The construction FACE database — Codifying the NIOSH FACE reports

JSR-01415; No of Pages 8 Journal of Safety Research xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Safety Research journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jsr

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Xiuwen Sue Dong, a,⁎ Julie A. Largay, a Xuanwen Wang, a Chris Trahan Cain, a Nancy Romano b

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Article history: Received 9 November 2016 Received in revised form 24 March 2017 Accepted 21 June 2017 Available online xxxx

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CPWR – The Center for Construction Research and Training, 8484 Georgia Ave, Suite 1000, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Division of Safety Research, 1095 Willowdale Rd, Room 1714, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA

Introduction: The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has collected detailed information on select work-related fatalities through the Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) program since 1982. Method: Reports generated from the in-depth research-oriented FACE investigations contain rich information such as safety training, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), and others, which is crucial for injury prevention, but may not be available in other data sources. To facilitate usage of information included in FACE reports, the Construction FACE Database (CFD) was created by extracting data from the original text reports to allow for quantitative analyses of fatalities in the construction industry. This study describes the development of CFD and its major contents. The study also illustrates how to employ the CFD, and discusses database considerations and potential future uses for construction safety and health research. © 2017 National Safety Council and Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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Keywords: Construction industry Fatality assessment and control evaluation Injury prevention and intervention Occupational fatality Workplace safety

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The construction FACE database — Codifying the NIOSH FACE reports☆

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1. Introduction

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The construction industry has the highest number of work-related fatal injuries in the United States. In 2015, 985 construction workers died at worksites, accounting for 20.4% of the overall work-related fatal injuries in the country (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics [BLS], 2016). These numbers are disproportionally high given that construction workers made up less than 7% of the overall total employment in 2015 (CPWR, in press). Accurate surveillance and examination of contributing factors are necessary for effective injury prevention (Bunn, Costich, & Slavova, 2006). However, few data sources contain information on detailed circumstances and situations leading up to and surrounding fatal injuries (Higgins, Casini, Bost, Johnson, & Rautiainen, 2001). Although the Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI) provides a substantial amount of information on occupational fatalities, it does not collect information on safety training, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), whether a malfunction or unsafe design of machinery or tools were involved in an incident, and how to avoid similar incidents in the future. To provide insight into work-related fatal injuries, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) started the NIOSH

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☆ Disclaimers: The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. In addition, citations to websites external to NIOSH do not constitute NIOSH endorsement of the sponsoring organizations or their programs or products. Furthermore, NIOSH is not responsible for the content of these websites. All web addresses referenced in this document were accessible as of the publication date. ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (X.S. Dong).

Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) program in 1982, and added the State FACE program in 1989 (http://www.cdc.gov/ niosh/face/brochure.html). These programs target varying types of events for investigation over the years. For example, NIOSH is currently focusing FACE resources on investigating falls in construction, machinery, and foreign-born workers, particularly among states that do not have funding for the State FACE program. In addition to investigating NIOSH targets, individual states conduct a limited number of investigations of fatalities related to state-level targets. The FACE reports are the result of these extensive fatal injury investigations, combining information collected from the employer, coworkers, safety personnel, emergency response crews, and other witnesses. In addition to the decedents' demographic and employment information, FACE collects information on the decedents' employers, such as whether the employer had a safety program, provided safety training, PPE, and much more. Such information is crucial for understanding the mechanisms by which fatalities occur (Bunn, Slavova, & Hall, 2008). FACE reports also provide detailed recommendations on how to avoid such incidents based on information obtained during the investigations (Higgins et al., 2001). These recommendations and detailed incident descriptions can be critical for injury preventions and interventions, including safety policies and procedures, engineering controls, and other aspects of the safety climate (Menendez, Castillo, Rosenman, Harrison, & Hendricks, 2012). Since the FACE program was established, a number of case studies have been generated from the FACE reports to highlight specific risks or policy implications (Hallman, Gelberg, & Hallisey, 2005; Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), 2001, 2004, 2012; NIOSH, 1990, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2011a, 2014). For example, a FACE report

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2017.06.017 0022-4375/© 2017 National Safety Council and Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Dong, X.S., et al., The construction FACE database — Codifying the NIOSH FACE reports, Journal of Safety Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2017.06.017

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X.S. Dong et al. / Journal of Safety Research xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

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3. Results

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130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148

