The development of a hierarchical coding scheme and database of job accommodation for disabled workers

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International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 33 (2004) 429–447

The development of a hierarchical coding scheme and database of job accommodation for disabled workers Chia-Fen Chia,*, Jung-Shung Pana, Tzu-Hsin Liua, Yuh Jangb a

Department of Industrial Management, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, 43, Keelung Road, Section 4, Taipei 106, Taiwan b Department of Occupational Therapy, National Taiwan University, Taiwan Received 11 June 2003; accepted 13 November 2003

Abstract The current research developed a hierarchical coding scheme to be utilized by vocational counselors and employers to determine feasible job accommodation solutions for disabled workers. The coding scheme divided job accommodation techniques into the following six major categories: (1) job assignment, (2) job analysis and vocational assessment, (3) work instruction and training, (4) environmental modifications (access to facilities, physical and social environment), (5) equipment modifications, and (6) computer-related modifications. Each category was subdivided into several subcategories and items to designate the specific tools and techniques for job accommodation. Based on a hierarchical coding scheme, a database containing job accommodation case examples of qualified employers who had received financial support from the Taiwan Employment and Vocational Training Administration (EVTA) was constructed. The process of turning qualitative information into a quantitative coding system as a basis for constructing a database system can be generalized to databases created for other applications. Relevance to industry The current research developed a hierarchical coding scheme to be utilized by vocational counselors and employers to determine feasible job accommodation solutions for disabled workers. The process of turning qualitative information into a quantitative coding system as a basis for constructing a database system can be generalized to databases created for other applications. r 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Disabled workers; Job accommodation; Hierarchical coding scheme

1. Introduction Disabled employees in many workplaces have experienced discrimination because colleagues and *Corresponding author. Tel.: +886-2-2737-6338; fax: +8862-2737-6344. E-mail address: [email protected] (C.-F. Chi).

supervisors assume that the work performance of disabled workers will be affected by limitations in their physical and mental capabilities. However, an impairment is only one factor that should be considered when examining a worker’s overall abilities and skills. In many cases, jobs and workplaces can be redesigned without extensive expenditures to adapt to the requirements of

0169-8141/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2003.11.003

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disabled workers. Since 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) has required employers in the United States to make ‘‘reasonable accommodation’’ in policies, practices, or procedures when these modifications are necessary to allow disabled workers to access goods, services, facilities, privileges, advantages, or accommodations (Evan Terry Associates, 1993). Work-site modifications range from the simplest and least costly, e.g. changing hours, work procedures, work location, or task assignments, to the most expensive and most complex, such as using high technology or rehabilitation engineering for sophisticated equipment or building adaptations (Clark and Kolstoe, 1990). Jobs which are adapted to meet the needs of a disabled person through the application of ergonomic planning and design measures can also be occupied by a non-disabled employee. Beginning in 1994, the Taiwan Employment and Vocational Training Administration (EVTA), a government agency in charge of the placement of disabled workers, started to promote the concept of job accommodation to employers, and provided financial support to those who qualified. However, no two disabled individuals will require the exact same accommodation (Job Accommodation Network; www.janweb.icdi.wvu.edu). Without access to technology and a full range of adaptive devices, vocational counselors, employers and disabled workers may end up being frustrated. Thus, the current research was funded by the EVTA to develop a checklist to determine feasible job accommodation solutions for disabled workers. Another goal was to have the coding scheme serve as the basis of a database system that would be used for further inquiries. 1.1. The coding scheme Since two vocational counselors may report the same job accommodation outcomes using different terminology, it would be almost impossible to sort and make sense out of the record. If the case examples are to be processed effectively, they must be classified into predetermined categories that can be used for sorting purposes. The coding scheme is an elementary basis for presenting and processing the collected case examples as a usable database.

In order to create a coding scheme which can also serve as a checklist, the coding scheme must be created based on theory and case examples to be coded in the future. Wieland and Schuette (1985) adopted a similar approach to create a computerized information system for a future simple search for information. They emphasized that the number of categories should be as small as possible while the chosen classification should be structured according to the information most essential for practitioners. Wieland and Schuette (1985) suggested three ergonomic approaches to widen the range of jobs available for disabled individuals, and to improve their working conditions. These include: (1) selection of a suitable workplace, (2) work instruction and training, and (3) workplace design (job accommodation). The disabled worker must be evaluated to determine the appropriate job assignment, and trained using systematic instruction of task behavior sequences and performance strategies. The workplace must also be modified to meet the remaining abilities of the disabled worker (Wieland and Schuette, 1985). Nochajski and Oddo (1995) expanded the notation of job accommodation and stated that reasonable accommodations generally fall into one of three categories: environmental modifications, equipment modifications, and procedural modifications. Examples for each type of modification include the removal of architectural barriers, provision of assistive devices, and restructuring tasks and work schedules, respectively (Nochajski and Oddo, 1995). Thus, environmental, equipment, and procedural modifications ought to be the major categories for job accommodations. However, after examining job accommodation cases collected for this study, it was discovered that the majority of real world applications belong to the category of equipment modification similar to the work-aids stated in Wieland and Schuette (1985). Wieland and Schuette (1985) proposed a classification system for the application of work-aids and derived five distinctive groups of work-aids, namely: (1) supporting deportment, (2) locomotion, (3) manipulation, (4) communication, and (5) safety. Procedural modification was classified under subcategory (552) technical aids related to

