPRETATION Provide (more) information about what the innovation win look like in the actual work situation
SCORE
.
2.
1.
.93
.84
.68
.03 Provide (more) information about the implementation of the innovation.
INDICATORS
I know what working with the innovation requires in the immediate future. I know what I should look for in my lessons in the implementation of this innovation. I know what I have to do in my lessons in the implementation of this innovation. I know what is involved in the implementation of this innovation. I know how the implementation of this innovation works. I know exactly what this innovation is about.
0. -.87
I know what this innovation is about.
-1.
-1.5 Provide (more) information about the aim and starting points of the innovation.
-1.96 -2.
-3.
Figure 2: Scale Name: Information need
I know what the starting points of this innovation are. I know what the aim of this innovation is.
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Using the same data, a study will be carried out with regard to the question if the stages of concern do indeed follow each other as presented by the theory. Also as far as the Levels of Use interview instrument is concerned, research will be carried out related to the validity. Thanks to computer technology it is possible to quantitatively process qualitative data, such as data on interviews. One important quantitative process is the procedure of constructing standard sentences. Information from interviews can be transferred into standard Units of analysis. This research technique allows one to get much closer to the essence of respondents' statements. The interview instrument will in addition be used in two projects, in which data on concern are also collected in other ways. The validity theory behind the various instruments is being considered on an international level too. Rutherford and Hall (1991) indicate how the CBAM theory was first developed by Fuller in 1956. The place of the CBAM theory was presented as being within the framework of a "Personalized Teacher Education Program". This programme was meant to provide a basis for teacher training. Rutherford and Hall are engaged in discussions with researchers that have their doubts about the validity of this theory. There appear to be some differences between the results of quantative research and data from a more quality-oriented research. Notwithstanding these differences the three areas of concern: self, task and other, still appear to be able to prove their value for training and support. Possibilities of CBAM for Organizational Change In Search of the Basic Energy of an Organization In recent years there have been clear arguments in favour of a shift in the traditional way of thinking about innovation, organization and management of change. Traditionally the change process was considered as a process that could easily be controlled. Linear, goal-oriented thinking and handling as well as strict coordination were considered as important characteristics of this traditional approach. Researchers and support staff increasingly prefer another approach; they are looking at innovation and change from another perspective (Morgan, 1986). There is a need for another way of 'thinking' and 'doing', which is characterized by taking into consideration the motivation and concern of the individual who is capable of making a unique contribution to the organization. Increasingly, we are faced with the task of making schools organizationally more competent. Policy will increasingly opt for a local school development and an increase of local autonomy. In order to be able to realize this, schools will have to ensure that they become places in which the various people concerned can perform their work in a motivating manner. In many cases this will call for a reconsideration of the roles and positions within the school. In this context, we believe that CBAM offers the right assumptions and useful instruments. On the basis of the anticipated shifts in our world community educationalists increasingly feel the need to make a case for an adapted or new design of education. In the USA one uses the concepts of restructuring and redesigning to describe this. Governors (for example the 'National Governors Association') as well as educationalists and educators (Elmore, 1988) feel that there is a clear need for a fundamental restructuring of education and the organizations involved in this. In this context the concept of the
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empowerment of teachers is frequently used. Innovation proposals that ignore the central role of teachers are doomed to fail (McElrath, 1988). The concept of empowerment refers to working in an environment within which the teacher acts as a professional and is considered as such. Within this framework there is a need to inquire after the basic energy of an organization involved in an innovation. This, in particular, makes it possible to approach the problems and challenges facing organizations in a more successful manner than before. This capacity increases when the mental and creative capacities of the people within the organization are mobilized in an adequate way. Given the need for a new approach, new assumptions and different questions, we believe that CBAM offers appropriate instruments for developing an appropriate way of supporting innovation efforts. To illustrate, let us look at a secondary school with a very large team. The management has decided to change the organization of the school. It was decided that a day of reflection should be organized, with the aim to develop a vision on the organizational change. Looking back, the reflection day did not succeed. A lot of talking went on, but this did not lead to a useful vision for the future. What was the cause of this? An evaluation later showed that: eight teachers had difficulties with changing the organization and preferred to talk about merging with other schools; twelve teachers wanted to have a good inventory of the existing problems before considering the merits of the proposed change; seventeen teachers felt that measures should be taken immediately, but preferably on an ad hoc basis; nine teachers wanted an approach according to a good plan; three teachers felt that things were not going badly; according to them only slight adjustments were needed; only four teachers fundamentally wanted to talk about a future vision, apart from the existing problems. In the planning of the change process one must seriously take into consideration this variety of attitudes and points. CBAM offers a possibility to diagnose the various attitudes and points of view. After the diagnosis an 'action perspective' can be developed. It is clear from the illustration that there is a need for strategies through which the different concerns are taken into consideration. In an entrepreneurship and empowerment approach one looks for ways of linking up with the psychological, political and other situation-related factors that are essential for the organization. CBAM offers instruments for the diagnosis of critical personal factors. CBAM and Transformation When reviewing new concepts about organizations, the question of the extent to which new management philosophies can also play a role immediately arises. Partly within this context the argument in favour of schools functioning as strategic organizations (Van den Berg, 1992) arises. Here the self-organizing power of schools is called into play. This can lead to greater flexibility and versatility, greater involvement of people in the daily practice and the creation of a greater innovative capacity.
