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The discrete element method (DEM) to simulate fruit impact damage during transport and handling: Case study of vibration damage during apple bulk transport
Postharvest Biology and Technology 41 (2006) 92–100
The discrete element method (DEM) to simulate fruit impact damage during transport and handling: Case study of vibration damage during apple bulk transport M. Van Zeebroeck ∗ , E. Tijskens, E. Dintwa, J. Kafashan, J. Loodts, J. De Baerdemaeker, H. Ramon Laboratory for Agro Machinery and Processing, Catholic University Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 30, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium Received 2 May 2005; accepted 14 February 2006
Abstract Making use of the discrete element method (DEM) a study is presented on the influence of mechanical parameters (vibration frequency and acceleration amplitude, apple size, stack height) and fruit properties (apple harvest date, apple temperature, apple acoustic stiffness) on vibration damage of apples. As acceleration input a sine in the vertical direction was used. Realistic parameters of the Kuwabara and Kono [Kuwabara, G., Kono, K., 1987. Restitution coefficient in a collision between two spheres. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 26, 1230–1233] contact force model for ‘Jonagold’ apples and bruise prediction models were applied. As a general conclusion, major influences of mechanical parameters on the vibration damage were identified, in particular stack height and fruit size, and minor influences of fruit properties. Also a detailed study was performed to investigate the relation between apple positions in the stacking and bruise damage. It was demonstrated that the position–bruise damage relation depends on the acceleration amplitude, vibration frequency and stack height. The existence of damage chains within the centre of the apple stack was also identified, that is in accordance with the well-known force chains in bulk materials. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Discrete element method; Fruit; Apple; Bruise; Vibration; Simulation
1. Introduction The distribution of fruit involves both handling and transportation, and as a result, considerable product damage occurs at various stages throughout the distribution system. The factors affecting damage are the same for all fruit, i.e. the physical properties of the fruit itself, the static and dynamic performance of the packaging and containers, the influence of individual fruit and neighboring fruit in modifying the impact and vibration input, the energy inputs to the system from handling at loading and sorting stages and from the transport operations from farm, through markets, to retail outlet. These factors are inter-related and together control the amount of fruit damage (Schoorl and Holt, 1982). Singh and Xu (1993) reported that as many as 80% of apples can be damaged during simulated transportation by ∗
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truck, depending on the type of truck, package and position of the container along the column. A considerable amount of experimental work has been done in fruit bruise damage (mostly apples and peaches) due to vibrations during transport (both continuous and transient vibrations) (O’Brien et al., 1963, 1965; Chesson and O’Brien, 1971; Plumbee and Webb, 1974; Holt and Schoorl, 1985; Schoorl and Holt, 1982; Armstrong et al., 1991; Jones et al., 1991; Singh and Xu, 1993; Timm et al., 1996, 1998; Bollen et al., 2001). Although these experimental studies gave many insights into the mechanisms causing fruit vibration damage, a lot of contradictory results emerged as well. Besides, extensive experimental work, few simulation models associated with some simple laboratory tests have been developed. The road–vehicle–load systems by Holt and Schoorl (1985) and Jones et al. (1991) using energy dissipation mechanisms for modelling a single column apple pack seem valuable and pioneering. However, the difficulty in modelling such a system is increased when a large quantity of fruit is involved. In an attempt to resolve
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this problem, pioneering research in DEM modelling of fruit bruise damage due to vibration has been executed by Rong et al. (1993). Rong et al. (1993) indicated that the experimental results by Holt and Schoorl (1985) could be reproduced by DEM. Only the effect of transient vibrations (shocks) on apple bruise damage, not continuous vibrations, were simulated. The simulation comprised a simulation of 12 apples (three rows of four apples) in two dimensions. Ten years later, computer CPU time has decreased considerably and 3D DEM computer models with thousands of particles have become available. A 3D DEM computer model for fruit has been described and validated for its applicability in predicting the bruise damage of ‘Jonagold’ apples by the authors (Van Zeebroeck et al., 2006). The validation step was necessary to proceed to the next step: the execution of simulations without experimental validation to gain insight into the process of bruising during transport and handling. The objective of this paper is, using a DEM computer model, to investigate fruit bruise damage due to continuous vibrations during transport and to clarify some contradictory results that emerged from experimental studies. Using the shaking box application compiled from the DEMeter++ library (Van Zeebroeck et al., in press), the effect of mechanical parameters (vibration frequency, stack height, size of the fruit) and fruit properties (ripeness, acoustic stiffness and temperature) on fruit bruise damage was investigated.