3.1. Trend analysis

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The CFD includes 768 construction-related fatal injuries reported by FACE, covering the fatalities that occurred from 1982 through 2014 (Fig. 1). While some investigations involved multiple fatalities, for analysis purposes, the CFD uses an individual death as the unit. According to the CFD, about one-third (270) of the fatalities were reported by the NIOSH internal FACE program and the remainder (498) by the State FACE programs. The NIOSH FACE program peaked in 1988 with 38 fatalities. The highest number (53) reported by State FACE programs was in 1998; making that year the highest reported total (64) for all FACE programs. State FACE programs were reduced shortly after 1998, leading to fewer active State FACE programs. Since then, the number of annual FACE reports has decreased. In June 2015, nine states were conducting FACE programs — California, Iowa, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, and Washington, and 13 other states previously participated in the FACE program (Fig. 2). FACE data collection has improved significantly in many respects over the years. For example, while age was only collected in 44% of

151 152

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99 100

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95 96

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Selected data from each construction-related FACE report were manually entered into the CFD, including information on decedents, their employers, type of injury, environment, and recommendations (Appendix A). Information on safety equipment, safety programs, and training was also included. The selected data items were coded using coding systems available in 2000 when the CFD was first created. Occupation and industry were coded using the 1990 Census Occupational Classification System (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1999) and the 1987 Standard Industrial Classification System (Office of Management and Budget (OMB), 1987), respectively. The fatal incident details were classified according to the BLS' Occupational Injury and Illness

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Classification System (BLS, 2007). While these classification systems have been updated in recent years, changes related to the construction industry have been relatively minor. In order to maintain consistency and ease usage of the CFD, the coding systems have remained the same since inception. A key element of the CFD is the compilation of FACE recommendations. Since a corresponding classification system is not available, codes were created to categorize the narrative recommendations included in FACE reports (Appendix B). A two-digit classification schema was developed to capture major categories as well as finer details for each recommendation. The first digit designates the main categories: Personal Protective Equipment (PPE; coded 1 ×), Equipment (2 ×), Training (3 ×), Organizational (4 ×), and Violations (5 ×). The second digit classifies more specific recommendations within each of the major categories (e.g., 14 – Provide functional Personal Fall Arrest System (PFAS); or 42 – Conduct Job Safety/Hazard Analysis). Detailed recommendation codes are displayed in Appendix B. The CFD was created in Microsoft Excel, and can be easily imported to other statistical packages, such as SAS. Examples of analyzing the CFD using SAS (version 9.4) and descriptive statistics from the analyses are reported below.

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about a fall from a “catch” platform in New Jersey led to an Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Letter of Interpretation, stating that “catch” platforms must comply with OSHA's Scaffold Standard (OSHA, 2009). Findings based on FACE reports also contributed to a Massachusetts law protecting the safety and health of floor finishing workers (NIOSH, 2011b). Several reports covered various aspects of the Minnesota agriculture industry as well (Brown, Parker, Seeland, Boyle, & Wahl, 1997; MMWR, 1993, 1996, 1998, 1999). In addition, a few studies have applied FACE findings more broadly. These topics include tractors (Bunn et al., 2008), motor vehicle collisions (Bunn & Struttmann, 2003), electrocutions in construction (Zhao, Thabet, McCoy, & Kleiner, 2014), tree care operations (MMWR, 2009), younger workers (Higgins, Tierney, & Hanrahan, 2002), and homicides (Harrison & Gillen, 1996). FACE reports are categorized by major industry on the NIOSH website. Since 1982, the NIOSH and State FACE programs have investigated hundreds of work-related fatal injuries in the construction industry, providing detailed information on the circumstances and recommendations to protect construction workers from similar incidents occurring again. In order to efficiently explore specific information in the FACE reports for the construction industry, the Construction FACE Database (CFD) was developed using all NIOSH and State FACE reports in construction posted to the NIOSH FACE website as of June 30, 2015. Since FACE programs are ongoing and the annual counts are subject to change, reports posted on the NIOSH FACE website after the cutoff date are not covered by the CFD. To assist safety and health professionals to use the CFD, this study describes the development and major contents of the CFD, and provides examples of how to employ the CFD for construction safety and health research. Considerations of the CFD and future research applications are also discussed.

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Fig. 1. NIOSH and State FACE reports in construction, by year. (Source: NIOSH and State FACE Reports for Construction.)

Please cite this article as: Dong, X.S., et al., The construction FACE database — Codifying the NIOSH FACE reports, Journal of Safety Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2017.06.017

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X.S. Dong et al. / Journal of Safety Research xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

Employment information of the decedents is reported in Table 3. Nearly one-quarter of the decedents were construction laborers or helpers. Construction foremen accounted for the next largest occupational group of decedents. The majority of the decedents were wageand-salary workers (87%), and the rest were self-employed (9%) or worked for a family business (4%). Job tenure information was available for 570 (74%) of the decedents. The average job tenure was nearly five years, but one in five of the decedents died during the first two months of employment.

