The development of marine science in Egypt

617

THE DEVELOPMENT

OF M A H I N E

Saad

(Present

SCIENCE

IN EGYPT

K. Ei-Wakcel

O c e a n o g r a p h y Department, Faculty of Science, A l e x a n d r i a Address: Department of Marine Sciences, U n i v e r s i t y of Qatar,

Doha,

Qatar)

ABSTRACT On the o c c a s i o n of the 5Oth a n n i v e r s a r y of the M a b a h i s s / J o h n Murray E x p e d i t i o n to the Indian Ocean, a r e v i e w is g i v e n on d e v e l o p m e n t of m a r i n e science in Egypt and the m a i n i n s t i t u t i o n s d e v o t e d to e d u c a t i o n a n d research. The c o n t r i b u t i o n s of E g y p t i a n o c e a n o g r a p h e r s working a l o n g the M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d Bed S e a coasts of Egypt since 1930 in all the fields of oceano g r a p h y are summarised.

INTRODUCTION The interest of Egypt in marine science dates back to the 18th century; different government departments carried out occasional marine investigations such as the survey of water level of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n and Red Sea. The first i n s t i t u t i o n d e v o t e d s o l e l y to m a r i n e science, the H y d r o b i o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e w h i c h was e s t a b l i s h e d at Shatby, A l e x a n d r i a in 1924. This w a s later r e p l a c e d by the A l e x a n d r i a I n s t i t u t e of H y d r o b i o l o g y e s t a b l i s h e d in 1931 at Kayet Bey, A l e x a n d r i a under the F i s h e r i e s D i r e c t o r a t e . In the same year, the M a r i n e B i o l o g i c a l S t a t i o n at A i - G h a r d a q a on the Red S e a was e s t a b l i s h e d under a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h the U n i v e r s i t y of Cairo. The same decade that these two i n s t i t u t i o n s w e r e f o u n d e d Egypt p a r t i c i p a t e d in the J o h n M u r r a y E x p e d i t i o n to the Indian O c e a n (1933-1934) by p r o v i d i n g the crew of the R/V 'MABAHISS' a n d the s e r v i c e s of two E g y p t i a n scientists, Dr. H . F a o u z i and Dr. A.F. M o h a m e d The E g y p t i a n E x p e d i t i o n to the N o r t h e r n Red S e a f o l l o w e d in 1934-1935. B o t h at the A l e x a n d r i a I n s t i t u t e of H y d r o b i o l o g y and F i s h e r i e s and the Marine B i o l o g i c a l S t a t i o n at AI-Ghardaqa basic and a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h was c a r r i e d out on the ecology of local m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s until in r e s p o n s e to the g r o w i n g n e e d for g r a d u a t e s in o c e a n o g r a p h y , P r o f e s s o r H u s s e l n Faouzi and the late P r o f e s s o r Abdel Fattah M o h a m e d w e r e able to create the O c e a n o g r a p h y Department, F a c u l t y of Science, A l e x a n d r i a U n i v e r s i t y in 1948. This D e p a r t m e n t was not only the first to be e s t a b l i s h e d in Egypt, but also in any A r a b country and m o s t of Africa. In 1960, the Alexandria Institute of Hydrobiolo~LY and F i s h e r i e s and the M a r i n e B i o l o g i c a l S t a t i o n at AI-Ghardaqa m e r g e d to f o r m the O c e a n o g r a p h i c and F i s h e r i e s R e s e a r c h Center, M i n i s t r y of S c i e n t i f i c Research, w h i c h is n o w n a m e d the I n s t i t u t e of O c e a n o g r a p h y and F i s h e r i e s , A c a d e m y of S c i e n t i f i c R e s e a r c h a n d T e c h n o l o g y . Other institutions science.

The

Institute

and

Universities

of O c e a n o g r a p h y

also

became

increasingly

interested

in a s p e c t s

of m a r i n e

and F i s h e r i e s

The main objectives of the Institute are to carry out basic and applied research for the conservation and development of fisheries involving exploration o f new f i s h i n g grounds, and research into the most suitable fishing gear and methods. The Institute also supervises and cooperates with government departments in accumulating fishery statistics and offers technical advice to government bodies concerned with the formulation of laws and the regulation o f fisheries.

618

S.K. El-Wakeel

The Institute c o m p r i s e s three branches: The M e d i t e r r a n e a n Branch, Alexandria, the Red Sea Branch, Suez and the Inland Water Branch, Cairo. The Institute coordinates the research p r o g r a m m e s of the three branches and their various r e s e a r c h stations located on the coastal d e l t a Lakes, Lake Q a r u n and Lake Nasser.

The O c e a n o g r a p h y D e p a r t m e n t ~

Universit~

of Alexandri~

Founded in 1948 w i t h i n the Faculty of Science, University of Alexandria, the department is the only i n s t i t u t i o n p r o d u c i n g graduate o c e a n o g r a p h e r s in Egypt. Students either graduate at B.Sc. level in physical or general o c e a n o g r a p h y , or after g r a d u a t i n g in one of the basic sciences, take a p o s t g r a d u a t e course for the D i p l o m a of Higher Studies in O c e a n o g r a p h y So far, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 250 B.Sc. and 150 Diploma students have graduated from the Department, and 15 Ph. Ds and 75 M.Scs have been awarded. The D e p a r t m e n t has been active, in spite of the limited facilities, in both pure and applied r e s e a r c h r a n g i n g over subjects involving the c h e m i s t r y and h y d r o g r a p h y of M e d i t e r r a n e a n coastal waters of Egypt (particularly of the Nile Delta) the chemistry, hydrography and p r o d u c t i v i t y of coastal d e l t a lakes and inland lakes; the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of recent sediments of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n coast and the coastal lakes; taxonomy, d i s t r i b u t i o n and ecology of species inhabiting the M e d i t e r r a n e a n and the Suez Canal; the fouling c o m m u n i t i e s of harbours; the s y s t e m a t l c s and d i s t r i b u t i o n of the main benthic fauna and the fisheries biology of the commercial fishes of E g y p t i a n waters in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n and the coastal delta Lakes. At present m a j o r r e s e a r c h a d d r e s s e s problems of a q u a t i c pollution in the A l e x a n d r i a region, the current regimes in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n waters of Egypt and in the Suez Canal, biological e x c h a n g e between the M e d i t e r r a n e a n and the Bed Sea via the Suez Canal, and the hydrography and plankton p r o d u c t i o n of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n w a t e r s off the Nile Delta. Future research p r o g r a m m e s are to be d i r e c t e d towards the m o d e l l i n g of Egyptian M e d i t e r r a n e a n littoral ecosystems.

E g y p t i a n C o n t r i b u t i o n to O c e a n o g r a p h y of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n and Red Sea The f o l l o w i n g are s u m m a r i e s of the m a i n b i o l o g i c a l , chemical, g e o l o g i c a l and physical oceanog r a p h i c r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d out by Egyptian s c i e n t i s t s in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n and Red Sea, during the last fifty years.

Biological

Oceanography

Phytoplankton: I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the p h y t o p l a n k t o n of the .Egyptian waters of the Mediterr a n e a n started in 1949 (Aleem, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1955, 1958) and have been continued regularly by d i f f e r e n t i n v e s t l g a t o r s . The r e g i o n around A l e x a n d r i a has been most intensively studied, but o b s e r v a t i o n s have also been c o n d u c t e d in the Rosetta, Damietta and Port Said regions. The r e s u l t s include q u a l i t a t i v e s t u d i e s on species composition, on their relative importance, and on their b i o g e o g r a p h l c affinities. Q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a were o b t a i n e d by s e d i m e n t a t i o n and c o u n t i n g m e t h o d s at monthly intervals at A l e x a n d r i a in 1957 (EI-Naghraby a n d Halim, 1965, 1960-62; and Dowidar, 1965, 1968-1970; Sultan, 1975). D u p i n g the latter period, s i m u l t a n e o u s m e a s u r e m e n t s of C a r b o n - 1 4 a s s i m i l a t i o n c h l o r o p h y l l content and r e l a t i v e light e x t i n c t i o n were made. The primary production and p h y t o p l a n k t o n c o m p o s i t i o n of the R o s e t t a estuary and its unusual conditions were investigated in 1 9 7 3 (Hallm, Samaan and Zaghloul, 1976). The area around the D a m l e t t a outlet of the Nile was studied in 1956, 1957 and 1959, but the o b s e r v a t i o n s were r e s t r i c t e d to the period of the Nile bloom, J u l y - S e p t e m b e r (Halim, 1960a). Dorgham (1974) studied the annual cycle in d i a t o m species c o m p o s i t i o n and s t a n d i n g crop in the harbour at Port Said during 1970, and A i - H a n d h a l (1979) studied the diatom flora of the Eastern Harbour of Alexandria.