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the process. This subcategory was under the major category (550) work-safety, as shown in Table 6. Since very few procedural modifications were found in our accommodation cases, the current research decided to classify procedural modifications following Wieland and Schuette’s (1985) classification. In the last few decades, computers have played an increasingly important role in many workplaces. Both office and factory occupations can be modified so that a computer-able disabled worker can perform his/her duties (McCormick, 1994). However, Wieland and Schuette’s (1985) classification of work-aids did not cover computerrelated work-aids which have become a critical issue in workplace accommodation in the last 10 years. The current study listed all computer-related work-aids as one unique category. Before one can come to the determination of a feasible job assignment and accommodation solution, some preliminary evaluations and assessment of the job and the disabled worker must be conducted. Based on Nochajski and Oddo’s (1995) notation of job accommodations, and Wieland and Schuette’s (1985) three ergonomic approaches for disabled workers and their classification system of work-aids, the following six major categories were chosen to formulate the fundamental structure of the coding scheme for this research: (1) (2) (3) (4)

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into items (sub-subcategories) to designate the specific tools and techniques for job accommodation. The major category, subcategory, and item of each job accommodation case example is indicated by a 3-digit number. The first digit which ranges between 1 and 6 indicates one of the six major categories. The second digit which ranges between 1 and 9 specifies one of the sub-categories under the six major categories. The third digit which ranges between 1 and 9 specifies the item under each subcategory. Similarly, a 2-digit number was designed to indicate the disability group of the client involved in the job accommodation as shown in Table 1. Since many of the job accommodation solutions are directly linked to the characteristics of the impaired function, it is very useful to be able to match feasible accommodation techniques with the disability group. Each of the major categories will be expanded as follows starting with job assignment.

1.1.1. Job assignment The category of job assignment was determined by job clusters generated from our previous study of job placement for disabled workers (Chi, 1999). Chi (1999) applied a factor analysis and hierarchical clustering procedure to analyze the job analysis data and classify 112 job titles into 15 homogeneous clusters: (1) administrative work, (2) office work, (3) technical work with low physical demand, (4) teaching work, (5) nursing and

job assignment, job analysis and vocational assessment, work instruction and training, environmental modifications (accessible facilities, physical and social environment), (5) equipment modifications, (6) computer-related modifications.

Table 1 2-Digit codes for various types of impairments

Since qualitative information on job accommodation is unmanageable, excellent models for coding part of body affected, accident type and hazardous condition according to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Z16.2-1963 and Z16.2-1995 (ANSI, 1963, 1995) were referred to in this study to generate a sensible coding scheme. Each of the six major categories was subdivided into several subcategories and further

06 07 08 09 10

Code

Type of impairment

01 02 03 04 05

Ocular impairments Language and aural impairments Skeletal impairments Mental retardation (intellectual impairments) Psychological impairments (other psychological impairments) Visceral impairments Disfiguring impairments Autism Multiple impairments Other impairments

Based on the World Health Organization (WHO) international classification of impairments and disabilities (1980).

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religious work, (6) art work, (7) customer service work, (8) machine operators and product makers, (9) auxiliary work: cleaners, helpers, and assemblers, (10) technical work with high physical demand, (11) protective service, (12) transport work, (13) dental work, (14) physician’s work, and (15) personal service. These job clusters were rearranged into eight categories as follows: (110) administrative work, (120) office work, (130) technical work with low physical demand, (140) customer service work, (150) machine operators and product makers, (160) auxiliary work: cleaners, helpers, and assemblers, (170) technical work with high physical demand, and (180) other professional work including teaching, medicine (physician), and nursing and personal service. Each subcategory contained three to eight items (job titles) as listed in Table 2. For example, the subcategory of (110) administrative work contained (111) administrators, (112) directors and chief executives, and (113) production managers the subcategory of (120) office work contained (121) material recording and transport clerks, and (122) mailing and filing clerks. Job titles which did not belong to any given subcategory were classified into (187) other and/or unclassified job titles. The coding scheme in Table 2 could be used to code the placement outcomes of the case examples to indicate the job categories performed by various types of disabled workers. 1.1.2. Job analysis and vocational assessment North and Rohmert (1981) stated that job analysis data are helpful in solving a wide range of ergonomics and rehabilitation problems such as the enlargement of job opportunities, selective placement, and the redesign of jobs for the disabled. In order to determine feasible job placement and job modification solutions, vocational counselors must review all assessment and evaluation data on an individual (vocational assessment) and on the available jobs (job analysis). Based on these assessments, vocational counselors can then determine the individual’s job interests, strengths and limitations which could affect performance of the available jobs (Clark and Kolstoe, 1990). The ergonomic redesign approach outlined by Boussenna et al. (1983) also starts with

a thorough analysis of the residual ability of the individual and the task requirements. In other words, all these assessments are either job-oriented or individual-oriented. Therefore, for clarification, the authors decided to classify these assessments into two subcategories of (210) job analysis and (220) vocational assessment. Job analysis is a systematic procedure for observing and describing the duties and the conditions of a particular job (Jacobs and Wyrick, 1989). Depending on the complexity of the job to be analyzed and the purpose for the assessment, there are various systems for job analyses, including job description, job demands analysis, task analysis, and ergonomic evaluation (O’Callaghan and Switzer-McIntyre, 1995). However, all systems deal with work system analysis of work objects, tools, equipment and work environment, task analysis, and job demand analysis on perception, decision and response/activity (Angelo et al., 1991; North and Rohmert, 1981). Therefore, the current study classified the job analysis subcategory into several items following the AET Plus supplement developed by North and Rohmert (1981). These items are (211) work objects, (212) equipment, (213) work environment, (214) task analysis, (215) job demands on perception, (216) job demands on decision, (217) job demands for response and activities, and (219) other and/or unclassified job analysis approach. Each item is elaborated further to provide specific content for each job analysis item in the right column of Table 3 (North and Rohmert, 1981). Also, the Americans with Disability Act Work Site Assessment (Aja et al., 1992), and job analysis protocols (Bettencourt, 1994) can be used to collect relevant job analysis information to identify areas that may interfere with maximal function. Vocational assessment is an experiential procedure that uses reality-based techniques and operations to provide reliable and valid data regarding (1) a person’s ability to work, (2) preferences for different types of jobs and work activities, (3) capacity to perform in a variety of vocational roles, and (4) need for training in specific and general skills required for success in employment (Rubin and Roessler, 1995). Hopskins and Smith (1998) emphasized that a job constitutes two

