- Email: [email protected]
The development of ethnicity
THE Review
of Children’s
Phinney Department
and of
DEVELOPMENT Ethnic
Mary
Pluralism
Socialization:
Jane
Developmental New
OF ETHNICITY
Rotheram.
Newbury
IRA
K. BLAKE
and York,
Educational NY 10027,
and Dez)elojment Park,
Psychology, U.S.A.
CA:
by Jean
Sage, ‘I‘eachers
S.
1986. College,
This collection is a comprehensive presentation of notable theories and distinctive research regarding the nature and development of ethnicity. Using a wealth of social and historical information and investigations covering the period from early childhood to adolescence, the contributors illustrate the complexities of theory formulation and hypothesize about the causes of &consistencies in research findings. Well-planned, the book includes an introduction by the editors that establishes a solid framework for the four major sections that follow. Part I is a critical review of theories, issues, and research about aspects in the development of ethnicity during preschool and early childhood. The authors discuss the development of ethnic self-identification, ethnic awareness, and attitudes about ethnic identification. Ethnicity is seen as a dynamic process interacting not only with aspects of the child’s total development but also with situational contexts in which ethnicity has varying degrees of significance and aspects of the larger social structure of which the child is a part. Aboud discusses the problems associated with research procedure in light of the range of variables affecting children’s developing ethnicity. Of special importance are the reliability of a measure in light of change associated with age on the variable measured, the validity of a measure as determined by its convergence with other measures, and its ability to distinguish between subject responses to contextual cues and the subject’s internal state. Aboud also examines several theories that attempt to account for the dynamic interaction of aspects of ethnicity, and he stresses the need for supportive research. Kamsey postulates a cognitive model of ethnic socialization in children. Using a Piagetian f’ramework, she describes the impact of the child’s level of cognitive functioning, the salience of ethnic attitudes within the social environment, and the friendship patterns of children on the child’s developing ideas and attitudes about ethnic differences. Such a model, Ramsey believes, can account f’or the inconsistent findings regarding children’s ethnic differentiations. Alternatively, Vaughan proposes a social psychological model that includes not only a strong affective component in addition to a cognitive one, but also an evolutionary component of changing social structures. He suggests that the child, depending on level of cognitive functioning, categorizes different persons into groups based on common attributes. On the basis of’ level of affective processing, the child evaluates these groups, and depending on the existing 247
“4X
I. K. Blake
social structure ot the child’s cti\~irotittietit. thv child has s011ic’ c2tcgorivs itiiposed. \‘aughati twlieves such ;I tilotlel htcr ac‘cx~uirts loillic wettiiti~l~ itic.ottsistt.tit findings oti tneasttres of’ vthtiic idetitit\~ a~~ross sttl)jcc3s attd (init periods for the satttt’ ethnic groups. lCat/ extetids the need fi)r new research Iqottd the poitits addtwsrcl itt tlic precedittg chapters to include ;I I)roxiet. sitbjec-t insc of’childreti bylo\\ ~)rtwltool age to examine how ethtiic ittf’ortiiatioti is cotr\,e)etl to y)rittg childtwi atitl of’ l~ost-~tdoles~etits to hettetutidet~st;ttid the t-wltii of ethnic. socialimtiott. Shv poitits out that, in addition 10 parents, other socializiti::_ agents-peers, aiblitigs, books, television. etc., transmit ititimnatioti about ethnic-it\. Katz further cautions that despite our incomplete utiderstaticlitig of children’s ethnic socialization, we should in\festigate wavs to influence children’s positive ethnic identity and to lessen negative attitudes about others. Part II fi~uses on the role of‘ minorit) slatus iti ethtiic identity. Slwtiwr’s chapter is a critical look at ethnic identity fortnatiott in black children in light of’ the social and econotnic risks associated with being ;I nletnktof’ a caste-like rnittority it1 a Larger society. Along \vith the risk issues 01’ povert!. and health, Spencer, like Katd earlier, points out the ethnic-related infimnation transtnitted through mass media and its potential impact on ethnic identity fortnation itt children. Cross reviews traditional research about, and presents a two-f;tc.tor theor). of. black identity. conceived as personal iclentity and reftrenw group orientatiott. He proposes that this model counters the negative psyhological tnodels of’ minority ethnic identity. He argues that not only may the importance of’ ethttic reference group orientation to minority individuals vary hut, f.urrhet-. it may not negatively influence their personal identity, hence not resulting in ;I pathological iclentity. Buriel provides ;I socio-histot-ica1 background of’ Mexican Americans atttl itivesti
The
development
of‘ ethnicity
249