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In the near future organizations' self-government and self-control will become increasingly important. We have linked this development with the concept of transformational innovation policy (Van den Berg, 1990). Transformation refers to a fundamental change in the culture of an organization which takes place during periods of uncertainty. Via transformation one tries to find the solution for external challenges and uncertainties (Leithwood & Jantzi, 1990). Here the responsibility of the individual is a guiding principle. Seen from this angle the changeable behaviour of people within an organization can be an important target for policy development. Important starting points for transformation seem to be that people get the room to experience and to realize a change; that there is a desire to grow and that energy can be mobilized. Transformation demands a search into the meaning, the quality and strength of an organization. Within this framework Morgan (1986) uses the metaphor of the organization as flow and transformation. He uses this metaphor to show that organizations do not only maintain themselves by means of adjustments, but also by selfrenewal and self-production (Morgan, 1986, p.235-240). In this context, managers speak of learning organizations. Such organizations are geared to constantly generate new knowledge, expertise and skills in order to anticipate and deal with changing external circumstances. Profit-making organizations too are aware of the need to design transformation strategies, in particular in the case of conditions for restructuring and discontinuity (Dunphy & Stace, 1988). One important characteristic of a learning organization is that it can develop itself to an important extent and in such a way that it is able to take into consideration major changes in the environment. This is also the case for the school. Schools can be given such an amount of room for policy that numerous small steps of incremental policy development can cumulate into transformational mutations. It is necessary that those involved regularly reflect on the professional functioning of themselves and the school. Procedures and techniques such as diagnosing needs will become a complementary part of such policy development. CBAM is an important means for diagnosing processes of reflecting in action. Conclusions The CBAM instruments appear to have been used rather extensively by research and support staff in the eighties. By applying the instruments a diagnosis can be made of people's concerns related to innovations. Such a diagnosis can fulfil a useful role in determining the client's support needs. In addition to their diagnostic qualities, the instruments are also useful for evaluative purposes. At the end, or in the course of an innovation process this allows one to register the progress that has or has not been made (with regard to concern and/or use). In the course of the eighties an attempt was made to further extend the possible uses of the instruments. The instruments are being used in very diverse fields and in different situations. So continued studies concerning the validity of the CBAM theory are needed. In the above, attention was drawn to the fact that within the development of the school as organization the concern of the individual is of great importance. The organization has to pay attention to the wishes and needs of the individual employees. Organizational change, too, is actually an innovation where those individuals involved
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will experience the same kind of feelings (stages of concern) and skills (levels of use) as they would in other innovations. Here too questions arise such as: To what extent does one feel insecure and incapable of putting this policy into effect; to what extent has the attention of those involved been shifted to altered tasks; should individuals with exceptional views be given more opportunities; would the quality of the organization be increased by stimulating individual commitments, by starting out from people's internal motivations? All these questions place a great demand on everyone's specific involvement within the school. From this point of view organizations seem to be able to develop strong selfinnovating powers. We have pleaded for a shift in the traditional image of innovation, organization and management. CBAM has a good theory and appears to offer an adequate set of instruments for making this shift possible.
References Akkermans, W. & Van de Grift, W. (1990). De ontwikkeling van drie Rasch-schalen op basis van de vragenlijst "Fasen van Betrokkenheid" (The development of three Rasch-scales based on the concerns-questionnaire) In: W. van Wijlick (Ed.), Kijken naar betrokkenheid (Looking at concems) (pp. 111-138). 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands: KPC. Berg, R. van den (1987). Internal support of schools. In: R.Vandenberghe & G.E. Hall (Eds.), Research on internal change facilitation in schools (pp. 71-98). Leuven (Belgium): ACCO. Berg, R. van den (1988). Education in a changing era. 's-Hertogenbosch: KPC. Berg, R. van den (1992). Transformational education policy: schools as strategic organizations. Knowledge: Creation, Diffusion and Utilization, 13, 4,440-459. Berg, R. van den & Vandenberghe, R. (1981). Onderwijsinnovatie in verschuivend perspectief (Educational innovation in a changing perspective).Tilburg, The Netherlands: Zwijsen. Berg, R. van den & Vandenberghe, R. (1986). Strategiesforlarge-scale change in education: dilemmas and solutions. Leuven (Belgium): Acco. Dunphy, D.C. & Stace, D.A. (1988). Transformational and coercive strategies for planned organizational change: beyond the O.D. model. Organization Studies, 9, 3,317-334. Elmore, R.F. (1988). Early experience in restructuring schools: voices from the field. Washington, D.C.: Center for Policy Research, National Govemor's Association. Fischer, W.A. & Schratz, M. (1990). Transformational Leadership; Impulse fur eine neue Ftihmngs philosophie in p~idagogischenLeitungsfunktionen.SchoolManagernent, 21, 4, 34-41. Hall, G.E. (1978). Concerns-based inservice teachertraining : an overview of the concepts, research and practice. Austin, Texas: The University of Texas, Research and Development Center for Teacher Education. Hall, G.E. & George, A.A. & W.L. Rutherford (1977). Measuring stages of concerns about the innovation: a manual for use of the SoC questionnaire. Austin, Texas: The University of Texas, Research and Development Center for Teacher Education.