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Table 2 Hierarchical coding scheme for the first major category: job assignment 100 110 Code

Job assignment Administrative work Job accommodation item

111 112

Administrators Directors and Chief executives

113 120 121 122 123 130 131 132 133 134 135 140 141 142 143 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 170 171 172 173 174 175 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187

Production managers Office work Material-recording clerks Mailing and filing clerks Recording, bookkeeping, scheduling, and transcribing clerks Administrative associated clerks Secretaries, assistants, typists, data processing clerks Technical work (low physical demand) Health associated technicians Medical technologists Physical science technicians Assistant engineers Safety and quality inspectors QC inspectors Computing professionals Programmers, computer mechanics, CAD drawers Business professionals Commercial designers, fashion designers Customer service work Cashiers, tellers, and related clerks Ticket selling, bus dispatching and scheduling clerks Housekeeping and restaurant service workers Tea making and dish-ordering service workers Shop sales and demonstrators Material sorting and pricing Machine operators and product makers Metal molders, welders, and sheet-metal workers Metal processing plant operators Rubber and plastic products machine operators Food processing workers Helpers in kitchen and bakery, assistant cook, domestic helpers Printing workers Printers Textile and garment workers Material and oil feeders, tailors Blacksmiths and tool makers Tool grinders Wood treaters and cabinet makers Carpenters Auxiliary work: cleaners, helpers, and assemblers Crop and animal producers Gardeners Domestic helpers, cleaners and launderers Laundry worker, cleaners, ironing workers, dish washers Messengers and porters, caretaker and door keepers Delivery worker Painters and building structure cleaners Assemblers Folding, labeling, packing, weighting workers Car washing workers Cleaning, washing and drying cars and seat covers Technical work (high physical demand) Machinery mechanics and fitters Mechanics, machine operators, repairman, electrician, Optical, image recording and equipment controllers Broadcaster Judicial, prison guards, and safety guards Safety guards Earth-moving, crane hoist, lifting truck operators Professional drivers Taxi drivers Other professional (teaching, nursing and personal service) work Teachers University and high school teachers Teaching professionals Vocational training staff (including nursing and care) Nursing and midwifery professionals Nurses Personal care workers Physicians Masseurs Other Counselors

Case examples Directors in schools, supermarkets, social organizations, banks, and personnel departments

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Table 3 Coding scheme for the second major category: job analysis and vocational assessment 200

Job analysis and vocational assessment

210 211 212

Job analysis Work objects Equipment

213

Work environment

214 215 216 217

222

Task analysis Job demands on perception Job demands on decision Job demands for response and activities Other non classified job analyses Vocational assessment General education, vocational training and skills Vocational interests

223

Vocational aptitudes

224

Work personality and temperaments

225

Physical capacity and work tolerance

226

Work behaviors

229

Other relevant evaluations and assessments

219 220 221

Material, energy, information, man, animal, and plants Equipment, tools, machinery, controls, displays, measuring instruments, technical aids, chair, table and room Illumination, ventilation, dust, fumes, bad odors, smoke, noise, vibration, temperature and humidity, mechanical, electrical and explosive hazards, radiant energy, poisonous, erosive and flammable dangers, paced requirement, and required protective equipment Frequency, duration, and forces required for the job Visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, proprioceptive, accuracy of perception Decision complexity, time pressure and required knowledge Body posture, static work, strenuous and frequency of muscular work and movements

Education, professional experience and training, professional certificate and skills Artistic, scientific, agricultural, military, mechanical, industrial productive, clerical, business/selling, performing service related, social welfare, leadership and directing, physical activities Intelligence, verbal, numeral, spatial, form perception, clerical perception, motor coordination, finger dexterity, manual dexterity Supervising, persuading, coordinating, instructing, dominating, thoughtful, taking instructions, persistence, individualism, sociability Lifting, carrying, pushing and pulling, walking, climbing, balancing, stooping, kneeling, crouching/crawling, reaching, handling and fingering movements, feeling, hearing, visual acuity, field of vision, olfactory and depth perception, visual accommodation and color vision Punctuality and attendance, ability to learn new tasks, interpersonal relationships, cooperation response to work pressures, frustration tolerance, speed and accuracy of work, perseverance on a task

important elements: (1) work skills, aptitude and physical capacities, and (2) work behavior. In order to maintain employment, certain behaviors are desirable and, in many cases, mandated (Brolin and Brolin, 1982). Therefore, the evaluator must also assess the work behaviors in simulated work situations. Typically, the types of vocational behaviors that can be assessed are: punctuality and attendance, ability to learn new tasks, interpersonal relationships, cooperation, response to work pressures, frustration tolerance, speed and accuracy of work, and perseverance on a task (Brolin and Brolin, 1982). Thus, the major options for vocational assessment, include: (221) general

education, vocational training and skills, (222) vocational interests, (223) vocational aptitudes, (224) work personality and temperament, and (225) physical capacity and work tolerance as in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (US Department of Labor, 1977). Two extra items, (226) work behavior (Brolin and Brolin, 1982; Hopskins and Smith, 1998) and (229) other relevant assessments were added to cover other relevant evaluations and assessments. As none of employers had specified the assessment options they had performed for their disabled workers, each item was elaborated according to the literature to serve as a checklist for vocational counselors (Table 3).