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3.3. Analyzing decedents' employers

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This analysis shows that the majority of employers (97%) were in the private sector, and 45% were employers with 20 or fewer employees (Table 4). By industry sector, 16% were general building contractors, with 9% in nonresidential and 7% in residential, respectively. About 22% were in heavy construction, including 8% in highway and street construction. More than half (53%) of the employers were in specialty trades, such as the roofing, siding, or sheet metal industry (10%),

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cases from 1982 to 1987, it was collected in 95% of cases in the most recent period (2008–2014; Table 1). Similarly, the collection of race and foreign-born status jumped from 1.5% to more than 40% during the same time period. Moreover, job tenure collection increased from 22% to 89%, as did employer time in business (from 28% to 73%).

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Fig. 2. Active and formerly active State FACE programs. (Source: State FACE website.)

3.2. Descriptive analysis of decedents

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Based on demographic information available in the CFD, nearly all decedents were male (759). The mean age of construction decedents involved in a FACE investigation was 38 years, with 20 fatalities occurring among minors under the age of 18 (Table 2). The youngest decedent was only 13 years old. About half of all investigations involved fatalities among those between the ages of 25 and 44 years. Geographically, about 35% of all investigated fatalities occurred in the South, compared to just 17% in the West. At least one fatality was investigated in 34 states of which Massachusetts had the highest number of constructionrelated fatalities investigated (74), and California ranked the second highest (69).

t1:1 t1:2

Table 1 FACE reports in construction, number and percent of data completeness by time period, 1982–2014.

183 184

t1:3

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R

181 182

N C O

179 180

Characteristic

U

177 178

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t1:4 t1:5 t1:6 t1:7 t1:8 t1:9 t1:10 t1:11 t1:12 t1:13 t1:14

Age Race Foreign-born Employer time in business Job tenure Employer size Number of workers on injury site Using safety equipment Written safety plan Employer-provided job training

t1:15

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1982–1987 (Na = 68)

1988–1992 (N = 186)

1993–1997 (N = 218)

1998–2002 (N = 156)

2003–2007 (N = 103)

2008–2014 (N = 37)

Total (N = 768)

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

N

%

n

%

n

%

30 1 1 19 15 49 54 60 55 26

44.1% 1.5% 1.5% 27.9% 22.1% 72.1% 79.4% 88.2% 80.9% 38.2%

180 11 4 136 130 163 162 129 158 106

96.8% 5.9% 2.2% 73.1% 69.9% 87.6% 87.1% 69.4% 85.0% 57.0%

217 16 9 170 177 187 192 133 146 136

99.5% 7.3% 4.1% 78.0% 81.2% 85.8% 88.1% 61.0% 67.0% 62.4%

156 12 11 133 133 139 138 93 122 113

100.0% 7.7% 7.1% 85.3% 85.3% 89.1% 88.5% 59.6% 78.2% 72.4%

97 35 31 82 82 87 86 68 79 74

94.2% 34.0% 30.1% 79.6% 79.6% 84.5% 83.5% 66.0% 76.7% 71.8%

35 15 16 27 33 34 33 29 29 33

94.6% 40.5% 43.2% 73.0% 89.2% 91.9% 89.2% 78.4% 78.4% 89.2%

715 90 72 567 570 659 665 512 589 488

93.1% 11.7% 9.4% 73.8% 74.2% 85.8% 86.6% 66.7% 76.7% 63.5%

N represents the number of fatalities.

Please cite this article as: Dong, X.S., et al., The construction FACE database — Codifying the NIOSH FACE reports, Journal of Safety Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2017.06.017

187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194

198 199 200 201 202

Table 2 FACE reports in construction, by demographic characteristics of decedents, 1982–2014.

203 204

Number

Percent 2.6% 13.8% 24.5% 24.4% 16.0% 8.6% 3.3% 6.9%

759 8 1

98.8% 1.0% 0.1%

17 66 7 678

2.2% 8.6% 0.9% 88.3%

70 2 696

9.1% 0.3% 90.6%

204 165 267 129 3 768

26.6% 21.5% 34.8% 16.8% 0.4% 100.0%

t3:1 t3:2

Table 3 FACE reports in construction, by employment characteristics of decedents, 1982–2014. Characteristic

t3:4 t3:5 t3:6 t3:7 t3:8 t3:9 t3:10 t3:11 t3:12 t3:13 t3:14 t3:15 t3:16 t3:17 t3:18 t3:19 t3:20 t3:21 t3:22 t3:23 t3:24 t3:25 t3:26 t3:27 t3:28 t3:29 t3:30 t3:31 t3:32 t3:33 t3:34 t3:35 t3:36 t3:37