interaction for ethnic group members and also helps to establish convention when changes occur in the social ecology, as addressed earlier by Vaughan. Heller further discusses the differences in ethnic identities associated with bilingualism and biculturalism. In their chapter, Rotheram and Phinney report on the relationship of behavioral differences to ethnic identity. They review research on a number of dimensions used to construct ethnic profiles, and present the results of their work using an original videotape measure called Profiled Assessment of Children’s Ethnic Socialization (PACES). They discuss the benefits of additional research, namely a description of relative similarities and differences between groups and the use of group profiles to encourage choices of behavioral expression in various contexts. Kochman’s chapter argues the distinction between ethnic attributes that are used by group members and others to identify and maintain social boundaries (“emblematic attributes”) and patterns that are ethnically distinctive but do not serve such functions (“nonemblematic attributes”). He illustrates nonemblematic cultural patterns used in the communicative style of blacks and outlines how adult patterns are acquired through verbal games during childhood and adolescence. Diaz-Guerrero proposes that the values, beliefs, and behaviors associated with particular ethnic groups can be explained by the historical and economic background of each group. Using historical sociocultural premises (HSCPs), he characterizes the “cultural coping styles” of subjects from Mexico and the United States. Diaz-Guerrero concludes that HSCPs are a sound way to study systematically both the differences and interactions between cultural groups. Part IV focuses on methodological concerns and highlights major themes addressed in varying degrees by previous authors. Schofield and Anderson argue for the integration of qualitative and quantitative methods in the design of research projects on ethnicity. They illustrate, for example, how subject and site selections can be improved with quantitative method and how statistics can be enhanced with observational data. Pointing out the weaknesses and strengths of each method in isolation, they articulate how, in combination, the two methods can increase our understanding of aspects of ethnicity. Phinney and Rotheram close the volume with a useful conclusion. They distill the major themes that flow through the preceding chapters, and complete the book with a discussion of the implications of information about children’s ethnic socialization f’or education, counseling, social work, and health care. Two features of the book stand out. On the one hand, the editors and contributors explicate concepts used in the study of ethnicity. On the other, they examine critically the complexity of the development of ethnicity and its interaction with historical and so&cultural variables. Even though the parts of the book are nicely tied together, each chapter stands alone well, allowing the reader to discern clearly the authors’ orientation. Finally, the book’s coverage of research about groups other than American blacks and whites illuminates the less visible factors and ecological influences involved in children’s ethnic socialization.
of Children’s
Phinney Department
and of
DEVELOPMENT Ethnic
Mary
Pluralism
Socialization:
Jane
Developmental New
OF ETHNICITY
Rotheram.
Newbury
IRA
K. BLAKE
and York,
Educational NY 10027,
and Dez)elojment Park,
Psychology, U.S.A.
CA:
by Jean
Sage, ‘I‘eachers
S.
1986. College,
This collection is a comprehensive presentation of notable theories and distinctive research regarding the nature and development of ethnicity. Using a wealth of social and historical information and investigations covering the period from early childhood to adolescence, the contributors illustrate the complexities of theory formulation and hypothesize about the causes of &consistencies in research findings. Well-planned, the book includes an introduction by the editors that establishes a solid framework for the four major sections that follow. Part I is a critical review of theories, issues, and research about aspects in the development of ethnicity during preschool and early childhood. The authors discuss the development of ethnic self-identification, ethnic awareness, and attitudes about ethnic identification. Ethnicity is seen as a dynamic process interacting not only with aspects of the child’s total development but also with situational contexts in which ethnicity has varying degrees of significance and aspects of the larger social structure of which the child is a part. Aboud discusses the problems associated with research procedure in light of the range of variables affecting children’s developing ethnicity. Of special importance are the reliability of a measure in light of change associated with age on the variable measured, the validity of a measure as determined by its convergence with other measures, and its ability to distinguish between subject responses to contextual cues and the subject’s internal state. Aboud also examines several theories that attempt to account for the dynamic interaction of aspects of ethnicity, and he stresses the need for supportive research. Kamsey postulates a cognitive model of ethnic socialization in children. Using a Piagetian f’ramework, she describes the impact of the child’s level of cognitive functioning, the salience of ethnic attitudes within the social environment, and the friendship patterns of children on the child’s developing ideas and attitudes about ethnic differences. Such a model, Ramsey believes, can account f’or the inconsistent findings regarding children’s ethnic differentiations. Alternatively, Vaughan proposes a social psychological model that includes not only a strong affective component in addition to a cognitive one, but also an evolutionary component of changing social structures. He suggests that the child, depending on level of cognitive functioning, categorizes different persons into groups based on common attributes. On the basis of’ level of affective processing, the child evaluates these groups, and depending on the existing 247