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Hall, G.E. & Hord, S.M. (1987). Change in schools facilitating the process. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. Harrison, I. (1991). Facilitationg the development of teacher assessment: using the CBAM-model. Paper presented at the international conference on educational change, in the Netherlands, at Noordwijkerhout. Hopkins, D. (1990). Integrating staff development and school improvement: a study of teacher personality and school climate. In: B. Joyce (Ed.), Changing school culture through staff development. 1990 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD. Houtveen, Th. (1991). Voorlopige rapportage RASCH-onderzoek (Interim report of Rasch-research). Utrecht, The Netherlands: ISOR. Janssens, S. (1987). A description of concerns of beginning teachers: the remits of a qualitative study with some methodological considerations. In: R. Vandenberghe & G.E. Hall (Eds), Research on international change facilitation in schools (pp. 49-70). Leuven, Belgium: Acco. Leithwood, K. & Jantzi, D. (1990). Transformational leadership: How principals can help reform school. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies. Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Loucks, S.F. (1977). Levels of use of the innovation: The conceptualization and measurement of a variable useful for assessing innovation implementation by individuals. Austin, Texas: The University of Texas, Research and Development Center for Teacher Education. McElrath, R.L. (1988). Will empowerment of teachers remove barriers to educational reform? Johnson City, TN.: East Tennessee State University. Morgan, G. (1986). Images of organization. London: Sage. Rutherford, R. (1990). The Concerns-Based Adoption Model: Evolution and utilization. Paper presented at the CBAM conference in the Netherlands, 's-Hertogenbosch. Rutherford, R. & Hall, G. (1991). Concerns of teachers: revisiting the original theory after twenty years (forthcoming). Wijlick, W. van (1987). The activities of internal change facilitators: an analysis of interventions. In: R. Vandenberghe and G.E. Hall (Eds.), Research on internal change facilitation in schools (pp. 99116). Leuven, Belgium: ACCO. The Author R U D O L F V A N D E N B E R G is a Professor of Educational Sciences at the Department of Education, University in N i j m e g e n (The Netherlands). His research includes issues pertaining to the innovation o f education. Besides he is actively involved in various i n n o v a t i o n projects o f the Catholic Educational Centre i n ' s H e r t o g e n b o s c h (The Netherlands).
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THE CONCERNS-BASED A D O P T I O N M O D E L IN T H E NETHERLANDS, FLANDERS AND THE UNITED KINGDOM: STATE OF THE ART AND PERSPECTIVE Rudolf van den Berg Department of Education, University of Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Nether~ands
Introduction
In this contribution, first of all an indication is given of how the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM) and its instruments were developed in the Netherlands, Flanders (Belgium) and the United Kingdom during the eighties. In relation to the continued use of the instruments, attention will be paid to the validity of the 'developmental' theory behind the instruments. At the end of the eighties, a reexamination of the performance of organizations was considered increasingly to be very important. New organizational concepts and management philosophies are being developed. Central to this is the idea that schools are strategic organizations and not purely implementers of, for example, a government policy. Within this framework attention needs to be paid to the development of a school policy which makes it possible to appeal to the responsibility and creativity of those involved. One way of giving shape to this approach is offered by CBAM. This model appears to make it possible to offer schools assistance in becoming more competent in dealing with the many changes they are confronted with. The model offers an interesting framework for the study of changing organizations.