Occupation Construction laborers, helpers Foremen, construction Structural metal workers Equipment & machine operators Carpenters Electricians, power/phone line installers Roofers Painters Plumbers, pipefitters, & steamfitters Miscellaneous mechanics & repairers Truck drivers Construction, n.e.c. Other, n.e.c. Employment status Wage-and-salary Self-employed Family business Volunteer Job tenure (Mean = 4 years, 10 months) 1 day 2 days 3–14 days N2 weeks to 1 month N1 month to 2 months N2 months to 6 months N6 months to 1 year N1 year to 2 years N2 years to 5 years N5 years to 10 years N10 years to 20 years N20 years Unknown/not reported Total fatalities

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186 98 61 59 55 51 40 38 26 18 18 100 18

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Number

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T

205

electrical work (7%), and painting and paper hanging (5%). Additionally, nearly 8% of the decedents were working on construction sites when the injury occurred but were employed in a non-construction industry

t3:3

Employer ownership Private ownership Federal, state, or local government Unknown/not reported Industry Construction employer General building contractors General building contractors — nonresidential General Building Contractors — residential Heavy construction Highway & street construction, except elevated highways Water, sewer, pipeline, & communications & power line construction Heavy construction, n.e.c. Bridge, tunnel, & elevated highway construction Water well drilling Special trade contractors Roofing, siding, & sheet metal work Electrical work Structural steel erection Painting & paper hanging Special trade contractors, n.e.c. Carpentry & floor work Masonry, stonework, tile setting, & plastering Plumbing, heating & air-conditioning Excavation work Concrete work Wrecking & demolition work Installation or erection of building equipment, n.e.c. Non-construction employer Non-classifiable/not reported Employer size 1–10 employees 11–20 employees 21–50 employees 51–200 employees More than 200 employees Unknown/not reported Employer time in business ≤1 year N1 year to 5 years N5 years to 10 years N10 years to 20 years N20 years to 30 years N30 years Unknown/not reported Written safety plan Yes No Unknown/not reported Employer-provided job training Yes No Unknown/not reported Total fatalities

F

20 106 188 187 123 66 25 53

Characteristic

O

Age (Mean = 38 years) b18 years 18–24 years 25–34 years 35–44 years 45–54 years 55–64 years 65+ years Unknown/not reported Sex Male Female Not reported Race/ethnicity White, non-Hispanic Hispanic Asian Unknown/not reported Foreign-born Foreign-born Native-born Unknown/Not reported Geographic region Midwest Northeast South West Not reported Total fatalities

R O

Characteristic

t2:4 t2:5 t2:6 t2:7 t2:8 t2:9 t2:10 t2:11 t2:12 t2:13 t2:14 t2:15 t2:16 t2:17 t2:18 t2:19 t2:20 t2:21 t2:22 t2:23 t2:24 t2:25 t2:26 t2:27 t2:28 t2:29 t2:30 t2:31 t2:32

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Table 4 FACE reports in construction, by decedents' employer characteristics, 1982–2014.

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X.S. Dong et al. / Journal of Safety Research xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

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Percent

24.2% 12.8% 7.9% 7.7% 7.2% 6.6% 5.2% 5.0% 3.4% 2.3% 2.3% 13.0% 2.3%

666 71 29 2

86.7% 9.2% 3.8% 0.3%

18 17 55 26 33 71 50 55 82 72 66 25 198 768

2.3% 2.2% 7.2% 3.4% 4.3% 9.2% 6.5% 7.2% 10.7% 9.4% 8.6% 3.3% 25.8% 100.0%

Number

Percent

744 22 2

97.1% 2.9% 0.3%

698 123 70 53 167 62

90.9% 16.0% 9.1% 6.9% 21.8% 8.1%

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6.6%

25 20 9 408 76 54 53 41 37 30 29 27 23 22 9 7 58 12

3.3% 2.6% 1.2% 53.1% 9.9% 7.0% 6.9% 5.3% 4.8% 3.9% 3.8% 3.5% 3.0% 2.9% 1.2% 0.9% 7.6% 1.6%

249 99 110 108 93 109

32.4% 12.9% 14.3% 14.1% 12.1% 14.2%

23 75 83 140 101 145 201

3.0% 9.8% 10.8% 18.2% 13.2% 18.9% 26.2%

331 258 179

43.1% 33.6% 23.3%

323 165 280 768

42.1% 21.5% 36.5% 100.0%

t4:1 t4:2 t4:3 t4:4 t4:5 t4:6 t4:7 t4:8 Q1 t4:9 t4:10 t4:11 t4:12 t4:13 t4:14 t4:15 t4:16 t4:17 t4:18 t4:19 t4:20 t4:21 t4:22 t4:23 t4:24 t4:25 t4:26 t4:27 t4:28 t4:29 t4:30 t4:31 t4:32 t4:33 t4:34 t4:35 t4:36 t4:37 t4:38 t4:39 t4:40 t4:41 t4:42 t4:43 t4:44 t4:45 t4:46 t4:47 t4:48 t4:49 t4:50 t4:51 t4:52 t4:53 t4:54 t4:55 t4:56 t4:57 t4:58 t4:59