Extensive surveys covering the continental shelf from 20"E t o 3 2 " - 3 3 ° E h a v e b e e n made by the Soviet R/V 'ICHTHOLOO' and its p a r t i c i p a t i n g Egyptian scientists. Observations were m a d e on the p l a n k t o n and the h y d r o g r a p h i c c o n d i t i o n s during the last normal Nile f]oo~ i,~ O c t o b e r 1964 (Halim, Gerges and Saleh, 1967). Four seasonal cruises were made irl J~}66, just a f t e r the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the Aswan High Dam, during which the composJt, non, ihe s~<>n~hly

Marine

succession

and c h a n g e s

in relative

Science

abundance

in Egypt

of the species were

619

recorded.

Systematic contributions including d e s c r i p t i o n of new species have b e e n p u b l i s h e d by Salah and T a m a s (1969, 1970) for diatoms, and by Halim (1960b), Dowidar and Aleem (1963) , Dowidar (1972, 1974a) and H a s s a n (19/3) for d i n o f l a g e l l a t e s . C h e c k - l i s t s w e r e c o m p i l e d by Salah (1971) and D o w i d a r (1974c). At all tile M e d i t e r r a n e a n localities studied the same d i a t o m species c o n t r i b u t e to p h y t o p l a n k toll blooms, but this is not the case fur di~]oflagellates. A number of s p e c i e s of a p e c u l i a r biogeographic affinity can occur in abundance, which are either ]ndo-l'aci fic immigrants or a u t o c h t h o n o u s forms. Of the former, P y r o d i n i u m scbilleri is common in Port Said, and Peridinium nipponicum in A l e x a n d r i a plankton (Ha]im, ]963, 1965; )|assan 1973). Ceratium egyptiacum, a species indigenous to the Suez Gulf and Suez Canal, is now s p r e a d i n g to the Mediterranean (Dowidar, 1971). Exuviael]a cordata is abundant in the Aral, Caspian and B l a c k Seas, as well as in Egyptian w a t e r s but has not been found in tbe West M e d i t e r r a n e a n , or elsewhere. A l e x a n d r i u m m i n u t u m is an e x a m p l e of an a u t o c h t h o n o u s s p e c i e s which is found only in the A l e x a n d r i a region (Halim, 1960b). Discoloration of the East H a r b o u r waters e v e r y summer is due to the p r o l i f e r a t i o n (up to 2.107 cells.1 -l ) of this small species. A m a j o r change o c c u r r e d in 1965 w h i c h has a f f e c t e d both the m a g n i t u d e of the s t a n d i n g stock and the p e r i o d i c i t y of the blooms. The typical cycle of the area r e f l e c t e d the tremendous f e r t i l i s i n g effect of the Nile flood w a t e r by the end of summer. There were two peaks in production, a m i n o r one in w i n t e r Or early spring and a major S e p t e m b e r peak; the ratio of the sizes of these b l o o m s was u s u a l l y 1:50-100. The c e s s a t i o n of the Nile flood f o l l o w i n g the c o m p l e t i o n of the A s w a n High Dam s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduced the e x p r e s s i o n of the autumn b l o o m to 1:7 of the w i n t e r bloom. The p h y t o p l a n k t o n cycle is now g o v e r n e d by i n t r i n s i c a l l y m a r i n e factors, and is a n a l o g o u s to its bimodal annual curve and in the r e l a t i v e m a g n i t u d e of the two m a x i m a to p h y t o p l a n k t o n cycles o b s e r v e d e l s e w h e r e in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n and parts of the N o r t h A t l a n t i c w h i c h are free from i n f l u e n c e of t e r r e s t r i a l runoff. Measurements of primary p r o d u c t i o n were made in the open sea in 1969-1970, along a section e x t e n d i n g f r o m the e u t r o p h i c part of the East H a r b o u r of A l e x a n d r i a to the shelf break (Sultan, 1975). At the n e a r s h o r e station, c h l o r o p h y l l a was c o m p a r a b l e in range (0.2-2.7 ~g.l -I) to that f o u n d in the N o r t h - w e s t M e d i t e r r a n e a n , and d e c l i n e d across the shelf at the same time as the depth of the 1% i s o l u m e d e e p e n e d from ?0.6m to 80m at the limit of the shelf. The C a r b o n - 1 4 d a t a for the open sea s t a t i o n s w e r e r e l a t i v e l y high c o m p a r e d to other M e d i t e r ranean observations.

Zooplankton: S e v e r a l semi - q u a n t i t a t i v e surveys of the z o o p l a n k t o n p o p u l a t i o n s of A l e x a n d r i a n w a t e r s have b e e n c a r r i e d out in the last decade. They include e i t h e r t e m p o r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s at a fixed s t a t i o n (Guerguess 1970) or both temporal and spatial o b s e r v a t i o n s . Dowldar and E i - M a g h r a b y (1970a,b, 1971) r e p o r t e d on the neritic z o o p l a n k t o n from Abu Qir to the east a n d A g a m y to the w e s t of A l e x a n d r i a , in 1961-62, w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e to the C o p e p o d a . A b u EI-Ez (1975) w o r k e d the z o o p l a n k t o n from R o s e t t a in the east to the A r a b s Bay w e s t of A l e x a n d r i a , in 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 7 0 w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e to the A p p e n d i c u l a r i a . a T h e 'ICHTHYOLOG' s u r v e y of O c t o b e r 1964, d u r i n g the last normal Nile flood, c o v e r e d a m o r e e x t e n s i v e area, f r o m the A r a b s Bay to P e l l s l u m Bay, east of Fort S a i d (Halim, Gerges and Saleh,

1967).

S i n c e 1964 s e v e r a l s t u d i e s on the p l a n k t o n i c c o p e p o d s of the S o u t h - E a s t L e v a n t i n e S e a have a p p e a r e d ( E I - M a g h r a b y a n d Halim, 1965; EI-Maghraby, 1964, 1965; E i - M a g h r a b y and Dowldar, 1970; D o w i d a m a n d E i - M a g h r a b y , 1971, 1973a,b). The p o p u l a t i o n was f a i r l y diverse, a l t h o u g h the total n u m b e r of s p e c i e s of 132 i d e n t i f i e d was lower than e i t h e r in the A d r i a t i c (200 species) or in the G u l f of N a p l e s (157 species). All the species w e r e of M e d i t e r r a n e a n N o r t h A t l a n t i c o r i g i n s a l t h o u g h some w e r e c o n s i d e r e d as p o s s i b l e i m m i g r a n t s from the Red Sea. The s e a s o n a l cycle and s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of the z o o p l a n k t o n of the SE M e d i t e r r a n e a n of the E g y p t i a n coast b a s e d on the I c h t h y o l o g y E x p e d i t i o n 1970-71 was s t u d i e d by H u s s e i n (1977). The c o p e p o d s d o m i n a t e d the z o o p l a n k t o n c o m m u n i t y in all seasons (70-74%). The a v e r a g e biomass of the s t a n d i n g c r o p of z o o p l a n k t o n r a n g e d f r o m 61 m g . w e t w t . m 3 in the coastal zone to 24 m g . w e t wt.m 3 in the o c e a n i c water. The z o o p l a n k t o n c o m m u n i t y of the E a s t e r n H a r b o u r of A l e x a n d r i a w a s s t u d i e d by E i - Z a w a w y (1980), Dowidar, Khalil, E I - M a g h r a b y and EI-Zawawy,1982

620

S.K.

EI-Wakeel

and Khalil, EI-Maghraby, Dowidar and El-Zawawy (1982). The ecology and distribution of 21 siphoncphores and 15 medusae recorded in Egyptian Mediterranean waters were studied by Dowidar (1981). The biota as well as the primary productivity been intensively studied by several Egyptian and Aleem, 1972a,b; Halim and Guergess, 1981;

of the coastal lakes of the Nile Delta have scientists (Aleem and Samaan, 1969; Samaan and Dowidar and Abdel Moati, 1982).

Littoral Macrobenthic Communities Relatively little attention has been given to the benthic communities of littoral Egyptian Mediterranean waters, and all the available information is qualitative. Fairly good records are available, although by no means complete, of the species composition of the littoral maerobenthic communities of Port Said Harbour and the Alexandria region. The Port Said area represents the typical conditions of a Mediterranean harbour in which the number of macrobenthic species is relatively small. However, several Red Sea immigrants which have passed through the Suez Canal are now well established and even outnumber the Mediterranean forms. Macrobenthos An investigation of the bivalves and gastropods at Abu Qir was carried out by Hassan (1974) who made monthly collections over a complete year from several inshore and offshore stations in t h e Bay. Hassan recorded 118 species, including 69 bivalves and 49 gastropods, of which I08 were obtained from the shallower zone of the Bay. Hasaan (1984) also gave a detailed semi-quantitatlve account of their abundance and distribution in relation to the bottom type and the depth. Dowidar and Ramadan (1972) reported on the occurrence and abundance of the Family Penaeidae in the Egyptian Mediterranean waters and indicated the importance of the Indo-Pacific immigrant species of this group in the economy of penaeids in the southeastern Mediterranean. Ramadan and Dowidar (1972) also reported on the occurrence of brachyuran crabs from the Egyptian Mediterranean waters from E1-Salloum to Port-Said in both the inshore a n d offshore waters. Ep!fauna The epifauna developing on submerged surfaces (fouling communities) in the Eastern Harbour of Alexandria has recently received considerable attention. Megally (1970) described the fouling communities on ship hulls anchored in the harbour. Using experimental panels, he followed both qualitatively and quantitatively the seasonal and biological succession of the foulers. He a l s o studied the effects of the substratum nature and texture, surface angle, depth of immersion, shade and temperature, on the attachment and density of the fouling. Ei-Nasry (1973) carried out a qualitative and quantitative study on amphipods, isopods, tanaidacea, and copepods associated with fouling growths in the Eastern Harbour. He identified several species and described their external structures. He also followed the quantitative seasonal variations of their populations and the successions of their broods, ~ d described the optimal conditions for breeding and abundance. Ghobashy (1974) studied the growth rates of four barnacle species in the Eastern Harbour of Alexandria. Ghobashy and Sellm (1976a,b,c) studied the settlement behaviour and g r o w t h of the tube worms H~drolde@ n0rveglca and Splrobls corrugatus on experimental panels in the Eastern Harbour. Ghobashy (1976) made further studies on the seasonal variation and settlement behavlour of the fouling organisms. Macro-algae Floristic and florlsttc-ecological surveys of the algae (1940a,b). The growth, life history and distribution Edku were investigated by Nasr and Mohsen (1961a,b).