The Life-cycle of CBAM in the Netherlands, Flanders and the United Kingdom Development and Use of CBAM In 1981 the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM) and its instruments were presented in the Netherlands and Flanders by Van den Berg and Vandenberghe (1981). CBAM was developed in particular to diagnose the needs of teachers and school leaders involved in implementation of an innovation. The set of instruments is used in several American states (Hall & Hord, 1987), in some parts of Australia and in a number of West-European countries. For the Dutch-Belgian situation, the set of instruments, which 51
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was developed in the USA (Rutherford & Hall, 1991), was not just translated but also reassessed and to an important extent adapted, revised and supplemented. Because there are social-cultural differences between countries, only translating instruments is not a valid procedure from a research point of view. Later in this article we will describe the differences between the U.S.A. approach and the data collected in Europe. The concept 'concem' refers to personal experiences teachers have when they are involved in i m p r o v e m e n t projects. The composite representation of the feelings, preoccupations, thoughts and considerations related to a particular issue or task is called 'concern'. C B A M assumes that a person is the most important unit one works with. If one wants a person to change, one first of all has to assess what his/her abilities, needs and concerns are. Next it is of importance to act in such a way as to satisfy those needs. The CBAM instruments consist of: - the questionnaire 'Stages of concern'; - the interview 'Levels of use of an innovation' (an interview schedule, questions for the structured interview, the scoring method, model interviews and coding exercises); - a procedure for describing configurations of innovations; - a procedure enabling a change facilitator to develop adapted interventions. (1)
Stages-of-Concern The Stages-of-Concem questionnaire is structured around three areas of concerns: self (concerns about personal ability), task (concems about the performance of the task) and other concems (concerns about the cooperation among colleagues). For example: In the area of self-concerns, teachers will often wonder what the innovation will actually mean for themselves. Recurring considerations are: - Can I manage this? - Am I functioning well enough? I have just reorganized things. Do I have to change again? - How much more does it demand of me and will I benefit from it at the end? -
Task-concerns are related to the possible impact of the innovation on one's task. Questions and problems which are representative here, are for example: Is that which is presented as being new efficient? - Is the invested time proportionate to the required results? - The means are lacking for the realization of the innovation. - The innovation is proceeding too rapidly in my opinion. After this area of task-concerns, an area usually follows in which attention is primarily focused upon the functioning of others: the other-concern. These others can be parents, the governing body, the headmaster or the colleagues. At the same time, there is a concern for the pupils involved in the innovation. The emphasis, however, is upon the co-operation between colleagues. Problems arising in this area can be: - It is always the same group of people who take part in an innovation project. - Sometimes it is very difficult to exchange ideas on the innovation with somebody else. - What more can be asked of the teachers as far as team-work is concerned? Observations or different interpretations are not appreciated by my colleagues. The areas of concern refer to the attitudes, the problems and the experiences of teachers or schools when involved in an innovation. The short presentation indicates that these attitudes can be either positive or negative. But anyone who is confronted with an -
-
Adoption Mode/
53
innovation will have 'concerns'. To some extent the development of concerns can be
predicted.
/ 100 90
',\ 7O
~/
60
50 -.
40
•
',.
.
.
."
"
,.
30
2o 10
19
32
35
54
87
Principals / Coordinators
(N = 22)
Teachers
(N = 192)
78
66
Figure 1: Stages of Concern Profiles for Principals (coordinators) and Teachers of the MAVOproject
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R. van den Berg
In the USA the Stages of Concerns Questionnaire (Hall, 1978; Hall, George, & Rutherford, 1977) consists of 35-items which are responded to on a seven point Likert scale. The questionnaire - different from what is used to measure levels of use - has been adapted for the Dutch-Belgian situation and additional items have been formulated (seven sub-scales: 52 items: completion time: + 15 minutes). Differences between the questionnaire developed in the USA and the Dutch-Belgian questionnaire are the following: the Dutch-Belgian questionnaire has 52 items and the U.S.A. - 35 items. Also the sequence of stages is different as well as the numbers of items within the stages. The Dutch-Belgian questionnaire which is based on several factor-analyses consists of seven subscales, with the following alpha coefficients (a):
Area of self-concerns
{- Awareness: c~ = .769 {- Personal/Informational: c~ = .895 {- Consequences for pupils: c~ = .801
Area of task-concerns
{- Management: ot = .876
Area of other-concems
{- Collaboration: c~ = .845 {- Refocusing based on experiences { with pupils: c~ = .730 {- Refocusing: ex = .744
The subscale scores can be converted into percentile scores and put into profiles (see Figure 1). An illustration: The group of school-leaders/co-ordinators clearly distinguishes itself from the group of teachers on three sub-scales, namely Awareness, Collaboration and Refocusing based on experiences with pupils. A greater concern for co-operation amongst those responsible, has also been detected in other projects. The fact that the group of school-leaders/coordinators is especially responsible for the progress of an innovation project and perhaps even the fact that this group is more closely concerned in the further development and thus also better informed, causes higher scores on Refocusing based on experience with pupils and lower scores on Awareness. (2)
Levels of Use The Levels of Use interview (Loucks, 1977) makes it possible to analyze the way in which, or the level at which, teachers actually apply and give shape to an innovation. The following levels are distinguished: Level 0 : non-use Level I : orientation Level II: preparation These levels concern the early stages of the innovation. The persons involved are still orienting themselves. Level III: mechanical use Level IVa: routine
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55
The main occupation on these levels is with the job and the way it has to be carded out. Level IVb: refinement Level V: integration These levels are reached when there is a clear orientation towards other people (colleagues, pupils, parents) who are also involved in the particular innovation. Level VI: refocusing With the help of the interview it is possible to make the levels of use of an innovation visible (using diagrams) and to observe differences among teachers in the way an innovation is used. Data about several improvement projects (n = 2500) were collected. Stages of concern and Levels of use provide two key ways of describing and understanding the individual involved in a change. (3)