(e.g., an electrician could be employed by a telephone company). Employers had a written safety plan in 43% of cases, and provided job training in 42% of cases. Such information was missing for many cases; 23% of cases did not have information about a written safety plan, and 37% did not have information regarding training.

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3.4. Analyzing events, locations, and other circumstances of incidents

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In terms of events, falls accounted for 42% (325) of all investigated fatalities in construction (Table 5), of which nearly 17% were falls from scaffolding or staging. Contact with electricity resulted in almost 18% of the total deaths, with nearly two-thirds of those from overhead power lines. By location, more than one-third of the investigated fatalities occurred at nonresidential construction sites. Another 14% occurred

212

Please cite this article as: Dong, X.S., et al., The construction FACE database — Codifying the NIOSH FACE reports, Journal of Safety Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2017.06.017

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X.S. Dong et al. / Journal of Safety Research xxx (2017) xxx–xxx Table 5 FACE reports in construction, by case event circumstances, 1982–2014.

N C O

218 219

Recommendations

Numbera (n = 768)

Percent

t6:3

150 74 47 29 325 24 43 22 13 18 49 54 36 66 161 50 86 18 7 105 7 39 59 10 17

19.5% 9.6% 6.1% 3.8% 42.3% 3.1% 5.6% 2.9% 1.7% 2.3% 6.4% 7.0% 4.7% 8.6% 21.0% 6.5% 11.2% 2.3% 0.9% 13.7% 0.9% 5.1% 7.7% 1.3% 2.2% 34.1% 13.8% 10.8% 10.0% 8.6% 6.6% 5.5% 2.2% 7.3% 1.0%

272 33 2 54 158 9 130 618 151 111 158 327 122 95 604 94 574 19 44 28 3 613 17 307 186 74 55 153 101 41 148 31 21 7 3 1

35.4% 4.3% 0.3% 7.0% 20.6% 1.2% 16.9% 80.5% 19.7% 14.5% 20.6% 42.6% 15.9% 12.4% 78.7% 12.2% 74.7% 2.5% 5.7% 3.7% 0.4% 79.8% 2.2% 40.0% 24.2% 9.6% 7.2% 19.9% 13.2% 5.3% 19.3% 4.0% 2.7% 0.9% 0.4% 0.1%

t6:4 Q3

262 106 83 77 66 51 42 17 56 8

Personal protective equipment Provide functional PPE Inspect PPE for functionality Enforce use of PPE Provide functional PFAS Inspect PFAS for functionality Enforce use of PFAS Equipment Provide proper equipment for the task Inspect equipment for functionality/condition Enforce proper use of equipment Install safety protection Prevention through design Other, n.e.c. Training Provide job training Provide safety training CPR training Provide training in a language the employee can understand Train local emergency medical services on worksite safety Other, n.e.c. Organizational Develop safety checklist Conduct job safety (hazard) analysis Ensure safe worksite conditions Improve employer awareness Verify employee qualifications for the job Designate competent worksite safety monitor Establish clear communication system Enforce safety requirements of subcontractors Other, n.e.c. Violations Enforce child labor laws Heavier/successive penalties for violations Other, n.e.c. Other, n.e.c.

42 164 119 97 73 99 42 24 5 103

119 393 256 768

5.5% 21.4% 15.5% 12.6% 9.5% 12.9% 5.5% 3.1% 0.7% 13.4%

15.5% 51.2% 33.3% 100.0%

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3.5. Analyzing recommendations

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FACE reports provide recommendations on a variety of issues. The most common recommendations were related to Equipment (81%), followed by Organizational matters (80%), Training (79%), and PPE (35%; Table 6). Among the Equipment-related recommendations, 43% of reports suggested the installation of safety protection—more than double the number of recommendations to provide functional PFAS (21%; PPE major category). Within the Training category, three in four cases recommended that employers provide safety

225 226 227 228 229 230 231

U

222

at new residential construction sites, and 11% at residential remodeling, renovation, and demolition sites. Nearly 80% of the investigated fatalities transpired on jobsites with fewer than 10 workers. Safety equipment was used in less than 16% of cases. However, such information was only available for two-thirds of cases.