“4X
I. K. Blake
social structure ot the child’s cti\~irotittietit. thv child has s011ic’ c2tcgorivs itiiposed. \‘aughati twlieves such ;I tilotlel htcr ac‘cx~uirts loillic wettiiti~l~ itic.ottsistt.tit findings oti tneasttres of’ vthtiic idetitit\~ a~~ross sttl)jcc3s attd (init periods for the satttt’ ethnic groups. lCat/ extetids the need fi)r new research Iqottd the poitits addtwsrcl itt tlic precedittg chapters to include ;I I)roxiet. sitbjec-t insc of’childreti bylo\\ ~)rtwltool age to examine how ethtiic ittf’ortiiatioti is cotr\,e)etl to y)rittg childtwi atitl of’ l~ost-~tdoles~etits to hettetutidet~st;ttid the t-wltii of ethnic. socialimtiott. Shv poitits out that, in addition 10 parents, other socializiti::_ agents-peers, aiblitigs, books, television. etc., transmit ititimnatioti about ethnic-it\. Katz further cautions that despite our incomplete utiderstaticlitig of children’s ethnic socialization, we should in\festigate wavs to influence children’s positive ethnic identity and to lessen negative attitudes about others. Part II fi~uses on the role of‘ minorit) slatus iti ethtiic identity. Slwtiwr’s chapter is a critical look at ethnic identity fortnatiott in black children in light of’ the social and econotnic risks associated with being ;I nletnktof’ a caste-like rnittority it1 a Larger society. Along \vith the risk issues 01’ povert!. and health, Spencer, like Katd earlier, points out the ethnic-related infimnation transtnitted through mass media and its potential impact on ethnic identity fortnation itt children. Cross reviews traditional research about, and presents a two-f;tc.tor theor). of. black identity. conceived as personal iclentity and reftrenw group orientatiott. He proposes that this model counters the negative psyhological tnodels of’ minority ethnic identity. He argues that not only may the importance of’ ethttic reference group orientation to minority individuals vary hut, f.urrhet-. it may not negatively influence their personal identity, hence not resulting in ;I pathological iclentity. Buriel provides ;I socio-histot-ica1 background of’ Mexican Americans atttl itivesti
The
development
of‘ ethnicity
249
interaction for ethnic group members and also helps to establish convention when changes occur in the social ecology, as addressed earlier by Vaughan. Heller further discusses the differences in ethnic identities associated with bilingualism and biculturalism. In their chapter, Rotheram and Phinney report on the relationship of behavioral differences to ethnic identity. They review research on a number of dimensions used to construct ethnic profiles, and present the results of their work using an original videotape measure called Profiled Assessment of Children’s Ethnic Socialization (PACES). They discuss the benefits of additional research, namely a description of relative similarities and differences between groups and the use of group profiles to encourage choices of behavioral expression in various contexts. Kochman’s chapter argues the distinction between ethnic attributes that are used by group members and others to identify and maintain social boundaries (“emblematic attributes”) and patterns that are ethnically distinctive but do not serve such functions (“nonemblematic attributes”). He illustrates nonemblematic cultural patterns used in the communicative style of blacks and outlines how adult patterns are acquired through verbal games during childhood and adolescence. Diaz-Guerrero proposes that the values, beliefs, and behaviors associated with particular ethnic groups can be explained by the historical and economic background of each group. Using historical sociocultural premises (HSCPs), he characterizes the “cultural coping styles” of subjects from Mexico and the United States. Diaz-Guerrero concludes that HSCPs are a sound way to study systematically both the differences and interactions between cultural groups. Part IV focuses on methodological concerns and highlights major themes addressed in varying degrees by previous authors. Schofield and Anderson argue for the integration of qualitative and quantitative methods in the design of research projects on ethnicity. They illustrate, for example, how subject and site selections can be improved with quantitative method and how statistics can be enhanced with observational data. Pointing out the weaknesses and strengths of each method in isolation, they articulate how, in combination, the two methods can increase our understanding of aspects of ethnicity. Phinney and Rotheram close the volume with a useful conclusion. They distill the major themes that flow through the preceding chapters, and complete the book with a discussion of the implications of information about children’s ethnic socialization f’or education, counseling, social work, and health care. Two features of the book stand out. On the one hand, the editors and contributors explicate concepts used in the study of ethnicity. On the other, they examine critically the complexity of the development of ethnicity and its interaction with historical and so&cultural variables. Even though the parts of the book are nicely tied together, each chapter stands alone well, allowing the reader to discern clearly the authors’ orientation. Finally, the book’s coverage of research about groups other than American blacks and whites illuminates the less visible factors and ecological influences involved in children’s ethnic socialization.