Innovation Configuration The third dimension of CBAM focuses on the content of the innovation. The concept of Innovation Configuration was developed as a way to understand and describe the different forms of an innovation. In order to describe e.g. the teacher's patterns of use, or configurations, a configuration checklist can be composed te respond questions such as: What are the critical components of individualized instruction? And what might be observed when individualized instruction is operational with classroom teachers?What is actually being done in different locations may differ dramatically. In any case the innovation is likely to be adapted or mutated to fit the needs and context of each user. The innovation exists in different operational forms or configurations. Procedures are developed for determining innovation configurations. (4)
Interventions Analyzing and developing interventions is a fourth dimension of CBAM (Hall & Hord, 1987; Van den Berg, 1987; Van Wijlick, 1987). The three described CBAMinstruments provide the change facilitator with the diagnostic tools and frame of reference to design and conduct concerns-based interventions. Many schemes and descriptions of interventions were analyzed within many innovation projects all over the world. In order to realize this, classification systems and intervention charts were developed. CBAM assumes that different interventions have different effects, depending on the individual's Stage of concern and Level of use. Research Using the CBAM-instruments, it becomes possible to answer the following questions with respect to a particular innovation. What are the feelings, needs and expectations? What levels of use were reached? What configurations in respect of the innovation can be identified? What interventions are developed? How did these interventions develop during the innovation? Were the interventions well-chosen in accordance with the concerns, the levels of use and the configurations? Several innovation projects were analysed using the CBAM-instruments (Van den Berg & Vandenberghe, 1981; 1986; Janssens, 1987).
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With regard to the question whether the interventions are well-chosen in terms of the concerns of the people involved, we have done research in many large-scale innovation projects in western Europe. "Large scale" can be considered as a bundle of innovations. This implies that a number of important goals must be realized simultaneously and coherently. Besides many schools are involved in these projects (Van den Berg & Vandenberghe, 1986). Their large scale is a characteristic of many west-European innovations. After three years of innovation in 40% (sometimes hundreds) of the schools we still see very high self concerns. External supporters and change facilitators however develop interventions expecting the schools are in the domain of other concerns. They teach the schools to form planning groups, to structure mutual responsibilities, to improve communication abilities, to solve conflicts between people, etcetera. In essence, these interventions are not in accordance with the high self concerns of many people in the schools. In our opinion it is for this reason that many large scale innovation projects do not reach the results aimed at by policy. After the development and reassessment phase a great number of workshops were organized for the staff of the National Pedagogical Centres, the staff of a number of research institutes and a large number of educational support staff. In the Netherlands a total of about a thousand people (for the greatest part support staff) got acquainted with the model and the instruments during training sessions. As a result the instruments are used now at several places for different purposes. In Flanders, CBAM-workshops were organized for external change facilitators involved in a large-scale improvement project (The Renewed Primary School). The configuration procedure was used for a large-scale assessment of the way 'remedial teaching' was organized in Primary Schools. In the United Kingdom J. Harrison (1991) uses the CBAM with the aim of facilitating the development to teacher assessment. In England and Wales, the Education Reform Act (1988) has established a common curriculum and statutory requirements for the assessment of pupils by their teachers. A review of interventions designed to promote and develop teacher assessment, at school, district and national levels, within this context, is being developed. Major issues are addressed such as the effectiveness of support, the types of interventions and the planning process in large-scale projects. Research concerns effects of differences between countries and specific system conditions in terms of utilization of the Concerns-Based Adoption Model. Hopkins (1990) made a study of teacher personality and school climate in the United Kingdom. The design took a sample of 30 teachers from six primary schools. Hopkins used three main data-collecting techniques: interviews, questionnaires and participant observation. The Levels of Use instrument was used to analyze the individual teacher's use of educational ideas. The finding of this study points to the existence of a positive relationship among school climate, the nature of the individual teacher, and the use of educational ideas. In 1986 a CBAM-network was established. The aim of this network was to get more insight into the various possible applications of the model. The total number of participants in this network amounted to about 200, 30 of whom were very active. As from 1986 reports on a yearly two-day symposium were published. In these reports the experiences of the various researchers and support staff with the model and the instruments are described. Not only is attention paid to the questionnaire "Stages of
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57
concern" and the interview instrument 'Levels of use' in various ways, but some attention is also given to the extent to which the procedure for describing different configurations of an innovation is used. In addition many change facilitators also appear to have a clear need for a development of their capacity to plan and implement interventions. In the eighties researchers and support staff have explored ways to further extend the applications of the model and the instruments. The instruments were used in a great variety of areas and in different situations ranging from, for example, a training programme within the banking world, to an analysis of the implementation of initial reading in primary education. The CBAM-assumptions have increasingly given support to the elaboration of interventions. Further Research into the Validity of the CBAM Theory Researchers in particular do not adopt the model and the set of instruments without questioning some of the underlying assumptions. Questions are regularly asked about the validity of the theory behind the instruments (Akkermans & Van de Grift, 1990). A start has been made with the construction of a new version of the questionnaire. About 1400 