around Alexandria was begun by Nasr of Ect0carpus siliculosus Jn Lake

Physio-ecological studies have been carried out on several species, in particular Cosmarium botr~tis (Mohesen, 1966a,b), Pterocladia capillace a (Nasr, Mohsen and Bekheet, 1966a), Ulva fascists and Ulva dictyota (Nasr, Mobsen and Metwal]y, 1972a,b). Agar production from !c>~]

Marine

agarophytes Mohsen

has

also

and Bekheet,

received

some

Science

attention

in Egypt

(Mohamed

621

and Halim,

1952;

Samaan,

1960;

Nasr,

1966b).

It is evident that the w o r k done on the benthic c o m m u n i t i e s ranean is far from complete. E x t e n s i v e areas are still total lack of q u a n t i t a t i v e studies, an a p p r o a c h which must

of the littoral Egyptian M e d i t e r unexplored and there has been a take first priority in any future

studies. The study of i m m i g r a t i o n of the Hed Sea species must be closely integrated into any future study since it is likely that yet more Red Sea immigrants are present in tl~e region. Moreover, the drastic r e d u c t i o n of the Nile water input to the area and the accompanying d r o p in its f e r t i l i t y have e x e r t e d great ecological stress on the populations in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n waters.

Marine The JOY

Biological

Work

in the Red Sea

publications of the Marine Biological Station at A l - C h a r d a q a and the c o n t a i n s most of the p u b l i s h e d articles on the biology and fisheries

Bulletin of the of the Bed Sea.

The taxonomy and e c o l o g y of m a r i n e algae of the Red Sea were studied by Nasr (1933, 1948). H a l i m (1969) gave an e x c e l l e n t r e v i e w on the plankton of the Red Sea and drew a t t e n t i o n to the g e n e r a l p o v e r t y of p h y t o p l a n k t o n species and lack of p h y t o p l a n k t o n r e s e a r c h in the Red Sea. The p h y t o p l a n k t o n of the Suez Canal was first studied by Ghazzawi (1939) and later the species c o m p o s i t i o n of the p h y t o p l a n k t o n p o p u l a t i o n s of the Suez Canal and of the Red Sea has been studied by D o w i d a r (1974a, 1976), Dowidar, R a h e e m u d d i n and Aleem (1978), and Dowidar

(1983a) .

The m a g n i t u d e and s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s in the rate of carbon a s s i m i l a t i o n and c h l o r o p h y l l a b i o m a s s of the p h y t o p l a n k t o n s t a n d i n g crop of the Red Sea were a l s o m e a s u r e d by D o w i d a r ?1983b). The long e s t a b l i s h e d b e l i e f that the Red Sea e n v i r o n m e n t is oligotrophic in c h a r a c ter has been q u e s t i o n e d . The p h y t o p l a n k t o n p o p u l a t i o n s are diverse and the p o t e n t i a l rate of o r g a n i c p r o d u c t i o n in the Red Sea is not as low as had been speculated. The a v e r a g e rate of elij u p t a k e 0 . 2 5 g C . m - 2 d -I (Dowidar, 1983b) is higher than the average value of 0.15 gC.m-2d-lestimated

by Steemap~

Nielsen(1954)

for all oceans.

Ramadan (1936, 1 9 3 8 a , b ) , AI-Kholy (1959a,b, 1961, 1963), A i - K h o l y and E I - H a w a r y (1970), s t u d i e d the e c o l o g y and d i s t r i b u t i o n of several other c r u s t a c e a n groups of the n o r t h e r n Red Sea and Gulf of Suez. T h e s p a w n i n g and larval d e v e l o p m e n t of m e d u s a e and some g a s t r o p o d s w e r e s t u d i e d by Eisawy (1970, 1974) and Eisawy and Soriel (1968, 1974). The coral reef and reef c o m m u n i t y of the Red Sea has r e c e i v e d intensive study by E g y p t i a n scientists. The works of G o h a r and his c o l l a b o r a t o r s over 50 years are among the s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e s in this field, of w h i c h a c o m p l e t e list is c o n t a i n e d in the bibliography of the Red Sea c o m p i l e d

Fish B i o l o g y

by B e l t a g y

(1975).

and F i s h e r i e s

The b i o l o g y of a v a r i e t y of e c o n o m i c a l l y important fish from the M e d i t e r r a n e a n has r e c e i v e d attention f r o m a n u m b e r of w o r k e r s . EI-Maghraby (1959, 1960, 1963, 1969), E i - M a E h r a b y , Botros a n d S o l l m a n (1971), Botros, E I - M a g h r a b y Ind Sollman (1971), Botros (1971) and S o l l m a n , E i - M a g h r a b y and B o t r o s (1971) have s t u d i e d aspects of the b i o l o g y S a r d i n e l l a spp. i n c l u d i n g t h e i r m o r p h o m e t r i c c h a r a c t e r s , l e n g t h - w e i g h t r e l a t i o n s h i p s , annual growth rates and b r e e d i n g biology. Prior to the c o m p l e t i o n of the Aswan High Dam in 1965, these fish c o n t r i b u t e d 30-40~ of the total, c a t c h f r o m E g y p t i a n waters of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n . Grey m u l l e t s p e c i e s have received much attention, particularly in the coastal lagoons of the Nile Delta. EIM a g h r a b y a n d B i s h a r a (1970a,b) d e s c r i b e d the m o r p h o m e t r i c d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e t w e e n the larval fry stages of Mu~il c e p h a l u s and M__ 2. capito as well as their l e n g t h / w e i g h t r e l a t i o n s h i p s . In Lake E d k u Ei-Zarka, Ei-Maghraby and A b d u l - H a m i d (1970) d e s c r i b e d th4 d i s t r i b u t i o n s , g r o w t h and a b u n d a n c e , of m i g r a t i n g m u l l e t fry, a n d EI-Maghraby, H a s h e m and E i - S e d a f y (1974b) m a d e s i m i l a r o b s e r v a t i o n s in Lake Burullus. Ei-Maghraby, H a s h e m and E l - S e d a f y (1973, 1974a), again w o r k i n g in L a k e B u r u l l u s , d e s c r i b e d the g r o w t h rate, l e n g t h / w e i g h t r e l a t i o n s h i p , the migrations, sexual m a t u r i t y and f e c u n d i t y of Mu~il capito and Hashem, EI-MaghFaby and EISedafy (1973) d e s c r i b e d the fishery.

622

S.K. Ei-Wakeel

The spariid fishes ( ~ sargus, D= vulgar!s, and H@phura melanura) from Alexandria were examined for their morphometric characteristics, growth rates, maturity and hermaphroditism by Wasef (1975). The biology of two goat fish species was studied by Hashem (1973a,b). The migrations of common eel elvers through the Mex Canal in Alexandria were followed Ezzat and EI-Serafz (1977a) who also studied the diets of the adults in Lake Manzala (1977b). Pollution effects on populations of Solea vulgaris were studied by Ezzat and EI-Maghraby (1974) in Abu-Qir Bay. In the Red Sea, Gohar and his co-workers carried out intensive studies on the fish populations, particularly in the northern sector and the Gulf of Suez (See Beitagy, 1974 and Botros, 1971). Aspects of biochemistry of Red Sea fishes have been examined by Latif (1967), Latlf and Shenouda (1972, 1973) and Boraey (1959), but special mention should be made of Fouda's (1969) study of seventeen groups of species. Experimental fishery studies have included EI-Sayess's (1977) work in Lake Burullus comparing the efficiency and selectivity of fish twine and nets, the work of Ezzat, EI-Maghraby and Ei-Sayess (1979) in the same lake on the selectivity of trammel net for Tilapla nilotica and T. zilli, and the trawling surveys in the Abu-Qir-Rosetta region carried out in 19691970 by Hashem (1972). Shellfish of economic importance have also been examined. Ei-Maghraby, Ezzat and Tabach (1976) studied the seasonal changes in biochemical composition of the prawn Metapenaeus monoceros. EI-Hawary (1983) discussed the crustaceans of economic importance caught in the Red Sea.