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1.1.3. Work instruction and training The amount and kind of instruction and training that a disabled worker needs is extremely variable, therefore, it is almost impossible to generate a complete framework to cover various kinds of training programs. Goldstein (1993) stated that an effective training program should be based on a careful needs assessment of job requirements and the capabilities of the trainees. The authors decided to create the coding scheme based on the following four outcomes of vocational assessment: (1) immediate job placement, (2) vocational training, (3) sheltered employment, and (4) no employment (Brolin and Brolin, 1982) for the least amount of overlap and complete coverage. On-the-job training is adequate for workers who have good basic work behaviors and the potential to be successful on the job (Jacob, 1988). Typical on-the-job-training has focused on job duty-specific health and safety training, and social skills needed to maintain a given job (Webman et al., 1992). Examples found in the cases collected for this study include training on health and safety, secretarial and accounting work, inventory recording and management, maintenance, or standardized operating procedures. Vocational training is generally designed for those judged to have the potential for competitive employment after a period of specific skill training (Brolin and Brolin, 1982). For those more severely handicapped and supported by sheltered employment programs or those who are unemployed, life skills are important for productive work activity in the home and community, and are also directly related to job functioning (Brolin, 1993). This study adopted the three major curriculum areas of daily living skills, personal-social skills, and occupational guidance and preparation that were used in Brolin’s Life Centered Career Education (LCCE) Curriculum as the framework to train the severely handicapped to function as productive workers and citizens (Brolin, 1993). Our cases related to training on daily living skills including training to improve dietary habits, housekeeping, verbal communication skills, and how to use bathroom facilities.

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Therefore, the category of training was divided into six subcategories that included (310) on-thejob training, (320) vocational training, (330) daily living skills, (340) personal-social skills, (350) occupational guidance and preparation, and (360) other training programs. The subcategory (310) on-the-job training, contained (311) jobrelated knowledge and skills, (312) health and safety training and (313) other on-the-job training programs. The second subcategory (320) vocational training, included seven types of vocational training for handicapped workers provided by the EVTA as follows: (321) computer-related training, (322) training programs designed for the service industry, (323) clothing industry, (324) manufacturing industry, (325) agriculture, (326) handicrafts and (327) other vocational training programs. A detailed explanation of these training programs can be found in Lin (1998). The three major curriculum areas of Brolin’s (1993) LCCE approach were adopted as the next three subcategories: (330) daily living skills, (340) personal-social skills and (350) occupational guidance and preparation. The 22 functional skills for these three subcategories became the items for each subcategory as shown in Table 4. The subcategory of (399) other training programs was added to cover the other programs and/or those unclassified. 1.1.4. Environmental modifications (access facilities, physical and social environment) The ADA regulations require that all areas ‘‘that may be used by employees with disabilities’’ be designed and constructed so people with disabilities can ‘‘approach, enter, and exit the areas’’. The subcategories for an accessible facility and working environment mainly originated from the four priorities that appeared in the Checklist for Existing Facilities developed by Adaptive Environments Center, Inc, and Barrier Free Environments, Inc. (Evan Terry Associates, 1993). The first priority, (410) accessible entrance includes: (411) entrance, and (412) assistive device for entrance. The second priority, (420) access to goods and services includes: (421) door, (422) chair, table and furniture, (423) stairs, (424) elevators, and (425) escalators. The third priority,

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Table 4 Coding scheme for the third major category: work instruction and training 300

Work instruction and training

310 311

On-the-job training Job-related knowledge and skill

312 313

Safety and health training Other on-the-job training

320 321

Vocational training Computer-related

322

Service industry

323

Clothing industry

324

Manufacturing

325

Agriculture

326

Handicrafts

327

Other vocational training programs

330 331

Daily living skills Managing personal finances

332

Selecting and managing a household

333

Caring for personal needs

334 335

Raising children and meeting marriage responsibilities Buying, preparing and consuming food

336 337

Buying and caring for clothing Exhibiting responsible citizenship

338

Utilizing recreational facilities and engage in leisure

339

Getting around the community

340 341

Personal-social skills Achieving self-awareness

342

Acquiring self-confidence

Secretarial and accounting work, material management, setup and maintenance of hardware and software, standardized operating procedures, orientation of technical support services, reference materials, trouble-shooting strategies

Chinese typing, networking, type-setting, system analysis, programming, data processing, computer-aided drawing, advertisement, design, templating and pre-printing processing Hair dressing, fast printing, food processing, packing and service, convenience store operation, housekeeping and laundering, home appliance maintenance and repairs, office reception and assistance Sewing, garment making, template, knitting, costume design and production, powered embroidery, suit making Furniture making, toy and electronic component production, carpentry, injection molding machine operation, leather shoe making Aquatic culture, farming and pasturing, gardening, culture of flowers, and horticulture Clock and watch repairs, ceramics and porcelain, lantern making, seal making, wooden sculpture, leather product making Packaging and assembly of auto parts, catering and janitor, Computer operation and art production for visually impaired and severely disabled Count money and make correct change, make responsible expenditures, keep basic financial records, calculate and pay taxes, use credit responsibly, use bank service Maintain home exterior/interior, use basic appliances and tools, select adequate housing, set up household, maintain home grounds Demonstrate knowledge of physical fitness, nutrition, and weight, common illness, prevention and treatment, exhibit proper grooming and hygiene, dress properly, practice personal safety Demonstrate physical care for raising children, marriage responsibility, know psychological aspects of raising children Purchase and store food, clean food preparation areas, prepare meals, demonstrate appropriate eating habits, plan/eat balanced meals Wash/clean, purchase, iron, mend and store clothing Demonstrate knowledge of civil rights and responsibilities, local, state and federal government, law, ability to follow the law Demonstrate knowledge of available community resources, Choose and plan activities, knowledge of value of recreation, engage in group and individual activities, plan vacation time Demonstrate knowledge of traffic rules and safety, use of various means of transportation, find way around the community, drive a car Identify physical and psychological needs, interests and abilities, emotions, demonstrate knowledge of physical self Express feelings of self-worth, describe others’ preparation of self,