people are involved in this, Teachers involved in different kinds of innovation projects in the Netherlands as well as in Belgium, have filled out the new questionnaire. Using these data the researchers are currently trying to reduce the number of sub-scales. There is an option for a division into three sub-scales. An attempt is being made to construct scales that meet the methodological requirements of the Rasch-model. The first requirement is that of unidimensionality: The items in a scale must represent one dimension. The second requirement is that all the curves of the items must have the exact same shape. This is a requirement for the parallellism of the itemcharacteristic curves. The third requirement is that the correlation between the various items of the scale may not be caused by a third variable. This is the requirement of local stochastic independence. The scales found up until now are: scale 1: information need: knowledge of the innovation; scale 2: reported use of the innovation: knowledge of the working methods used in the innovation; scale 3: impact on the consequences of the innovation. The possibility exists that scale 1 and scale 2 can be integrated under the provisional title: From knowing to reflecting in use (action) (Houtveen, 1991). Each scale now consists of 7 to 8 items with different 'degrees of difficulty'. The scales are presented in the form of a thermometer, whose scale runs from -3 to 3+. If someone obtains a score of -.83, for example, on the scale 'information need', that person gave a positive answer for the last three items of that scale. (The provisional scale is presented in Figure 2.) To the left of the thermometer scale one constantly sees what the implications of a certain score are for the development of supporting activities. A score of around 1 on the information need scale, for example, means that the subject already has a fair idea of what the innovation is about. The aims and starting points are known. The support staff can concentrate mainly on what the innovation will look like in the real situation. A three year longitudinal study is examining the extent to which these scales can indeed be seen as indicators of the three variants of concerns (self-concerns, taskconcerns and other concems [impact] ). In this study the reliability and validity of the scales will be meticulously tested.
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INTERPRETATION Provide (more) information about what the innovation win look like in the actual work situation
SCORE
.
2.
1.
.93
.84
.68
.03 Provide (more) information about the implementation of the innovation.
INDICATORS
I know what working with the innovation requires in the immediate future. I know what I should look for in my lessons in the implementation of this innovation. I know what I have to do in my lessons in the implementation of this innovation. I know what is involved in the implementation of this innovation. I know how the implementation of this innovation works. I know exactly what this innovation is about.
0. -.87
I know what this innovation is about.
-1.
-1.5 Provide (more) information about the aim and starting points of the innovation.
-1.96 -2.
-3.
Figure 2: Scale Name: Information need
I know what the starting points of this innovation are. I know what the aim of this innovation is.
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59
Using the same data, a study will be carried out with regard to the question if the stages of concern do indeed follow each other as presented by the theory. Also as far as the Levels of Use interview instrument is concerned, research will be carried out related to the validity. Thanks to computer technology it is possible to quantitatively process qualitative data, such as data on interviews. One important quantitative process is the procedure of constructing standard sentences. Information from interviews can be transferred into standard Units of analysis. This research technique allows one to get much closer to the essence of respondents' statements. The interview instrument will in addition be used in two projects, in which data on concern are also collected in other ways. The validity theory behind the various instruments is being considered on an international level too. Rutherford and Hall (1991) indicate how the CBAM theory was first developed by Fuller in 1956. The place of the CBAM theory was presented as being within the framework of a "Personalized Teacher Education Program". This programme was meant to provide a basis for teacher training. Rutherford and Hall are engaged in discussions with researchers that have their doubts about the validity of this theory. There appear to be some differences between the results of quantative research and data from a more quality-oriented research. Notwithstanding these differences the three areas of concern: self, task and other, still appear to be able to prove their value for training and support. Possibilities of CBAM for Organizational Change In Search of the Basic Energy of an Organization In recent years there have been clear arguments in favour of a shift in the traditional way of thinking about innovation, organization and management of change. Traditionally the change process was considered as a process that could easily be controlled. Linear, goal-oriented thinking and handling as well as strict coordination were considered as important characteristics of this traditional approach. Researchers and support staff increasingly prefer another approach; they are looking at innovation and change from another perspective (Morgan, 1986). There is a need for another way of 'thinking' and 'doing', which is characterized by taking into consideration the motivation and concern of the individual who is capable of making a unique contribution to the organization. Increasingly, we are faced with the task of making schools organizationally more competent. Policy will increasingly opt for a local school development and an increase of local autonomy. In order to be able to realize this, schools will have to ensure that they become places in which the various people concerned can perform their work in a motivating manner. In many cases this will call for a reconsideration of the roles and positions within the school. In this context, we believe that CBAM offers the right assumptions and useful instruments. On the basis of the anticipated shifts in our world community educationalists increasingly feel the need to make a case for an adapted or new design of education. In the USA one uses the concepts of restructuring and redesigning to describe this. Governors (for example the 'National Governors Association') as well as educationalists and educators (Elmore, 1988) feel that there is a clear need for a fundamental restructuring of education and the organizations involved in this. In this context the concept of the