CHEMICAL STUDIES The E~yptian Mediterranean Waters The literature dealing with the chemistry of the south-eastern Mediterranean waters is very scanty. Nearly all of the research has been done in conjunction with regional hydrographic surveys. Between 1914 and 1959, only 47 hydrographic stations were worked in the southeastern Mediterranean and only a few included observations on nutrients. These stations were worked during cruises by the 'DANA' (1928-1930), the Swedish Deep Sea Expedition on R/V 'ALBATROSS' (1947-48), the 'ATLANTIS' (1948, 1958, 1962), the 'CALYPSO' (1956) and the 'AKADEMIC S. VAVILO' (1959). During the active years of the International Indian Ocean Expedition (1960-1965), a few stations were occupied in the eastern Mediterranean by a number of research vessels on their way to or from the Indian Ocean through the Suez Canal, i.e. 'ATLANTIS II', 'METEOR', 'CHAIN', 'AYTODOR', and 'DISCOVERY'. Important and large-scale additions to our knowledge of the hydrography and chemistry of the southeastern Mediterranean were made during the Soviet/Egyptian Expeditions on board R/V 'ICHTHYOLOG' in 1964, 1956 and 1971-72. In October 1964, the 'ICHTHYOLOG' surveyed the Egyptian Mediterranean waters from Ei-Arish in the east to the Arabs Bay in the west, occupying 20 stations and covering the continental shelf. The results of this expedition made during the last normal flood season of the Nile, were published by Halim, Gergess and Saleh (1967).

B a s e d on t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e f o u r c r u i s e s o f t h e s e c o n d 'ICHTHYOLOO' e x p e d i t i o n , the seasonat variations in the hydrographic conditions in the south-eastern Mediterranean were studied by Hassan (1959) and Morcos and Moustafa-Hassan (1973, 1977) and those on dissolved oxygen, phosphate and oxldlaable organic matter by Emara (1969) and Emara, Halim and Mottos (1972). A similar survey was carried out in 1971-72 during the third 'ICHTHYOLOG' expedition in the area between Damletta and Ei-Salloum (cf. AI-Kholy and El-Wakeel, 1975). Phosphate nitrite, nitrate, ammonia and silicate, in addition to salinity, temperature and dissolved oxygen, were measured during seven cruises (September 1969 t o August 1970) along a section extending 30 miles to the north of Alexandria (EI-Rayis, 1973, Morcos and EI-Rayis, 1973). During spring and summer nutrient concentrations were very low and showed no significant increases down to 500m. In September nutrients increased at all depths. A nutrient maximum occurred at 300m in which concentrations were for phosphate 0.55 ~ g - a t . l -I . nitrate 6~0 ~g-at.1-1, nitrite 0.30 ~g-at.1-1, and s i l i c a t e 13 ~ g - a t . 1 - 1 .

Marine Science in Egypt

623

In a d d i t i o n to this c o a s t a l research, the n o r t h e r n Delta Lakes have been r e g u l a r l y studied (Mahlis, 1969; Morcos, EI-Wakeel and Mahlis, 1969, 1970; El-Wakeel, Morcos and Mahlis, 1970; Ei-Wakeel, and Wahby, 1970a,b,c; Mahlis, Morcos and El-Nakeel, 1970; Morcos, EIW a k e e l and Mahlis, 1970; Wahby, Youssef and Bishara, 1972; EI-Samra, 1973; Darrag, 1974; Kinawy, 1974; Dowidar, Morcos, Saad and EI-Samra, 1976), so the chemistry of Lakes Maryut, Edku, B u r u l l u s and M a n z a l a h is now fairly well known. W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of Lake Maryut, a11 these lakes are connected to the M e d i t e r r a n e a n Sea by small o p e n i n g s (boughaz) which allow free exchange of water between the sea and the lake. V a r i a b l e a m o u n t s of b r a c k i s h water rich in nutrients discharge into the sea through these connections. The m a g n i t u d e of these brackish outflows and their f e r t i l i s i n g effect on the a d j a c e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a n w a t e r remains to be studied. Besides the brackish w a t e r d i s c h a r g e d t h r o u g h these three l a k e - s e a connections, about 5 . 5 . 1 0 9 m 3 of fresh and b r a c k i s h water are d i s c h a r g e d into the sea by the Nile. This is only about 12% of the volume discharged a n n u a l l y into the sea during the Nile flood Season prior to the c o m p l e t i o n of the Aswan High Dam. This w a t e r is naturally rich in nutrients but in addition contains both a g r i c u l tural and i n d u s t r i a l wastes, and its influence on the fertility of the coastal waters still r e m a i n s to be i n v e s t i g a t e d . A l t h o u g h the p h y s i c s - c h e m i c a l and biological c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s o u t h - e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n w a t e r before 1965 were fairly well documented, more research is still needed in order to a s s e s s fully the d r a m a t i c e n v i r o n m e n t a l changes that occurred in the s o u t h - e a s t e r n Medi t e r r a n e a n a f t e r the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the A s w a n High Dam. The Department of Oceanography, A l e x a n d r i a U n i v e r s i t y , t o g e t h e r with the U.S. Agency for International D e v e l o p m e n t is cos p o n s o r i n g a b i l a t e r a l r e s e a r c h programme on b i o l o g i c a l productivity of the s o u t h - e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n in the post A s w a n High Dam conditions.

C h e m i c a l S t u d i e s in the Red Sea M a n y E g y p t i a n s c i e n t i s t s have c o n t r i b u t e d to our knowledge of the p h y s i c s - c h e m i c a l c h a r a c t e r istics and w a t e r c i r c u l a t i o n in the Red Sea (see the review by Morcos, 1970). Contributions of E g y p t i a n s c i e n t i s t s s t a r t e d with the Ph.D. thesis of Mohamed (1938) on the d i s t r i b u t i o n of h y d r o g e n ion c o n c e n t r a t i o n , oxygen and p h o s p h a t e s in the northern Red Sea (see Mohamed, 1940; Morcos, 1984). G o r g y and S h a h e e n (1964) d e s c r i b e d aspects of the h y d r o g r a p h y of the Red Sea. E I - S h e r i e f and Beltagy (1968) studied the d i s t r i b u t i o n of organic m a t t e r and trace elements in the Red S e a water. Recent work includes the work on the seasonal variation of some trace m e t a l s in the Red Sea waters at A 1 - G h a r d a q a (Beltagy (1983a), on the h y d r o g r a p h y of the area neap A I - G h a r d a q a (Beltagy, 1983b), and on the h y d r o g r a p h y and c h e m i s t r y of the G u l f of Suez ( E i - S a b h and Beltagy, 1983). N u t r i e n t c h e m i s t r y has been studied in some s h a l l o w coastal areas off A I - G h a r d a q a by Kandeel (1982) and m o r e g e n e r a l l y in the Red Sea by D o w i d a r (1982). Awad, Michel and Ei-Shazly (1983) i n v e s t i g a t e d the status of oil pollution along the Egyptian Red Sea coast.

PhFsical Oceanography The earliest hydrographic observations in the eastern Mediterranean Sea date back to 1889 to a c r u i s e by the R u s s i a n ship 'VITYAZ'. During the last 40 years, cruises have been carr i e d out a l o n g the M e d i t e r r a n e a n coast of Egypt by a number of r e s e a r c h v e s s e l s f r o m d i f f e r ent nations. In 1948, six h y d r o g r a p h i c stations were o c c u p i e d by the 'ATLANTIS' and during 1 9 5 5 - 5 6 , two by the 'CALYPSO' b e t w e e n the E g y p t i a n coast, Cyprus and Crete, respectively. In M a r c h 1959, 19 s t a t l o n s w e r e o c c u p i e d s e a w a r d of the Nile Delta and the west coast of E g y p t by the J a p a n e s e ship 'SHOYO MARU' (Gorgy and Shaheen, 1964; Morcos, 1967b, 1972a) a n d n i n e d u r i n g the s u m m e r of the same y e a r by the Russian ship 'AKADEMIC S. VAVILOV' The Y u g o s l a v i a n ships 'OVICA' and 'COLOBICA' w o r k e d 35 o c e a n o g r a p h i c stations b e t w e e n 1959 and 1961 (Gorgy, 1966). The Russian ship 'ICHTHYOLOG' carried out a joint E g y p t - S o v i e t p r o g r a m m e a l o n g the E g y p t i a n coast d u r i n g O c t o b e r 1964, w o r k i n g 16 stations (Halim, Gerges and Saleh, 1967), and a further 205 during the four seasons of 1966 (Hassan, 1969; Morcos a n d M o u s t a f a - H a s s a n , 1973, 1976), and 36 during the four seasons of 1971 (AI-Kboly and EIW a k e e l , 1975). B e t w e e n 1963 and 1968, several cruises were made along the coast over the c o n t i n e n t a l shelf by ships of the E g y p t i a n Navy.