2. Materials and methods In the simulations the same parameters for the normal and tangential contact force model were used as described in Van Zeebroeck et al. (2006). In the simulations of the effect of mechanical parameters on apple bruise damage, the bruise prediction model with the bruise depth as dependent variable and peak contact force and effective radius of curvature as independent variable were applied (Van Zeebroeck et al., 2005). In the simulations of the effect of the fruit properties on bruise damage, statistical bruise prediction models were applied with the bruise volume as dependent variable and besides the peak contact force and effective radius of curvature, also apple temperature, apple acoustic stiffness and harvest date as independent variables (Van Zeebroeck, 2005). The acoustic stiffness applied in the simulations (Table 9) and in the statistical bruise prediction models was determined by the acoustic impulse technique (De Baerdemaeker et al., 1982; Chen and De Baerdemaeker, 1995; De Ketelaere and De Baerdemaeker, 2001) as measured by the commercial AWETA® firmness sensor (AFS, Aweta, Nootdorp, The Netherlands). The maximum bruise depth or volume of an individual particle (apple) contracted during the total simulation time was taken as the evaluation parameter in the simulations. The average maximum bruise depth or volume is the average of the maximum bruise damage of all the particles in the
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simulation after the total simulation time. In the case of the bruise volume this must be interpreted as the ‘single impact’ maximum bruise volume. A ‘multi-impact’ maximum bruise volume could not be calculated because at this stage of the research ‘a particle coordinate system’ is not yet included in the DEMeter++ software. A particle coordinate system is a local coordinate system of the particle saving on the point on the particle surface where the impact occurred. The coupling of the bruise volume with peak contact force, effective radius of curvature and the fruit properties was executed in MATLAB. The contact force model parameters that were utilized in the DEMeter++ simulations were identical in all simulations. For example no distinction was made between the contact force model parameters of apples at 1 and 20 ◦ C. The influence of fruit properties (ripeness, fruit temperature, etc.) on the contact force model parameters has not been investigated. The errors made by ignoring the differences in contact force model parameters on the overall bruise damage are difficult to estimate. However, because the statistical bruise models with either the impact energy (not influenced by fruit properties) or the peak contact force as independent variables indicated more or less the same effect of the fruit properties on the apple bruise volume (Van Zeebroeck, 2005), DEM simulations of apples with different fruit properties were considered meaningful. For all simulations the real time simulation time was 5 s. Longer simulation times are not needed to obtain the maximum bruise depth/volume of the particles (Van Zeebroeck et al., 2005). To reduce the simulation time, reduced dimensions of an apple bulk bin were used in some simulations. Holt and Schoorl (1983) showed that the total volume of bruised tissue in a package is independent of the package arrangement. Furthermore, the level of bruising in the various layers of the packs, measured as a percentage of the total bruise volume, is also independent of the package arrangement. Apples in packages will behave as if they were stacked in columns, with each apple vertically above the corresponding apple in the layer below. Based on the assumption that the behaviour of fruit can be modeled as a single column, the results of a bulk bin with reduced dimensions can be generalized to a full size bulk bin. The specifications for each simulation (acceleration signal, size of the box, number of particles, size of the particles) are given in Section 3.
3. Results and discussion 3.1. Effect of mechanical parameters on apple bruise damage during transport 3.1.1. Effect of vibration frequency on apple bruise damage Simulations were executed to quantify the effect of the vibration frequency on mechanical damage during the bulk
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of suspension has to shift the energy in the 1–5 Hz domain to frequencies above 5 Hz. Although the results of the simulations are in agreement with our field research (Deli et al., unpublished data) and the research by Timm et al. (1998), it is not in agreement with all the literature data. Some authors (O’Brien et al., 1965; Chesson and O’Brien, 1971; Armstrong et al., 1991) claimed that most mechanical damage to fruit must be found around the resonance frequency of the fruit column. The resonance frequency of the fruit was determined using the equations for longitudinal vibration of a bar with one end fixed (O’Brien et al., 1965):
Fig. 1. Effect of vibration frequency on the bruise depth of apples at constant peak acceleration of 1.4 g.