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Table 4 (continued) 300

Work instruction and training

343

Achieving socially responsible behavior

344

Maintaining good interpersonal skills

345

Achieving independence

346

Making adequate decisions

347

Communicating with others

350 351

Occupational guidance and preparation Knowing and exploring occupational possibilities

352

Selecting and planning occupational choices

353

Exhibiting appropriate work habits and behaviors

354

Seeking, securing and maintaining employment

355

Exhibiting sufficient physical-manual skills

356 399

Obtaining specific occupational skills Any other training programs

(430) usability of rest rooms is mainly composed of (431) rest rooms and (432) other restroom modifications; while the fourth priority, (440) additional access, takes communication devices and water fountains into consideration. The coding scheme for the environmental modification also provides information and a checklist concerning how to make existing facilities accessible to disabled individuals. This can be very useful for an overall audit of the facilities and the working environment. A similar checklist can be found in the Bettencourt’s (1994) protocol of job analysis during an employer site visit under the physical barriers section (pp. 243–244) provided by Demore–Tabor.

accept and give praise, criticism, develop self-confidence Develop respect for the rights and properties of others, recognize authorities and follow instructions, demonstrate appropriate behaviors in public, know important character traits, recognize personal roles Demonstrate listening and responding skills, establish and maintain close relationships, make and maintain friendships Strive towards self-actualization, demonstrate self-organization, awareness of how one’s behavior affects others Locate and utilize sources of assistance, anticipate consequences, develop and evaluate alternatives, recognize nature of a problem, develop goal-seeking behavior Recognize and respond to emergency situations, communicate with understanding, know subtleties of communication Identify remunerative aspects of work, locate resources of occupational and training information, identify personal values through work, identify society values met through work, classify jobs through categories, investigate local occupational and training opportunities Make realistic occupational choices, identify requirements of appropriate and available jobs, identify occupational aptitudes, major occupational interests, major occupational needs Follow directions and observe regulations, recognize importance of attendance, punctuality and supervision, demonstrate knowledge of occupational safety, work with others, meet demands for quality work, work at a satisfactory rate Search for a job, apply for a job, interview for a job, know how to maintain post-school occupational adjustment and adjust to changes in employment, demonstrate knowledge of competitive standards Demonstrate stamina and endurance, satisfactory balance and coordination, manual dexterity, sensory discrimination

In addition to the accessibility of the physical environment, social and organizational modifications should not be neglected. One extra subcategory, (450) social and organizational modifications, which is mainly composed of factors contained in the social ecology and organizational ecology characterized by Chadsey-Rusch and Rusch (1987) was added to the category for environmental modifications. For all types of disability groups, providing counseling services, flexible working hours, transportation service, networking with coworkers, financial aid, room and board, and recreational space and equipment can be very helpful. For example, a commuting service or accommodation can relieve disabled

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workers from commuting between the workplace and their home. This is particularly useful for wheel-chair dependent individuals and those who are mentally retarded, because they may experience great difficulties commuting between the workplace and their house independently. But since family support is important to disabled workers, providing a transportation service is a better solution than free accommodation unless the client must stay overnight and serve as a guard in his or her workplace. West (1992) suggests that co-workers could function as trainers to provide direct instruction in new tasks or periodic reinforcement for correct performance and appropriate behaviors. Some companies have encouraged other co-workers to learn sign language for better communication with hearing impaired workers. All practical examples belonging to the category of social and organizational modifications were divided into eight items: (451) counseling and therapy service, (452) flexible working hours, (453) sign language, (454) transportation service, (455) supportive service, (456) financial aid, (457) room and board, and (458) space and equipment for recreation (Table 5). 1.1.5. Equipment modifications (technical workaids) Equipment modification or technical work-aids have been referred to by other researchers as job modification, that is providing some type of hardware or assistive device to enable people with disabilities to perform requisite job tasks. As stated earlier, the current research adopted Wieland and Schuette’s (1985) five distinctive groups of work-aids as the five subcategories for equipment modification. The subcategories are: (510) work-aids for supporting deportment, (520) work-aids for locomotion, (530) work-aids for manipulation, (540) work-aids for communication, and (550) work safety. For each subcategory, the second level right below the five distinctive groups that was used in Wieland and Schuette’s (1985) research was also used in the current study. In addition, one extra category, other or unclassified, was included. This information can be found in Table 6. For example, (511) work bench and tables, (512) trestles of tables and support mechan-

isms, (513) work seats, (514) supports and rests for standing, (515) supports and rests for body parts, (516) aids for raising, and (519) other supporting work aids are the items for the first subcategory, (510) work-aids for Supporting Deportment. Other items were created similarly for the other four subcategories. Procedural modification has been referred to as job restructuring and is a process through which one combines, eliminates, redistributes, adds, or isolates tasks from one or more jobs within the same job family to form part-time or full-time positions (Mallik, 1979). As stated earlier, procedural modification was classified under subcategory (552) technical aids related to the process. All our case examples of equipment modifications were coded and listed in the third column of Table 6. 1.1.6. Computer-related modifications Human beings communicate with computers mainly through input and output devices which rely heavily on our sensory and motor systems. The type of sensory and motor impairments determines the specific type of computer-related job aids needed by disabled workers (Nochajski and Oddo, 1995). Since the same modifications can be applied to users with different impairments, computer-related modifications can be better classified in terms of the computer system. A typical computer system comprises various elements, such as the input and output devices for interactive use, and some memory and processing elements, each of which affects the user of the system (Dix et al., 1998). As alternative input devices account for the majority of computerrelated modifications, these devices can be further divided into text-entry devices and pointing devices. Memory and processing elements were combined into one single category, information storage devices. In addition, one extra category, network and software applications, was included to reflect the actual demands of the disabled users. Thus, the researchers divided the computer-related modifications into (1) text-entry devices (2) pointing devices, (3) output devices, (4) network and software applications, and (5) information storage devices. In some cases, similar applications are