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empowerment of teachers is frequently used. Innovation proposals that ignore the central role of teachers are doomed to fail (McElrath, 1988). The concept of empowerment refers to working in an environment within which the teacher acts as a professional and is considered as such. Within this framework there is a need to inquire after the basic energy of an organization involved in an innovation. This, in particular, makes it possible to approach the problems and challenges facing organizations in a more successful manner than before. This capacity increases when the mental and creative capacities of the people within the organization are mobilized in an adequate way. Given the need for a new approach, new assumptions and different questions, we believe that CBAM offers appropriate instruments for developing an appropriate way of supporting innovation efforts. To illustrate, let us look at a secondary school with a very large team. The management has decided to change the organization of the school. It was decided that a day of reflection should be organized, with the aim to develop a vision on the organizational change. Looking back, the reflection day did not succeed. A lot of talking went on, but this did not lead to a useful vision for the future. What was the cause of this? An evaluation later showed that: eight teachers had difficulties with changing the organization and preferred to talk about merging with other schools; twelve teachers wanted to have a good inventory of the existing problems before considering the merits of the proposed change; seventeen teachers felt that measures should be taken immediately, but preferably on an ad hoc basis; nine teachers wanted an approach according to a good plan; three teachers felt that things were not going badly; according to them only slight adjustments were needed; only four teachers fundamentally wanted to talk about a future vision, apart from the existing problems. In the planning of the change process one must seriously take into consideration this variety of attitudes and points. CBAM offers a possibility to diagnose the various attitudes and points of view. After the diagnosis an 'action perspective' can be developed. It is clear from the illustration that there is a need for strategies through which the different concerns are taken into consideration. In an entrepreneurship and empowerment approach one looks for ways of linking up with the psychological, political and other situation-related factors that are essential for the organization. CBAM offers instruments for the diagnosis of critical personal factors. CBAM and Transformation When reviewing new concepts about organizations, the question of the extent to which new management philosophies can also play a role immediately arises. Partly within this context the argument in favour of schools functioning as strategic organizations (Van den Berg, 1992) arises. Here the self-organizing power of schools is called into play. This can lead to greater flexibility and versatility, greater involvement of people in the daily practice and the creation of a greater innovative capacity.
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In the near future organizations' self-government and self-control will become increasingly important. We have linked this development with the concept of transformational innovation policy (Van den Berg, 1990). Transformation refers to a fundamental change in the culture of an organization which takes place during periods of uncertainty. Via transformation one tries to find the solution for external challenges and uncertainties (Leithwood & Jantzi, 1990). Here the responsibility of the individual is a guiding principle. Seen from this angle the changeable behaviour of people within an organization can be an important target for policy development. Important starting points for transformation seem to be that people get the room to experience and to realize a change; that there is a desire to grow and that energy can be mobilized. Transformation demands a search into the meaning, the quality and strength of an organization. Within this framework Morgan (1986) uses the metaphor of the organization as flow and transformation. He uses this metaphor to show that organizations do not only maintain themselves by means of adjustments, but also by selfrenewal and self-production (Morgan, 1986, p.235-240). In this context, managers speak of learning organizations. Such organizations are geared to constantly generate new knowledge, expertise and skills in order to anticipate and deal with changing external circumstances. Profit-making organizations too are aware of the need to design transformation strategies, in particular in the case of conditions for restructuring and discontinuity (Dunphy & Stace, 1988). One important characteristic of a learning organization is that it can develop itself to an important extent and in such a way that it is able to take into consideration major changes in the environment. This is also the case for the school. Schools can be given such an amount of room for policy that numerous small steps of incremental policy development can cumulate into transformational mutations. It is necessary that those involved regularly reflect on the professional functioning of themselves and the school. Procedures and techniques such as diagnosing needs will become a complementary part of such policy development. CBAM is an important means for diagnosing processes of reflecting in action. Conclusions The CBAM instruments appear to have been used rather extensively by research and support staff in the eighties. By applying the instruments a diagnosis can be made of people's concerns related to innovations. Such a diagnosis can fulfil a useful role in determining the client's support needs. In addition to their diagnostic qualities, the instruments are also useful for evaluative purposes. At the end, or in the course of an innovation process this allows one to register the progress that has or has not been made (with regard to concern and/or use). In the course of the eighties an attempt was made to further extend the possible uses of the instruments. The instruments are being used in very diverse fields and in different situations. So continued studies concerning the validity of the CBAM theory are needed. In the above, attention was drawn to the fact that within the development of the school as organization the concern of the individual is of great importance. The organization has to pay attention to the wishes and needs of the individual employees. Organizational change, too, is actually an innovation where those individuals involved
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will experience the same kind of feelings (stages of concern) and skills (levels of use) as they would in other innovations. Here too questions arise such as: To what extent does one feel insecure and incapable of putting this policy into effect; to what extent has the attention of those involved been shifted to altered tasks; should individuals with exceptional views be given more opportunities; would the quality of the organization be increased by stimulating individual commitments, by starting out from people's internal motivations? All these questions place a great demand on everyone's specific involvement within the school. From this point of view organizations seem to be able to develop strong selfinnovating powers. We have pleaded for a shift in the traditional image of innovation, organization and management. CBAM has a good theory and appears to offer an adequate set of instruments for making this shift possible.