220 221

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R O

O

F

Percent

T

Event or exposure Contact with objects and equipment Struck by/against object or equipment Caught in/compressed by equipment or objects Excavation or trenching cave-in Falls Fall through floor opening/surface Fall from ladder Fall through existing roof opening Fall through roof surface Fall through skylight Fall from roof edge Fall from scaffold, staging Fall from building girders, other structural steel Fall to lower level, n.e.c. Exposure to harmful substances or environments Contact with electric current or wiring, etc. Contact with overhead power lines Inhalation/depletion of oxygen in confined space Drowning, submersion Transportation accidents Collision accident Non-collision accident Pedestrian accident Fires and explosions Other, n.e.c. Location Nonresidential construction site Residential construction site Home (home/apartment/farmhouse/n.e.c.) Industrial places & premises Road construction site Public building Street & highway Parking lot, garage Other, n.e.c. Unknown/not reported Number of workers on injury site Working alone 2 workers 3 workers 4 workers 5 workers 6–9 workers 10–19 workers 20–99 workers 100+ workers Unknown/not reported Using safety equipment Yes No Unknown/not reported Total fatalities

Number

C

t5:4 t5:5 Q2 t5:6 t5:7 t5:8 t5:9 t5:10 t5:11 t5:12 t5:13 t5:14 t5:15 t5:16 t5:17 t5:18 t5:19 t5:20 t5:21 t5:22 t5:23 t5:24 t5:25 t5:26 t5:27 t5:28 t5:29 t5:30 t5:31 t5:32 t5:33 t5:34 t5:35 t5:36 t5:37 t5:38 t5:39 t5:40 t5:41 t5:42 t5:43 t5:44 t5:45 t5:46 t5:47 t5:48 t5:49 t5:50 t5:51 t5:52 t5:53 t5:54 t5:55 t5:56

t6:1 t6:2

Table 6 FACE report recommendations for construction, 1982–2014.

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Characteristic

R

t5:3

R

t5:1 t5:2

5

t6:5 t6:6 t6:7 t6:8 t6:9 t6:10 t6:11 t6:12 t6:13 t6:14 t6:15 t6:16 t6:17 t6:18 t6:19 t6:20 t6:21 t6:22 t6:23 t6:24 t6:25 t6:26 t6:27 t6:28 t6:29 t6:30 t6:31 t6:32 t6:33 t6:34 t6:35 t6:36 t6:37 t6:38 t6:39

Note: Investigators could provide multiple recommendations per report, therefore, totals t6:40 do not add to 100%. t6:41 a Number refers to the number of fatalities. t6:42

training (e.g., CPR, how to handle an emergency, hazard recognition). For recommendations addressing Organizational issues, 40% suggested that employers conduct a job safety/hazard analysis prior to beginning work, and 24% recommended that employers should ensure safe worksite conditions (e.g., assessing if weather conditions are too dangerous to proceed with work).

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4. Discussion

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This study describes the CFD development by codifying the NIOSH and State FACE reports on construction fatalities spanning more than 30 years. Analyses using the CFD provide findings that may not exist in the current literature. For example, demographic data from the CFD shows that 20 construction deaths were identified among minors under the age of 18. Because minors under the age of 18 are prohibited from working in hazardous occupations such as roofing and trenching (U.S. Department of Labor, 2010), this information may help to understand the issue of child labor at construction jobsites and highlights the need to enforce federal and state child labor laws to protect this vulnerable group. While the information on decedents' job tenure is incomplete, the results indicate that a large number of decedents died when they had just started a new job; one in five was killed within the first two months on the job. Despite missing data on training, only 42% of decedents were found to have received job-related training (including formal and informal safety training). Factors related to safety training could be further explored using the CFD.

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Please cite this article as: Dong, X.S., et al., The construction FACE database — Codifying the NIOSH FACE reports, Journal of Safety Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2017.06.017

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Acknowledgements

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The authors are grateful to Michael A. Fiore, Mark Fullen, Paul Moore, John Myers, Audrey Reichard, and Christine Schuler for their review and valuable comments on this manuscript.

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2 3 4 5

Record ID State Age Gender

6

Race/ethnicity

7

Foreign-born (FB)

8 9

Occupation (OCCUP) Employee status (ES)

10 Time with employer (TWEY)

Employer characteristics 11 Industry (SIC) 12 Ownership (OWNER)

13 Time: employer has been in business (TEIB) 14 Establishment size (SIZE) 15 Written safety plan/program/ procedure (WSP) 16 Provide job training (PJT)

Injury/incident 17 Injury date

18 19 20 21 22

Nature of injury (NOI) Part of body (POB) Source of injury (SOI) Event or exposure (EOE) Activity

N

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Decedent characteristics 1 Case Type (NIOSH or State)

N = NIOSH S = State Two letter abbreviation In years 1. Male 2. Female 1. White, non-Hispanic 2. Black, non-Hispanic 3. Hispanic 4. Asian 5. Native American 6. Other 7. Unknown/not reported 1. Yes 2. No 3. Unknown/not reported 1990 Census Code 1. Wage-and-salary 2. Self-employed 3. Family business 4. Volunteer 5. Not reported Years Months Days

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This study was funded by the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) grant U60OH009762.