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Table 5 Coding scheme for the fourth major category: accessible facilities and social environment 400

Accessible facilities and social environment

410 411

First priority: accessible entrance Entrance

412

Assistive device for entrance

413 420 421 422 423

Other entrance modifications Second priority: access to goods and services Door Install offset hinge, lever or loop handles, doorknob adaptors Stairs Slip-resistant floor, add railings and handrails, Elevators Install Braille next to buttons, verbal or audible signs, extended opening time intervals Escalators Install lifts Other facility modifications Remove partitions Third priority: usability of rest rooms Rest rooms Tactile sign at the height of 60 in, secure handrails, slip-resistant floor, install offset hinge, level faucet handles, elevated toilet seat Other rest room modifications Reconfigure rest rooms, repair uneven paving Fourth priority: additional access Drinking fountain Less than 36-inch spout height, wide space in front of the fountain Organizational and social ecology Counseling and therapy service Safety and health staff, health care service Flexible working hours and job sharing Flexible working pace Sign language Other workers attending sign language class Transportation vehicles and service Motorcycle and wheelchairs for disabled workers Supportive assistance Memo, encouragement and counseling Financial aid Subsidy for commuting and medical care Room and board Air conditioning, lunch service, electric appliances (microwave oven, refrigerator, washing machine) Space and equipment for recreation Library, table tennis, sporting equipment

424 425 430 431 432 440 441 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458

Remove threshold, slip-resistant floor, repair uneven paving, accessible parking space, service doorbell, ramps Power assisted (or remote controls and electronic) door openers, secure railings and handrails, tactile maps and instructions Tents and sheds

listed in both the hardware and software categories since the adaptations to the computer can be achieved either through software programs or hardware devices or integratedly. For example, the text on the screen can be enlarged either by a magnifying glass cover on the screen (hardware) or by a character enlargement system (software). Input devices and output displays are adapted through software programs. For example, with the aid of optical character recognition, written or printed text is scanned into the computer and turned into a bitmap. This is then converted into text, providing access to written information needed to complete a job task. In another instance, software provides a visual cue to replace auditory feedback from computers to alert the user (Nochajski and Oddo, 1995). Table 7 provides readers with possible hardware and software

selections. Since no adaptation was made for information storage devices, only the first four categories will be explained in more detail as follows: 1.1.6.1. Text-entry devices. The standard QWE RTY keyboard is the most commonly used textentry device. Alternatives to the standard keyboard, for example, mini keyboards, expanded keyboards, mouse driven keyboards, and chord keyboards, are designed for users with various types of motor control deficits to reach all of the keys on the keyboard quickly and accurately (Anson, 1997). Delayed acceptance, adjust or defeat auto-repeat and the bounce key are designed to prevent users who do not release the target key quickly enough or who bounce on the target key. Key guards can be used to prevent

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Table 6 Coding system of the fifth major category: technical work-aids 500

Equipment modification

510 511 512

Work-aids for supporting deportment Work bench and table Trestles of tables and support mechanisms Work seats Supports and rests for standing Supports and rests for body parts Aids for raising Other supporting work-aids Work-aids for locomotion Aids for body movements Equipment for vehicles, suited for the disabled Ramps and elevators Industrial trucks without lifting facilities Industrial trucks with lifting facilities Other work-aids for locomotion Work-aids for manipulation Facilities for loading and unloading Facilities for storing and disposing Aids for separating and grasping Handles, operating and control elements Facilities for turning, swiveling and shifting Fixtures for holding and chucking Tool suspensions, hoisting units and manipulators Other work-aids for manipulators Work-aids for communication Reading and visual aids

513 514 515 516 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 540 541 542 543 544 545 546

Tactile and acoustical equipment for blind people Writing and drawing equipment Text and data processing equipment Text and data processing for blind people Other work-aids for communication

550 551 552 553

Work safety Safety facilities Technical aids related to the process Other work safety

Height-adjustable table, adjust the working height of bench and counter

Ergonomically design chair Arm and wrist supports, foot stools

Vehicles for washing and cleaning floor

Wheeled carts, trolley Lift tables, hoists, cranes Paddled surfaces, contoured grips Left-handed tool, enlarged handles, lower and enlarged switches,

Fixture, car-washing machine, automatic stapler

Use machine to replace repetitive processes Flowchart and videotape as reminder, communication board, enlarge visual targets Cellular phone, wireless phone, Tape recorder, answering machine Stamp and stamping machine Calculator, counter Braille portable note taking device Fax machine, vibrating alarm, hearing aids, earphone, Walkie talkie with vibrating battery Alerting devices, protective devices Postage meter, analyze jobs into components Improve lighting, standard operating procedure

striking a key without intending to, or striking a key near the target key (Anson, 1997). Key latches or key locks are designed to act as an extra finger to hold down the modifier keys while the individual presses the character keys, e.g. producing capital letters, or using the [CTRL], {ALT}

keys or the [CTRL][ALT] and [DLT] combinations (Anson, 1997). For users who are unable to access the computer via keyboards or pointing devices, there are several methods that require specialized hardware and software for a computer interface to translate the