624

S.K. El-Nakeel

Very few direct current measurements have been made over the continental shelf off the Nile Delta and lake inlets At the Rosetta mouth, currents were measured by the Suez Canal Authority between July 1969 and June 1970 (Hilaly, 1971a). Along the coast near Damietta, measurements were taken from January to June 1969 at four locations (Kadib, 1971). Currents were measured using a submerged float whose velocity was recorded twice a day (morning and afternoon). Near Damietta current observations were carried out for 18 months from December 1964 (Mobarek, Kadib and EI-Ghamry, 1966). Two techniques were used, a paddlew~eel current meter at four locations seaward of the breaker zone, and floats were deployed at four p o i n t s - a l o n g the lOkm stretch of Ras al Barr shoreline. From September ]969 to June 1970, Nilaly (1971b) measured currents by deploying float drogues at five loca]ities on each side of the Burullus inlet. Between October 1959 and October 1960, Ekman current meters were deployed at 4m depth over the continental shelf seaward of the Nile Delta. During 1966, Ekman current meter readings were obtained of surface and subsurface currents at 23 'ICHTHYOLOG' stations between Port Sald and Abu-Qlr Bay (Hassan, 1969). The influence of the Nile flood along the Egyptian coast, before the construction o~ the Aswan High Dam in 1964, was noticeable in autumn extending out a few kilometres from the coast and to depths of iO-20m (Halim e_~ta~l, 1967). The continental shelf water can be treated as a 3-1ayer system in summer on the basis of its temperature and salinity properties (Mottos 1972a; Gerges 1974). A warm high salinity surface layer 50m thick overlays a subsurface layer of low salinity and a deeper layer again with high salinity (Gorgy and Shaheen, 1964; Morcos., 1967, 1972a; Sharaf El-Din, 1972a; Morcos and Ei-Ray~s, 1973; Morcos and MoustafaHassan, 1973, 1976). The latter layer extends from 150-400m and is distinguished by an intermedl~te sallmlty maximum. These two upper layers become mixed during winter, so that during spring, only two layers are found: a surface layer of hlgh temperature and low salinity and a deeper layer with winter water characteristics. During autumn the distribution of the water masses is transitional between summer and winter conditions. The sources and mode of formation of the layer of intermediate m a x i m u m salinity were investigated by Morcos (1967b, 1972a), Morcos and EI-Rayis (1973) and Morcos and Moustafa-Hassan, 1976). A secondary source of the intermediate water was detected in the southern Levant Sea. Morcos (1972a) showed that this water has more heterogenous characteristic in the Levant than in the other basins of the Mediterranean, indicating a variety of sources in space and t~me. These waters mix and become more homogenous as they spread towards the Ionian Sea, and can be recognlsed as a clearly identified water mass west of the Straits of Sicily. The average tidal variations in the sea level along the coast may approach 80cm (Mobarek e~t a!, 1966; ShaPaf El-Din and Rifat, 1968); during storms this variation may reach about 120cm. The tidal haPmonlc constituents obtalned from a one-month record at Damietta in 1965 show that the lunar sem!dlurnal component is dominant. T h e salient features of the currents along the Egyptian coast are similar to those in the Eastern Mediterranean; there is a west to east flow along the coast with an average speed ranging from 0.5-1 knot. The velocity is decreased in the b a y s . This coastal current system is either tldal, density or wind driven. In addition, there is a nearshore current driven by the wind waves in and near the breaker zone. Alo~g the coast, the tidal currents are weak relative to littoral and coastal currents (Sharaf Ei-Din 1974, 1976). Surface currents along the Egyptian Mediterranean Coast were also studied by Gerges (1978) using monthly releases of surface drifters. The results indicated the influence of the main eastward flow, circulating the Eastern Medlteeranean, one the surface water movement offshore, and a tendency for strong onshore component of surface drift in the nearshore area with greater dependence on the prevailing wind conditions. Current measurements were also obtained by G e r g e s ( 1 9 8 1 ) f r o m two m o o r i n g s o f c u r r e n t meters mounted within 25km of the coast of Sinai to investigate the nature of the near-surface and. near-bottom currents, with simultaneous hydrographic and meteorological observations collected. Analysis of current components indicated that mean currents near the surface were ranging between 2 and 17 cm.s -I with directions varying from north-easterly to southeasterly. Near-bottom currents were generally weaker fluctuating within smaller amplitude

(2-12cm.s-1).

Current measurements by t h e Suez Canal Authority show that the littoral current reaches a maximum s p e e d o f 1OOcm.s -1 n e a r B u r u l l u s inlet and 150 cm.s -1 at Rosetta (Hilaly, 19?lb!: The a v e r a g e littoral current w a s 28 c m . s - 1 a t H a s fll B a r r , 40 c m . s - 1 at Rosetta, a n d 35 cm.S -1 a t B u r u l l u s inlet (Mobarek et al, 1966; Hilaly, 1971a). During stormy periods th~ circulation pattern is probably seriously disrupted.

Marine S c i e n c e in E g y p t

625

The hydrographic conditions of the coastal waters of Alexandria in and outside the Eastern Harbour were studied i n 1 9 6 3 - 6 6 by E 1 - K i r s h (1969). From S e p t e m b e r 1968 to August 1969, twelve cruises were carried out to investigate the c i r c u l a t i o n pattern and water m a s s e s in Abu Kit Bay and adjacent Lake Edku in r e l a t i o n to pollution (EI-Samra, 1973 and Dowidar, Morcos, S a a d and El-Samra, 1976). l.ater, Said (1979) studied tile seasonal variation of the oceanographic structure in Abu Kip Bay from J a n u a r y ]977 to February 1978. The effect of oceanograi)llic and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l factors on tile transpurt Of pollutants in Abu Qir [~ay was studied in relation to surface s a l i n i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n (Sharaf E] Din, Said, Gerges and Osman, 1980). The currents and h y d r o g r a p h i c structure of tile water masses off A l e x a n d r i a were studied by Abdallah (1979), and in July 1977 to June 1978 by Ahmed (1979) and Sabra (1979}.

Later in 1979-80, Mohamed (1981) studied the exchange of water between tile lake Edku and Abu Qir Bay together with the w a t e r c i r c u l a t i o n in the Bay. This was followed in June 1980June 1981 by a study by Farag (1982) of the c i r c u l a t i o n pattern and hydrographic structure in EI-Mex area and the western H a r b o u r of Alexandria. The physical conditions along the M e d i t e r r a n e a n coast of Egypt are being studied through an A m e r i c a n - E g y p t i a n bilateral project for the study of the productivity of the s o u t h - e a s t e r n Mediterranean. Five cruises were c a r r i e d out during the periodLfrom August 1981 to N o v e m b e r 1982; 20 to 35 stations along 9-10 s e c t i o n s on the shelf from Ei-Agamy, west of A l e x a n a r i a to E1 Arish (Dowidar, 1984). M o n t h l y hydrographic observations have also been taken at 23 stations in Lake Edku d u r i n g F e b r u a r y 1979 to February 1980 (Mghamed, 1981). In Lake Manzalah, monthly limnological o b s e r v a t i o n s were taken at 50 stations, during August 1981 to February 1983 (Dowidar and Moati, 1982).

Suez

Canal

The c i r c u l a t i o n pattern and salinity d i s t r i b u t i o n in the Suez Canal have a n e g l i g i b l e effect on the physical o c e a n o g r a p h y of the Eastern Mediterranean= However, they greatly influence its e c o s y s t e m through the e x c h a n g e of organisms between the Red Sea and the M e d i t e r r a n e a n (Faouzi, 1951). I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the Suez Canal were made during 1953-1955 (Morcos, 1960a), in 1964-65 (Morcos and Messieh, 1973a,b; Morcos, 1967a, 1975; Morcos and Gerges, 1974); in 1966-1967 (EI-Sabh, 1969; El Sharkawi, 1969). Fortnightly cruises in the Suez Bay were m a d e in 1966-1967 by Meshal (1967). The tidal currents and mean sea level in the Suez Canal were studied by Morcos (1960b), Morcos and Gerges (1974) and S h a r a f E l - D i n (1972b, 1975). The effect of the A s w a n High Dam on the current r e g i m e in the Suez C a n a l was d i s c u s s e d by Morcos (1967a), El Sabh (1968), Morcos and M e s s i e h (1973a,b), H a s s a n and E1 .Sabh (1974, 1975), and Morcos (1974, 1975). The physical and chemical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the e x c e p t i o n a l l y high salinity of w a t e r of the Suez Canal were studied by M o r c o s and Riley (1966) and Morcos (1967c,' 1968a). In 1974, an u n u s u a l l y intense d e n s i t y layer w i t h a s a l i n i t y of about 315 was o b s e r v e d in the Great Bitter Lake as a result of the d a m m i n g of the canal during the war of O c t o b e r 1973 (Meshal, 1975), o t h e r w i s e salinity in the Suez Canal w a t e r has decreased greatly since its o p e n i n g in 1869, as shown by Morcos (1972b) who e x a m i n e d the older data of salinity, d e n s i t y and c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of the Suez Canal w a t e r s d u r i n g and after its opening. Later, M o r c o s (1980) d i s c o v e r e d in the H y d r o g r a p h i c Department of the Royal Navy, in T a u n t o n , UK, records of h y d r o g r a p h i c o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e by several British ships w h i l e passing t h r o u g h the Suez Canal in 1870-1872. By p r o c e s s i n g these data, Morcos was able to study the s e a s o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of salinity along the canal i m m e d i a t e l y after its opening. T a b l e s for c o m p u t a t i o n of the salinity and d e n s i t y of the C a n a l w a t e r s were published by Morcos (1960e, 1967e, 1968b) and Morcos and E I - K i r s h (1968).