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Appendix A. FACE database variables (Appendix A)

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Information on PPE or PFAS use is particularly valuable since such information is not collected in most data sources. The findings suggest that just 16% of decedents were using safety equipment at the time of the incident. Some FACE reports provide a detailed list of what the decedent was using or wearing when the incident occurred (e.g., hard hat, work gloves, work boots, reflective vest), and some describe whether the available PPE or PFAS was actually in use during the incident (e.g., the employer had PFAS in the truck, but the decedent was not wearing it). However, the current CFD only includes whether safety protection was used or not, and does not classify protection in detail (original FACE reports may be referenced if more information is needed). The CFD can also be used to examine a specific event for fatalities. The largest proportion of investigated fatalities in construction was fall-related, accounting for 42% of the decedents, reflecting that falls are a priority of construction safety for NIOSH targets (NIOSH, 2008). A study addressing fall fatalities (including PFAS use and availability) using the CFD has been published (Dong et al., 2017). Other common events in construction, such as Exposure to Harmful Substances or Environments, or Contact with Objects and Equipment could be examined in future research using the CFD. Perhaps the most important element of the CFD is the FACE recommendations. The findings show that roughly three-quarters of reports included a recommendation for employers to provide safety training, and 43% recommended installing safety protection equipment. Conducting a job safety/hazard analysis (40%) and ensuring safe worksite conditions (24%) were also frequently recommended. Although the findings may not be representative of the entire construction industry, implementing these recommendations prior to beginning work may mitigate the risk of similar incidents in the future. Further detailed analysis of the recommendations captured in CFD could also be conducted to assess the impact of implementation. While the CFD provides an easy way to analyze FACE reports, it only contains selected information within the construction industry. FACE reports are also not nationally representative because they are related to pre-selected targets and are voluntarily reported by participating states. In addition, the FACE program started more than 30 years ago, thus findings generated from the CFD may not reflect the conditions on current construction sites. Moreover, a large number of cases in the CFD have some missing data. For example, some demographic data points were only available in recent reports. Therefore, a detailed analysis on Hispanic or foreign-born workers is not suggested based on the current CFD version. Moreover, despite significant improvements in FACE reports, some information is still incomplete, such as safety training and use of safety equipment. A more detailed checklist for future FACE investigations could be helpful in evaluating and interpreting incidents. The CFD can be updated as more information is available. Given the above considerations, the CFD may allow researchers to analyze the FACE reports quantitatively and efficiently. The CFD in Excel and its codebook in PDF format will be available on the NIOSH FACE website in the near future as a free download for interested parties. Comprehensive research using FACE reports may improve our understanding of work-related fatalities and provide much needed information on strategies for the prevention of future incidents.

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23 Height of fall (Fall_feet) Environment 24 Location

SIC 1. Federal government 2. State government 3. Local government 4. Foreign government 5. Other government 6. Private ownership In years Number of employees 1. Yes 2. No 3. Unknown/not reported 1. Yes 2. No 3. Unknown/not reported

Month (IM) Day (ID) Year (IY) OIICS 2007 OIICS 2007 OIICS 2007 OIICS 2007 1. Vehicular & transportation operations 2. Using/operating tools, machinery 3. Constructing, repairing, cleaning 4. Materials handling 5. Physical activities, n.e.c. 6. Unknown/Not reported In feet

1. Nonresidential construction site 2. Residential construction site 3. Home (home/apartment/ farmhouse/n.e.c.) 4. Industrial places & premises 5. Road construction site 6. Public building 7. Street & highway 8. Parking lot, garage 9. Other, n.e.c. 10. Unknown/not reported

Please cite this article as: Dong, X.S., et al., The construction FACE database — Codifying the NIOSH FACE reports, Journal of Safety Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2017.06.017

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X.S. Dong et al. / Journal of Safety Research xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

43. Ensure safe worksite conditions (e.g., barricade area below overhead work, restrict roof work during high winds) 44. Improve employer awareness (e.g., become familiar with available resources on safety standards and safe work practices, monitor workers for signs of alcohol and drug use) 45. Verify employee qualifications for the job (e.g., employee has proper training or certifications for equipment operation or task performance) 46. Designate competent person for worksite safety monitoring 47. Establish clear communication system (e.g., spotters, 2-way radios, signal person) 48. Enforce safety requirements of subcontractors (e.g., subcontractors must provide general contractors with written comprehensive safety program) 49. Other

Appendix A (continued)

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FACE report recommendations 29 Report recommendations 30 PFAS recommended (PFAS_Rec)

1. 2. 3. 4.