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Table 7 Coding scheme of the sixth major category: computer-related modifications 600

Computer-related modifications

610 611 612

Text entry devices Keyboards Non-standard keyboards

613

618 619 620 621 622 629 630 631

Avoiding accidental keystrokes Modifier key locks Speech recognition Handwriting Optical character recognition Morse code Other text-entry device Pointing devices Mouse Alternative mouse Other pointing devices Output devices Visual display

632 633 639 640 641

Speech synthesizer Tactile output devices Other output devices Software Standard applications

614 615 616 617

642 643 644 649 650 651 652 653

Mini keyboard, expanded keyboard, mouse driven (on screen) keyboard, chord keyboards Delayed acceptance, bounce key, key guards, adjust or defeat auto-repeat Key locks, key latches

Scanner Three-switch Morse code

Joystick, trackball, touch screen, keypad mouse Eye-controlled system, head pointing device Large and high resolution displays, (stand-alone) print enlargement system, screen enlargers Chinese and English Braille output device (in raised dot representation) Braille Embosser

Word processor, database, spreadsheet, graphic (CAD), communication tools, accounting Performance enhancement Macro programs, abbreviation expansion, spell checker, word prediction, character software enlargement systems Change system beep AccessDOS, Apple IIgs, and SeeBeep Custom programs Text-to speech screen reader Other software WIN and Network for visually impaired Information processing and storage devices Information processing Desk top and portable computers Storage CDROM, RAM, magnetic and optical disks Other hardware devices Sound Blaster, networking, fax modem

nontraditional input into information the computer can understand, and to customize and drive the input method. Some of these methods include speech recognition, handwriting, optical character recognition, and Morse code. Conventional Morse code is designed for persons with severe motor limitations but who have the ability to operate a switch quickly to produce switch closures and pauses of specific length (Anson, 1997). Threeswitch Morse code adds a third switch to conventional Morse code to eliminate the time sequence in producing the code elements (Anson, 1997).

1.1.6.2. Pointing devices. Pointing devices allow the user to point, position, and select items, either directly or by manipulating a pointer on the screen. The mouse is the most common pointing device, but it may be difficult for users with problems in coordinated, controlled movements (Mann and Beaver, 1995). Alternative pointing devices including the joystick, trackball, touch screen and keypad mouse enable the worker to use a gross hand, or eye controlled input system, while a head-pointing device enables the user to select and use menus with head movements, eliminating

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the need to hold and drag the mouse when moving items on the screen (Anson, 1997). 1.1.6.3. Output system. Computer screens, usually the CRT and LCD, are the dominant output devices for users who do not have significant visual impairments. For users with poor vision, large size high-resolution displays, and screen enlargement systems for display or print can be used for reading information displayed on a computer screen or in documents. For blind users, other output devices which shift from visual to auditory or tactile information perception are available. For example, blind users can use standard keyboard terminals to communicate with the computer, but must receive output in the form of synthetic spoken language and raised dot representation (Braille) (McCormick, 1994). Some useful workplace adaptations include Braille or tactile labels displays and hard-copy Braille output produced by Braille embossers. 1.1.6.4. Software. Word processing, databases, spreadsheets, graphics applications, and communications tools are the five broad categories of standardized software packages used in the modern office (Anson, 1997). Other specialized software has been designed to improve computer access for disabled workers. For example, multiple commands can be programmed into macros so that users can select one key to perform a multistep task. In addition, abbreviation expansion and word prediction can effectively reduce the number of keystrokes. The former technology automatically replaces the pre-assigned abbreviation with a long or full phrase while the latter allows the user to pick up a desired word among the displayed list after typing the first few characters (Anson, 1997). The displayed character can be enlarged by the character enlargement system, and keyboard settings can be modified by keyboard adjustment utilities for more efficient computer work. For persons with hearing impairments, auditory feedback, e.g. the beep sound, must be replaced with a visual signal. Anson (1997) provided many options, e.g. the ShowSounds feature of AccessDOS, Apple IIgs, and SeeBeep. For persons with visual impairments, computer technology is adapted with

screen readers, used in conjunction with voice synthesizers (text-to-speech reader), to provide auditory presentation of the screen display. More research must be done to provide blind users with a more user-friendly WINDOW compatible setting coupled with a network function.

2. Case examples and database Five hundred and forty case examples were collected from qualified employers who had received financial support from the Taiwan EVTA between 1995 and 1998. Each case example was characterized by information on the company, type of impairment and job titles performed by disabled workers, number of disabled and total number of workers hired by the company, job accommodation item and the provider of the assistive device. The records were coded as a database using Access 97 and presented with Delphi 3.0 to enhance the usability of the database (see Fig. 1). All the case examples can be coded according to the current coding scheme to derive most frequent job accommodations, observed job assignments and job accommodation solutions for each disability group.

3. Results and discussion Overall, 1257 disabled workers from the 540 case examples were accommodated. The job placement and accommodation outcomes listed in Tables 8 and 9 indicate the typical job types and job accommodations performed by and for various types of disabled workers, respectively. The majority of those with ocular impairments worked as masseurs (143 out of 144 cases). One hundred and forty-one masseurs out of the 143 workers with ocular impairments claimed that a cellular phone was useful for their business and safety. Those with language and aural impairments can be hired to perform various types of work but can hardly be drivers and directors due to their limitations in sensing auditory signals and verbal communication. Various types of communication aids, e.g. fax machine, vibrating alarm, hearing

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Fig. 1. Job accommodation database created based on the current hierarchical coding scheme.