T h e Red S e a

The initial Egyptian c o n t r i b u t i o n was made by the Egyptian Expedition to the Red Sea in 1934-35 on 'MABAHISS', w h i c h O C c u p i e d I0 o c e a n o g r a p h i c sections in the N o r t h e r n Red Sea, G u l f of A q a b a and Gulf of Suez. D e t a i l s of the r e s u l t s achieved d u r i n g these i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were given by Mottos (1970, 1984). Later, Morcos and Soliman (1974) r e c o n s t r u c t e d 'MABAHISS' v e l o c i t y profiles to study the d e e p w a t e r formation in the Northern Red Sea, taking the core layer of the intermediate o x y g e n m i n i m u m as a reference level.

626

S.K. El-Wakeel

Several investigations have been carried out in the Red Sea area in the last five years. Water samples were collected from different stations from AI-Ghardaqa shoreline to Shadwan Island during the four seasons from April 1980 to January 1981 (gandeel, 1982), and during the spring and summer seasons of 1981 (Beltagy, 1982). An attempt was made to trace the water movements in that part of the Red Sea, and to describe the water exchange between the northern part of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez (Hassan and Soliman, 1982). Large scale theoretical investigations of the circulation and tides of the Red Sea were carried out by Soliman (1979), using the application of hydrodynamlcal modelling under various conditions of homogeneity and bottom t o p o g r a p h y . The effect of bottom topography on the Red Sea tide was discussed by Soliman and Gerges (1982). The wind driven circulation in the Red Sea as a homogenous basin was studied by Wassef, Gerges and Soliman (1982) end as a two-layer model by Gerges and Soliman (1982).

Geological Inve@ti~ations A considerable amount of geological work has been carried out along the Mediterranean coast of Egypt. Hilmy (1951) studied beach sand along the entire Mediterranean coast of Egypt. He divided the coast arbitrarily into three sectors according to its topographical and llthological characteristics. The mechanical analysis and mineral composition of sand deposits along the Mediterranean coast between Rosetta and Bardia were studied by Shukri and Philip (1956). Said and Kamel (1956) studied the foraminlferal composition of the beach sands between Rosetta and Bardla and were able to distinguish four zones, each having its own faunal characteristics. The geomorphology of the deltaic coastal plain between Rosetta and Port Said was studied by Said (1958), who concluded that this plain is the result of alluvial advance of the coast. Research on the black sands of the Egyptian coast was conducted by Nakhla (1958), Higazy and Naguib (1958) and Ei-Boseily (1965), whose results included deposltional mechanisms and concentrations and assessments of economic values. Sollman (1964) studied the primary structure of a six kilomet~e strip of beach to the east of the Rosetta mouth. The shore dynamics and the morphology of the Nile Delta shores were studied by Ei-Sabarouti (1973). Nawam (1973) worked on the upper Pleistocene and Holocene history of formation of the Nile Delta. In 1971 a group of geologists at the Coastal Research Institute started a systematic research programme, through a UNESCO/UNDP Project of Coastal Protection Studies to investigate the complicated dynamical processes of the Nile Delta coast. The project incorporated studies of past and present processes in the formation of the delta. These w e r e c o u p l e d w i t h an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n J u ~ y proga'me involving meteorology, geo!o~Y, geomorphology, hydrology, oceanography, hydrodynamical and coastal engineering (UNESCO, i 9 7 6 ) . M e a s u r e s a r e now b e i n g d e v i s e d , b a s e d on r e s u l t s of this work, for protection of the Nile Delta coast. The e v o l u t i o n o f A l e x a n d r i a b e a c h e s d u r i n g t h e l a s t f o u r d e c a d e s was s t u d i e d by Ei-Wakeel, E1 -Saved and Nahmoud (1980), whereas the influence of blogenlc elastics to these beaches was investigated by EI-Sayed and Khalll (1980). Considerable marine geological investigations have been carried out in the south-eastern Mediterranean since the early work of the R/V 'ENDKAVOUR' during the years 1919-1922 from which resulted a general bathymetrlc and r o u g h s e d i m e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n chart for the shelf area off the Nile Delta. T h i s was f o l l o w e d by t h e w ork o f s e v e r a l other expeditions in the area between the Nile Delta and the vicinity of Crete and Rhodes. Egyptian contribution t o t h e s t u d y o f b o t t o m s e d i m e n t s a l o n g the Mediterranean c o a s t o f E g y p t s t a r t e d by E 1 - W a k e e l ( 1 9 6 4 ) who s t u d i e d t h e s e d i m e n t s o f t h e e a s t e r n h a r b o u r o f A l e x a n d r i a . Mohamed ( 1 9 6 8 ) w o r k e d on the mechanlcal, chemlcal and mineralogical analysis of the recent sediments covering the shelf off the Nile Delta. Ei-Awady (1972) studied sediments from the western harbour of Alexandria, and Mousea (1973) carried out a detailed textural, chemical and mineralogical study of bottom sediments of Abu Qir Bay. EI-Wakeel, Abdou and Mohamed (1974) reported on the texture and distribution of recent marine sediments on the continental shelf off the Nile Delta. They found that the distribution of these sediments on the shelf was governed by the depth, bottom configuration, currents, waves and drainage water flowing from the Nile branches and coastal lake openings. Ei-Wakeel and EI-Sayed (1978) studied the bottom sediments covering the inner shelf area off Alexandria between the Ei-Agaml and Abu Qir Headlands. Shelf and beach samples were subjected to grain size and chemical analyses to determine their carbonate, organic matter and total phosphorus contents, and to mineral o~ical analysis. Interrelations between the texture, chemistry and mineralogy of se(l~mer~t

M a r i n e S c i e n c e in Egypt

627

were discussed w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o the environmental c o n d i t i o n s in an attempt t o r e v e a l the process determining the p a t t e r n s o f sediment type and d i s t r i b u t i o n . Ei-Sayed (1979) c l a s s i f i e d the sediment types and d e p o s i t i o n a l environments along the i n n e r s h e l f o f f the N i l e D e l t a , he has already i n v e s t i g a t e d the geochemistry o f manganese and i r o n in the r e c e n t s h e l f sediments o f f the N i l e Delta w i t h r e l a t i o n to phosphate a d s o r p t i o n (EI-Sayed, 1977). The d i s t r i b u t i o n of trace elements in t h e s e d i m e n t s of the eastern Mediterranean comprising the shelf off the Nile D e l t a was s t u d i e d by M o u s s a ( 1 9 7 7 ) . Toms, S a n d , Salama and Halim (1980) studied the distribution of some adsorbed elements on t h e s h e l f sediments off the Nile Delta. Several other investigations have been conducted recently in areas with characteristic geological as well as environmental settings. E1-Halaby (1975) identified some recent nearshore Foraminifera f r o m t h e Bay o f M i a m i A l e x a n d r i a . Abu-E1-Einein (1979) also studied foraminiferal assemblages in other embayments along the Alexandrian coast. Sediments from the Arabs Bay, west of Alexandria, were investigated by N a s r ( 1 9 7 8 ) , and further to the west, Shata (1979) studied the sediments covering the continental shelf between the A r a b s Bay a n d M e r s a M a t r u h . Rashed (1978) studied the sedimentological and mineralogical characteristics of bottom sediments f r o m Abu Q i r B a y , w h e r e S a n d , E 1 - R a y e s a n d E 1 - N a d y ( 1 9 8 0 ) investigated the occurrence o f some t r a c e metals in t h e s e d i m e n t s . Pollution E1-Sayed,

of sediments by h e a v y m e t a l s in the coastal area off Alexandria were studied by Halim, Abdel-Kader and Moeness (1979) a n d E1 S a y e d , E 1 - S a y e d a n d M o u s s a ( 1 9 8 0 } .