Present and in use Present but not in use Not present Unknown/not reported

See Appendix B 1. Yes 2. No

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27 What protection (e.g., fall protection) (WP) 28 Fall protection (PFAS)

1. Yes 2. No 3. Unknown/not reported Protection type

B.5. Violations

B.1. Personal protective equipment (PPE – e.g., hard hat, gloves, PFAS or harness/lanyard)

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B.6. Other

999. Other (not under any major categories)

References

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11. Provide functional PPE (e.g., the employer did not provide, or provided inadequate or faulty PPE, NOT PFAS) 12. Inspect PPE for functionality (e.g., when PPE failed) 13. Enforce use of PPE 14. Provide functional PFAS (e.g., the employer did not provide, or provided inadequate or faulty PFAS) 15. Inspect PFAS functionality (e.g., when PFAS failed) 16. Enforce use of PFAS 19. Other

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21. Provide proper equipment for the task 22. Inspect equipment for functionality/condition (e.g., in cases with faulty lifts, broken seatbelt or backup alarm, worn labels that are illegible, damaged boards used as scaffold planks) 23. Enforce proper use of equipment 24. Install safety protection (e.g., guardrails, nets, alarms, warning signs) 25. Prevention through design (e.g., safety features added by manufacturer to equipment, safer design of worksite) 29. Other B.3. Training

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31. Provide job training (does NOT include safety training, but if both are mentioned, use both 31 and 32) 32. Provide safety training (includes ensuring employee awareness of safe work procedures) 33. CPR training (Cardiopulmonary resuscitation) 34. Provide training in a language the employee can understand 35. Train local emergency medical services on safe worksite practices and rescue procedures prior to incident (e.g., when and how to enter a trench in case of collapse) 39. Other B.4. Organizational 41. Develop safety checklist 42. Conduct job safety (hazard) analysis

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51. Enforce child labor laws 52. Disciplinary procedures for non-cooperation 59. Other

Appendix B. FACE recommendation categories (Appendix B)

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25 Number of workers injured in the event (excluding decedent) (NOWIIE) 26 With SAFETY EQUIPMENT (WSE)

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Xiuwen Sue Dong, DrPH, is Data Center Director for CPWR — the Center for Construction Research and Training. She currently serves as PI of several research projects funded by the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Dong is the lead author of many publications. Her research covers multiple issues in occupational safety and health, focusing on construction workers. She has a doctoral degree in Public Health from the George Washington University and a master's degree in labor economics from the University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

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Julie A Largay received her MPH in Epidemiology from the George Washington University, and her bachelor degree in Economics from the University of Virginia, Charlottesville. She has five years of experience in occupational health research and extensive rich knowledge of numerous data sources available both publicly and privately.

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Xuanwen Wang, Ph.D., is Senior Research Associate at CPWR- the Center for Construction Research and Training. She received her Ph.D. in Economics from Clemson University. She currently works on construction safety and health surveillance, and several other NIOSH funded projects. She has seven years of experience in occupational health research and extensive rich knowledge of numerous data sources available both publicly and privately.

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Chris Trahan Cain, CIH, is Executive Director of CPWR —The Center for Construction Research and Training. She manages operations of the construction research, training, and service programs funded by federal agreements, grants, and contracts. She also manages relationships with CPWR's external partners in the Building Trades Unions, non-construction unions, the larger safety and health construction community, and government partners. She leads CPWR staff in finding synergies among departments in order to capitalize on programs funded by different federal grants. She has been working in construction safety and health on behalf of NABTU for over 20 years.

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Nancy Romano is a Safety and Occupational Health Specialist with the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Division of Safety Research, Surveillance and Field Investigations Branch, Field Investigations Team in Morgantown West Virginia, and is the Project Officer for the NIOSH Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) Program. Nancy has been with NIOSH since 1999. Nancy has a Master of Science in Safety Management and is a Certified Safety and Health Manager (CSHM). Nancy is a NIOSH Construction Sector Program, Steering Committee Member and previously served as the Assistant Coordinator for 5 years.

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Please cite this article as: Dong, X.S., et al., The construction FACE database — Codifying the NIOSH FACE reports, Journal of Safety Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2017.06.017