aids, walkie talkie with vibrating battery pack and automatic and safety devices can be very useful for their communication, productivity and safety. People with skeletal impairments can perform almost any kind of job depending on their level

of physical restriction. Those with skeletal impairments in this study were mostly administrators, directors, clerks of all types, assemblers, taxi drivers, and teaching professionals. Many of them required for accessible facilities, e.g. accessible

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Table 8 Most common job assignments for various types of disabled workers (greater than 10 cases) Code Job assignment

Language

Skeletal Mental Psychological Visceral Disfiguring Multiple Subtotal retardation

Ocular Aural 186 123 122 162 165 175 182 126 166 133 112 152 153 154 163 141 144 181

Masseur 143 Administrative associated clerks 12 Mailing and filing clerks 6 Domestic helpers, cleaners and 1 launderers Assemblers 1 Professional driver Teaching professionals 3 Computing professionals 5 Car wash workers 1 Safety and quality inspectors Directors and chief executives 2 Metal processing plant operators Rubber and plastic products 1 machine operators Food processing workers Messengers, porters, and caretakers Cashiers, tellers, and related clerks 3 Shop sales and demonstrators Teachers 3

8 5 3

33 23 6

5

21

1

13 28 15 8 4 4 10 5 7

4 1 3 1 2

2 3 20 4 5

7 6

1 3 4 2

entrances and usability of restrooms. One very unique job accommodation for 28 taxi drivers with skeletal impairments involved the replacement of the accelerator pedal and break pedal by handoperated controls. For those who were mentally retarded, the majority of them were cleaners, launderers and assemblers, and benefited from accessible facilities and a friendly social environment and other various types of job aids. In order to promote the ergonomic approach for job accommodation more effectively, the Taiwan EVTA could have ergonomic practitioners redesign the workplace for the most common job types associated with various disabilities and use these as examples for other employers and vocational counselors. The number of workers with psychological and visceral impairments in our study was relatively small if we looked into the population for various types of disability in 2003: ocular 43,812; language and aural 97,154; skeletal 348,159; mentally retarded 76,168; psychological 66,870; visceral

6 25

2

1 3 6 1 6 3

1 3 1

2 1

1 7 3 7

144 61 46 45

5

45 28 24 16 16 15 14 13 13

2 1

2 3

1 2 1

2

7 1

1 2

13 13 28 12 11

72,801; disfigurement 2861; autism 2998; multiple impairments 79,557. This phenomenon could have been caused by a relatively smaller number of workers with psychological and visceral impairments who were employed in the first place, or perhaps it was not clear to the employers and vocational counselors what could be done to help workers with psychological and visceral impairments. On the contrary, the great number of employed workers who had an ocular impairment or were mentally retarded could be attributed to an awareness of these disabilities, networking of the blind population, and the number of welfare foundations and vocational counselors working for the mentally retarded. As shown in Table 9, most observed job accommodation examples belong to general-purpose equipment and modifications, e.g. tactile and acoustic equipment (cellular phone); accessible entrance and restrooms, work-aids for manipulators (automated devices), transportation vehicles, and information processing devices (desktop and

Table 9 Most common job assignments for various types of disabled workers (greater than 20 cases) Language

Skeletal Mental Psycho-logical Visceral Dis-figuring Multiple Un-known Sub-total retarded

Ocular Aural 542 411 538

546 431 454 423 522 457 534 412 430 516 451 455 552 511 631 422 551

3 4

12 98 15

3 45

3

28

2

16 1

17 40 25 32 4 20 34 25 25 9 11 6 4 16 2 19

1 3 2

1 3

1 1

3

8

7 2 22 10

13 6 12 17 3

1

1 7 3

2 10 4

156 132 73

1

4

1

47

5 1 3

2 2 7 4

45 44 44 43 39 37 35 33 33 32 28 28 26 23 23 21

2 1 2

2 1

2

7 2

1 1

1 2 1 2 6 1 2

1 1 3 5 6 4 1 3 1

1 5

2

3

21

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Tactile and acoustic equipment for the blind 141 Accessible entrance 11 Other work-aids for manipulators 1 (Automatic devices) Information processing device 8 (Desktop and portable) Other work-aids for communications 5 Usability of restrooms Transportation vehicles and service Elevator-related modifications 4 Equipment for vehicles, suited for disabled Accommodation and board Handles, operating and control elements Assistive devices for entrance 4 Unspecified restroom modifications 1 Aids for raising Counseling and therapy service Supportive assistance 2 Technical aids related to the process 1 Work bench and table Visual display 20 Stair-related modifications (slip resistant 1 floors and handrails) Safety facilities

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Code Job accommodation

445

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portable computers). Very few employers and vocational counselors followed the ergonomic approach proposed by Boussenna et al. (1983) in terms of bridging the gap between job demand and worker capacity and initiated by a thorough analysis of the functional capacities of the individual and the task requirements of the job. The majority of the employers received financial support for employing disabled workers. Only three employers conducted job analysis and vocational assessment for their disabled workers. Statistics on the case examples collected can be used to indicate potential improvements in future policy-making and promotion resource allocation. Also, the job accommodation coding scheme developed in the current study can serve as a checklist to guide employers and vocational practitioners during the evaluation of disabled workers and their jobs, and the search for feasible job accommodation solutions.

4. Conclusion The coding scheme developed in the current study can not only be used as a checklist to determine feasible job accommodation solutions for disabled workers, but it can also be the basis for creating a database system for further inquiry. The authors have already created a database of computer-related assistive devices for the Taiwan Institute of Occupational Safety and Health based on the coding scheme of the sixth major categories of computer-related modifications. Thus, more databases can be created based on the coding scheme of other major categories. The current study also demonstrated the process of tailoring qualitative information to a quantitative coding system for constructing a database system which can be generalized to the construction of other general-purpose applications.

Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Taiwan Employment and Vocational Training Administration.

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