The s e d i m e n t s in the bottom of the shallow brackish water lakes situated along the Mediterranean coast of Egypt have received attention during the last few years. E1-wakeel and Wahby ( 1 9 7 0 a ) s t u d i e d the texture and chemistry of Lake Maryut sediments. They investigated the type and distribution of the sediments as well as the content and distribution of carbonates, organic matter, phosphorous and iron in the bottom sediments. The bottom sediments of Lake Manzalah were subjected to mechanical and chemical analysis by E 1 - W a k e e l a n d Wahby (197Ob). Interrelations between the grain size, carbonate, organic matter, phosphorous and available iron were studied. Studies on t h e t y p e a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of bottom sediments as well as the Ostracoda and Foraminifera in grab and core sediments of Lake Idku and Lake Burullus h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d by Zazou ( 1 9 7 7 ) . The Egyptian contribution to knowledge of the bathymetry and geology of the northern Red Sea dates back to the first Egyptian oceanographic Expedition t o t h e Red S e a on b o a r d t h e R/V ' M A B A H I S S ' , a n d s a m p l e s collected during this expedition continue to be the subjects of numerous research articles. Using the newly developed echosounder, the ship made detailed bathymetric investigations of the Northern Red S e a a n d G u l f o f A q a b a , i n b o t h o f which the deepest spots "Mabahiss Deeps" were discovered (Badr and Crossland, 1939). Shukri and Higazy (19~4a,b) studied the granulometry and mineralogy of the sediments, a n d Mohamed (1949) determined their organic carbon. Said (1950, 1951} identified the Foraminifera and carbonate content of these sediments. Shukrt (1953) reported on f u r t h e r studies of the bottom sediments of the northern Red S e a . The coastal geology of the region was reported on by Said (1962) and Akkad and D a r d i e r (1966), and A b d a l l a h and E I - A d i n d a n i (1965) s t u d i e d the stratigraphy and Palaeozoic rocks of the Gulf of Suez. Abdel G a w a d (1968, 1969) d i s c u s sed the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the f r a c t u r e zone of the M i d d l e East and the g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c ture of the Red Sea region as it a p p e a r e d in Gemini photos and o t h e r s a t e l l i t e pictures. A brief review of the s t r a t i g r a p h y and structure of the G u l f of Suez was also g i v e n by A b d e l G a w a d (1970). G e o p h y s i c a l studies have been p e r f o r m e d in several parts of the Gulf of Suez in a s s o c i a t i o n with the e x p l o r a t i o n of oil. A m o n g these studies, B a y o u m i and A y a d (1970), Bayoumi and Abdel Rahman (1972) and B a y o u m i and S h e n o d a (1972) r e - e x a m l n e d and i n t e r p r e t e d r e s u l t s of previous gravity and m a g n e t i c and seismic i n v e s t i g a t i o n s in some places in and

around the Gulf of Suez. Ei-Deeb (1978) studied in detail the f o r a m i n i f e r a l a s s e m b l a g e s of b o t t o m d e p o s i t s from the n o r t h e r n Red Sea and the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba. S u b s e q u e n t studies on c a r b o n a t e sediments of the Gulf of Suez and the Suez Canal were c a r r i e d out by M o h a m e d (1979, 1980). The area off A I - G h a r d a q a r e c e i v e d more a t t e n t i o n due to the close p r o x i m i t y of the M a r i n e Biological Station. The sediment d i s r u p t i o n off A I - G h a r d a q a has been s t u d i e d by E I - S a y e d and Hosney (1980), and the g e o c h e m i s t r y and m i n e r a l o g y of coral sand and m u d s w e r e i n v e s t i g ated by Ei-Sayed (1982). Hassan and Cherif (1983) d i s c u s s e d Cherif, EI-Deeb and Hassan (1983) sediments of the Northern Red Sea.

the tectonic e v o l u t i o n Of the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez. s t u d i e d the d i s t r i b u t i o n of F o r a m i n i f e r a in the recent

628

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Mansour, Phllobbon and Ei-Shater (1982) and Phllobbos, Mansour and Ei-Shater (1983) studied the textural characteristics and the mineralogy of recent sediments along the Egyptian Red Sea coast. Kllattab (1983) discussed the aeromagnetic survey in the vicinity of St Jones Islands, and Deebes, Hussaln, Fahlm and Ahmed (1983) produced maps of the absolute geomagnetic field components of the eastern desert, including the Red Sea coastal zone. Nawar (1983) studied the mlneraology of the sediments in the Gulf of Suez. Studies on sediments from Foul Bay and Gulf of Suez are now being done at the IOF, and further studies on AI~ Ghardaqa area are undertaken at the Oceanography Department, Alexandria University, <~z} the geochemistry and mineralogy of reefs and reefal sediments.

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Aleem, A.A. (1949). Distribution and ecology of marine littoral diatoms. Consideration of the littoral diatom-flora with special reference to forms living in gelatinous tubes. Botanlska Notlser, 414-~40. Aleem, A.A. (1950). Littoral diatoms from the Eastern Mediterranean. Acts Hortl GothoburgenIis w Aleem, A.A. (1951). S u r l a p r e s e n c e de N l t z m : a l a d e l i c a t i s s i m a C l e v e darts l a p l a n k t o n M ~ d i t e r raneen° Vie et Milieu t 11, ~42-447. Aleem, A.A. (1955). Measurement of plankton populations by Triphenyltetrazolium chloride. KleleP NeereIfOrSchungen, Ii, 16. Aleem, A.A. (1958). A taxonomic and paleoecologlcal investigation of the diatom-flora of the extinct Fayoum Lake (upper Egypt). Bulletln of the Faculty of Science, Unlversit~ o f A l e x a n d r l a ~ 2, 19. Aleem, A.A. and N.M. Dowldar (1967). Phytoplankton production in relation to nutrients along the Egyptian Mediterranean coast. Studies in Tropical Oceanography~ Mlami~ 5, 3o5-~3. Aleem, A.A. and A.A. Samaan (1969). Productivity of Lake Maryut, Egypt. Part II. Primary production. Internatlonale Revue der gesamtem Hydroblologle, 54, 491-527. A1-Handhal, A.Y. (1979). Systematic and ecologlcal study of planktonic and benthic diatoms of the Eastern Harbour Alexandria. N.Sc. Thesis, Alexandria University. Al-Kholy, A.A. (1959a). Larval stages of three anomuran Crustacea from the Red Sea. Publications of Na.P1ne Biological Station 7 Ghsrdaqa~ Red Sea. No. I0, 83-90. AI-Kholy, A . A . (1959b). Larval s t a g e s of four brachyrzn Crustacea from the Red Sea. PuDlicat!ons of Marine Biological Station t Ghardaqa~ Red Sea. No. IO, 259. Ai-Kholy, A.A. (1961). Larvae of some maeruean Crustacea from the Red Sea. Publications of Marine Biol0~ical Station 7 Ghardaqa, Red Sea, NO.12, 127-136. Ai-Kholy, A.A. (1963). Some larvae of decapod Crustacea from the Red Sea. Publications of Marine Biological Station, Ghardaqa, Red Sea. No. 12, 159-176. Ai-Kholy, A.A. and M.M. EI-Hawary (1970). Some Penaeids of the Red Sea. }~ulletin of the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Cairo, i, 339-378.