References Akkermans, W. & Van de Grift, W. (1990). De ontwikkeling van drie Rasch-schalen op basis van de vragenlijst "Fasen van Betrokkenheid" (The development of three Rasch-scales based on the concerns-questionnaire) In: W. van Wijlick (Ed.), Kijken naar betrokkenheid (Looking at concems) (pp. 111-138). 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands: KPC. Berg, R. van den (1987). Internal support of schools. In: R.Vandenberghe & G.E. Hall (Eds.), Research on internal change facilitation in schools (pp. 71-98). Leuven (Belgium): ACCO. Berg, R. van den (1988). Education in a changing era. 's-Hertogenbosch: KPC. Berg, R. van den (1992). Transformational education policy: schools as strategic organizations. Knowledge: Creation, Diffusion and Utilization, 13, 4,440-459. Berg, R. van den & Vandenberghe, R. (1981). Onderwijsinnovatie in verschuivend perspectief (Educational innovation in a changing perspective).Tilburg, The Netherlands: Zwijsen. Berg, R. van den & Vandenberghe, R. (1986). Strategiesforlarge-scale change in education: dilemmas and solutions. Leuven (Belgium): Acco. Dunphy, D.C. & Stace, D.A. (1988). Transformational and coercive strategies for planned organizational change: beyond the O.D. model. Organization Studies, 9, 3,317-334. Elmore, R.F. (1988). Early experience in restructuring schools: voices from the field. Washington, D.C.: Center for Policy Research, National Govemor's Association. Fischer, W.A. & Schratz, M. (1990). Transformational Leadership; Impulse fur eine neue Ftihmngs philosophie in p~idagogischenLeitungsfunktionen.SchoolManagernent, 21, 4, 34-41. Hall, G.E. (1978). Concerns-based inservice teachertraining : an overview of the concepts, research and practice. Austin, Texas: The University of Texas, Research and Development Center for Teacher Education. Hall, G.E. & George, A.A. & W.L. Rutherford (1977). Measuring stages of concerns about the innovation: a manual for use of the SoC questionnaire. Austin, Texas: The University of Texas, Research and Development Center for Teacher Education.
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Hall, G.E. & Hord, S.M. (1987). Change in schools facilitating the process. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. Harrison, I. (1991). Facilitationg the development of teacher assessment: using the CBAM-model. Paper presented at the international conference on educational change, in the Netherlands, at Noordwijkerhout. Hopkins, D. (1990). Integrating staff development and school improvement: a study of teacher personality and school climate. In: B. Joyce (Ed.), Changing school culture through staff development. 1990 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD. Houtveen, Th. (1991). Voorlopige rapportage RASCH-onderzoek (Interim report of Rasch-research). Utrecht, The Netherlands: ISOR. Janssens, S. (1987). A description of concerns of beginning teachers: the remits of a qualitative study with some methodological considerations. In: R. Vandenberghe & G.E. Hall (Eds), Research on international change facilitation in schools (pp. 49-70). Leuven, Belgium: Acco. Leithwood, K. & Jantzi, D. (1990). Transformational leadership: How principals can help reform school. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies. Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Loucks, S.F. (1977). Levels of use of the innovation: The conceptualization and measurement of a variable useful for assessing innovation implementation by individuals. Austin, Texas: The University of Texas, Research and Development Center for Teacher Education. McElrath, R.L. (1988). Will empowerment of teachers remove barriers to educational reform? Johnson City, TN.: East Tennessee State University. Morgan, G. (1986). Images of organization. London: Sage. Rutherford, R. (1990). The Concerns-Based Adoption Model: Evolution and utilization. Paper presented at the CBAM conference in the Netherlands, 's-Hertogenbosch. Rutherford, R. & Hall, G. (1991). Concerns of teachers: revisiting the original theory after twenty years (forthcoming). Wijlick, W. van (1987). The activities of internal change facilitators: an analysis of interventions. In: R. Vandenberghe and G.E. Hall (Eds.), Research on internal change facilitation in schools (pp. 99116). Leuven, Belgium: ACCO. The Author R U D O L F V A N D E N B E R G is a Professor of Educational Sciences at the Department of Education, University in N i j m e g e n (The Netherlands). His research includes issues pertaining to the innovation o f education. Besides he is actively involved in various i n n o v a t i o n projects o f the Catholic Educational Centre i n ' s H e r t o g e n b o s c h (The Netherlands).