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Ai-Kholy, A.A. and S.K. El-Wakeel, editors, (1975). Fisheries of the South-eastern Mediterranean Sea along the Egyptian coast, Soviet-Egyptlan Expedition, 1970-72. Bulletin of the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Alexandria, 5Awad, H., P. Michel and A. El-Shazly (19831. Actual situation of oil pollution ecosystem along the Egyptian Red Sea coast. Bulletin of the Institute of Oceanography and Fisherles, Cairo, 9 Badr, A.M. and C. Crossland (1939). Topography of the Red Sea Floor. In: Heports on the | Preliminary Expedition for the Exploration of the Red Sea on B.R.S. 'MABAHISS' (December 1934-February 1935). Publications of the Marine Siolosica] Station Ghardaqa, i, 1320. Bayoumi, A.R. and M.M. Ayad (1970). Geological significance of gravity and magnetic anomalies in Hieran area, Gulf of Suez. Bulletin Arab Science Congress, 1]. Bayoum, A.B. and F. Abdel Rahman (1972). Subsurface geologic conditions in the area between Wadi Dora and Gebel Ziet, Gulf of Suez district, for petroleum prospection. 8th Arab Petroleum Congress~ Algeria. Bayoumi, A.R. and H.N. Shenoda (1972). Analytical resolution of potential data as a means for emphasising subsurface structures in the Cairo-Suez area. 8th Arab Petroleum Congress t Algeria. Beltagy, A.I. (1975). A bibliography of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, with a review of the physical conditions in the area. ALESCO Publ. 213. Beltagy, A.I. (1983a). Seasonal variation of some trace element content in the Red Sea waters at AI-Ghardaqa. Bulletin of the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Cairo, 8, 16-30. Beltagy, A.I. (1983b). Hydrography of Red Sea waters near AI-Ghardaqa, Egypt. Bulletin of the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Cairo, 9. Boraey, F.A. (1969). Studies on the biology of the red mullets, "Family Mullidae" from the Red Sea. M.Sc. Thesis, Cairo University. Botros, G.A. (1971). Fishes of the Red Sea. Oceanography andlMarine Biology, Annual Review 9 221-348. Botros, G.A., A.M. EI-Maghraby and I.A. Soliman (1971). Biometric studies on Sardinella maderensis Lowe and Sardinella aurita Cuv. and Val. from the Mediterranean Sea at Alexandria (U.A.R.). Bulletin of the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Cairo, 1, 85-128. Cherif, O.H., W.Z. EI-Deeb and M.Y. Hassan (1983). Statistical studies on the distribution of dead foraminlferal tests in recent sediments of the Northern Red Sea. Bulletin of the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Cairo~ 9Darrag, A.A. (1974). Study of the hydrographic conditions and nutrient salts of Lake Burullus waters. M.Sc. Thesis, Alexandria University, 276 pp. Deebes, H., A.G. Hussaln, M. Fahlm and P.M. Ahmed (1983). Maps of the absolute geomagnetic field components of the Eastern Desert of Egypt reduced to the epoch 1977.O. Bulletin of the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries I Calro~ 9. Dorgham, M.M.S. (1974). Plankton -diatoms of Port-Said area. M.Sc. thesis, Alexandria University. Dowldar, M. (1981). Siphonophores and medusae of the South-eastern Mediterranean. M.Sc. Thesis, Alexandria University. Dowidar, N.M. (1965). Distribution and ecology of marine plankton in the region of Alexandrla, Egypt. P h . D . thesis, Alexandria University, 334 pp. Dowidar, N.M. (1971). Distribution and Ecology of Ceratium egyptiacum Halim and its validity as indicator of the current regime in the Suez Canal. Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydroblologie! ~6, 957-66. Dowldar, N.M. (1972). Morphological variations in Ceratlum egyptlacum in different natural habitats. Marine Biology, 16, 138-49. Dowidar, N.M. (1974a). Phytoplankton of the Suez Canal. Rapport et Frocks Verbaux des R~unlons de la Commission Internatlonale pour l'Exploratlon Scientlflque de la Met Medlterrane~y 22, 59. j Dowidar, N.M. (1974b). Tintinnlds from the Suez Canal. Rapport et Proc~s Verbaux des R~unions de la Commission Internationale pour l'Exploratlon Scientlfique de la Mer Medlterrane~1 22, 123-4. Dowidar, N.M. (1974c). The Phytoplankton of the Mediterranean waters of Egypt. A check list of the species recorded. Bulletin of the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries_~ Cairo, 4, 319-44. Dowidar, N.M. (1976). The phytoplankton of the Suez Canal. Acts Adriatica 18, 241-256. Dowidar, N.M. (1983a). Primary Production in the Central Bed Sea off leddah. Bulletin of the Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries ~ Cairo, 9, 160-170. Dowidar, N.M. (1983b). The Genus Ceratium from the Red Sea. Bulletin of Faculty of Science King Abdul-Aziz University, Jeddah, 7,181-195.

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Dowldar, N.N. ( 1 9 8 4 ) . P h y t o p l a n k t o n b i o m a s s and p r i m a r y p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e s o u t h - e a s t e r n Mediterranean. Deep-Sea Research, ~1, 983-1000. Dowtdar, N.N., A.R. Abdel :Moatt ( t ~ 2 } . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f n u t r i e n t s a l t s in l a k e N a n z a l a h . C.I.E.S~N. XXVII Congress t Cannes= France~ 2-ii December i~82. Dowidar, N.N. and A.A. Aleem (1963). The Genus Ceratium from Alexandria waters. Bulletin ° f the Facult~ o f Sctencet A l e x a n d r i a Unlvers!ty t 5, 177-218. Dowidar, N.M. and A.M. El-Naghraby (1970a). The neritic zooplankton of the southeastern Mediterranean at Alexand~ia. I. Distribution and ecology oE the zooplankton organisms with special reference to Copepoda. Bulletin of the Institute of Oceanography ann Fisheries t Cairo~ i, 225-73. Dowldar, N.M. and A.N. El-Maghraby (197Ob). The neritic zooplankton of the southeastern Mediterranean at Alexandria. II. Consideration of the total zooplankton community. Bulletin of the !nstltute of Oce~n0~raph ~ and Fisherles t Calro~ 1, 275-303. Dowidar, N.M. and A.M, E1-Maghraby (1971). Observations on the neritlc zooplankton community in Abu Qlr Bay during the flood season. Rapport et Proces-Verbaux des R~unions de la

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385-9. Dowidar, N.M. and A.M. E1-Maghraby (1973a). Observations on the zooplankton community in the Egyptian Mediterranean waters. Rapport et Proces-Verbaux ' des R~unigns de la Commission Internatlonale pour l'Expl0ratio ~ Scientlflque de la Met Medlt~rran~e~ ...... 21, 527-30. Dowidar, N.M. and A.M. El-Naghraby (1973b). Notes on the occurrence and distribution o£ some z o o p l a n k t o n s p e c i e s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n w a t e r s o f U.A.R. Rapport e t P r o c e s - V e r b a u x des R~unlons d e la CommisslQn Intern@tIQnale pour l'Exploration Sclentlflgue d e I~ Met Medlt~rran~e~ 21, 521-5. Dowidar, N.N., A.N. Khalll, A.M. E1-Maghraby and D.A. E1-Zawawy, (1982). Zooplankton composition of the Eastern Harbour o f Alexandrla, Egypt. R a p p o r t et Proces-Verbaux des R~unlon de ! a Comalsalon Internationale pom- l'Exploratlon Sclentlflque de la Met ~ d l t e r r a n ~ e r 28. Dowidar, N.N., S.A. Morcos, M.A.R. Saad and M.E. E1-Samra (1976). Hydrographic observations on pollutlon in Abu Qlr Bay, Alexandria. IBP/PM Symposium on the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, Malta, 1973, Acts AdrSatlqaz 18, 379-396. Dowidar, N.M., S.A. Rahee Muddtn and A.A. Aleem (1978). Phytoplankton populations in the region of Obhuar (Jeddah, Saudl Arabia). Bulletin of Faculty of Science, King AbdulAzlz U n l v e r s l t ~ 3eddah , 2, 271-292. Dowidar, N . ~ a ~ t S. Ramadan (1972). Family Penaeidae from the Mediterranean waters of Egypt. T h a l a s s t a $ u ~ 0 s l a v i c a ~ 8 , 121-126. E i s a w y , A'M. ( 1 9 7 0 ) . S p a w n i n g , d e v e l o p m e n t and m e t a m o r p h o s i s o f T r o c h u s d e n t a t u s F o r s k ~ l . Bul!etln of t h e I n s t i t u t e ~f 0¢WOEFa~V an d Fisherles~ C a i r o , l , 379~93. Elsawy, A.N. (197"). Spawning and larval development of the Red Sea o y s t e r , Crassos~rea forak~ll Senemlntz. Bulletln o[ the Instltute of Oceanography and Fisherles, Cairo~ ,. 203-19. Eisawy, A.M. and~tESorial (1968). The egg masses and development and m e t a m o r p h o s i s o[ Strombus (non0dactylus) trlcornls Lamark. Proceedings of the Malacolo~ical S0cl¢ty Of London, 38, 13-26. Elsawy, A.M. and A.E. Sorlal (197"). The egg masses and development o~ Turbo radlatus Gmelin from t h e Red S e a . B u ! ! e ~ ! n o£ ~he i ~ S ~ t t ~ t e 0 f 0cean°EraPhY a~d F i s h e r i e s , C a i r o , , ,

221-235. Ei-Awady, M.M. (1972). The Physical and Chemlcal Properties of Alexandria Harbour Waters relevant to ~oullng and anal"fouling paints. M.Sc. Thesis, Cairo University. E1-Boseily, A.M. (1965). Nechanlcal and mlneraloglcal studies off the Egyptian black sand deposits on the Mediterranean coast of Rosetta Nile mouth. M.Se. Thesis, Alexandria Unlverelty. E1-Deeb, W.Z.M. (1978). E c o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s on F o r a m i n i f e r a i n r e c e n t marine sediments o~ the Northern Red Sea. M.Sc. Aln-Shams University. Ei-Halaby, O.M.G. (1975). Comparatlve studies on some recent nearshore Foraminifera from the Mediterranean coast of Egypt and Greece. M.Sc. Thesis. Ain Shams University. Ei-Hawa~y, M.M.A. (1983). Red Sea crustaceans of economic importance. Bulletin o£ the Instltute o f O c e a n o g r a p h y a n d F l ~ i e s , Cairo, 9. El-Maghraby, A.M. (1959). Egg p~oduction i n two species of Egyptian Sardine. Bulletin o f th e Facult~ Of Sclence, Alexand~la University, 3, 1 0 5 - 1 1 3 . Ei-Maghraby, A,M. (1960). The biology of the Egyptian Sardine. Preliminary account of the biology of Sardlnella eba Cuv. & Val. Notes and Memoirs Alexandria Institute of Hydrobiology, EgYpt, 58. El-Maghraby, A.M. (1963). Studies on the maturity of the Egyptian sardine belongin~ to the Genus Sardinella. Bulletln o~" the Faculty o f Selence~ Alexandria University, 5 ~7-~0.

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