transport of apples. In the simulations 100 particles (apples) with a radius of 0.0325 m were used. The size of the box in the simulations was equal to 0.2 m × 0.2 m × 1 m leading to a stack height of ±0.57 m, the maximum stack height of apples during bulk transport in Belgium. The vertical vibration signal used in the simulations was a sine with varying frequency but with a constant peak acceleration of 1.4 g. To achieve this constant peak acceleration, the vertical displacement amplitude was adapted for each frequency. The peak acceleration of 1.4 g in the simulations was 0.2 g higher than the maximum peak acceleration in the vertical direction that was measured on the fork-lift of a tractor during apple harvest at the K.U. Leuven fruit orchard (Deli et al., unpublished data). Fig. 1 depicts the results of average maximum bruise depth of the apples for each frequency. It can be concluded that by far the most damage is contracted below the vibration frequency of 5 Hz. Bruise depths of 3 mm and less are only visible from the outside by a trained eye. According to the United States Standards for Grades of Apples (N.N., 2002), bruise depths less than 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) are considered not to lead to a quality reduction of the apple. For that reason this threshold was indicated in Fig. 1. By considering this threshold it can be concluded that frequencies above 5 Hz, even with a rather high peak acceleration of 1.4 g are not leading to damage visible by consumers. These results are in agreement with the literature. Timm et al. (1998) showed dominant force spectral densities between 1–2 and 3.5–4.5 Hz (measurement with force membranes during orchard bulk transport). Pressure spectral density (PSD) analysis of the pressure data measured using Tekscan® tactile films during orchard bulk transport confirms these results (Deli et al., unpublished data). It can be interesting to reduce all the vibrations below 5 Hz to diminish the apple bruise damage during bulk orchard transport. This could be achieved by equipping the fork-lift of the tractor with a semi-active or active suspension. This type
1 fn = 4λ
Eg τ
(1)
with fn is the resonance frequency (Hz); E the column elasticity of fruit (Pa); λ the stack height of fruit (m); τ the bulk density of fruit (kg/m3 ); g is the gravity force (9.81 m/s2 ). It would be expected that, when the resonance frequency for a given kind of fruit is in the middle of the range of that of the transport vehicle, resonant vibration will occur leading to peak acceleration and displacement amplitudes depending on the fruit’s freedom of motion. The freedom of motion is high for the upper layers but decreases rapidly with depth of the fruit in the stack. By applying Eq. (1) for the apples in the simulation, a resonance frequency around 14 Hz was calculated for the maximum stack height of 0.57 m. Experimental verification of the resonance frequency for apples was performed by Armstrong et al. (1991). Resonance was defined as the peak in visual movement (of the apples) around a certain frequency. Armstrong et al. (1991) showed, using a video camera, a peak in the motion of the apples, primarily in the top layers, for hard wood bins at 11 Hz and for rigid (metal) bins at 14 Hz. These results were confirmed by Timm et al. (1996). Nevertheless, in both studies no relationship was developed between the fruit column (resonance) frequency and the bruise damage. In the data presented in Fig. 1 no increase in the (average) bruise damage around the resonance frequency (14 Hz, because the box in the simulation is perfectly rigid) could be noted. In later analysis of the distribution of the bruise damage in the bulk stacking a small increase in the bruise damage around 14 Hz in the upper layers was noticed (see Table 6, Section 3.1.4). This increase is very low compared to the bruise damage below 5 Hz. It can be concluded that for apples the phenomenon of resonance vibration, in contrast with other fruit such as peaches (O’Brien et al., 1965), is not important. This is because besides ‘peak acceleration’, ‘column weight’ also affects the bruise damage. This is discussed in more detail in Section 3.1.4. Analysis of the vibration simulator utilized by O’Brien and Guillon (1969) showed that sinusoidal tests also were performed by increasing the vibration frequency without adapting the displacement amplitude leading to increased acceleration amplitudes. In our opinion, this is not the right
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method to test the effect of the frequency itself on the mechanical damage because the effect of the frequency is mixed with the effect of peak acceleration. However, this led to the idea to perform DEM simulations to further investigate the effect of the resonance frequency on bruise damage by performing simulations at different vibration frequencies but constant displacement amplitude (leading to higher peak accelerations by increasing frequency). The stack height of 0.57 m resulted in a maximum bruise depth around 14 Hz and according to Eq. (1) a lower stack height (0.297 m) resulted in a maximum bruise depth at a higher frequency (16 Hz) (data not shown). These simulations validate the theory of O’Brien on maximum bruise damage around the fruit column resonance frequency. Nevertheless, the mechanical damage around the fruit column resonance frequency is not important for practice (at least for apples) due to the following reasons:
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Fig. 2. Histogram of bruise depth for stack height of 0.57 m (200 particles) and acceleration amplitude of 0.8 g (vibration frequency of 4 Hz).
• The DEMeter++ simulations showed that a clear peak in apple bruise damage around the fruit column resonance frequency is only present at high acceleration levels, but these acceleration levels were not measured in practice (only shocks can lead to such high accelerations). • In studies with realistic acceleration levels in which either the damage to the apples was directly measured or the pressure between the apples (directly correlated with damage) frequencies below 5 Hz were always most harmful to the apples (Timm et al., 1998; Deli et al., unpublished data). 3.1.2. Effect of stack height on apple bruise damage The effect of stack height during bulk transport (in orchard) on apple damage was simulated. The simulations were performed with apples of middle diameter class (diameter class 75/80, uniform randomization of the radius between 0.0375 and 0.040 m). The size of the box in the simulation was 0.4 m × 0.4 m × 1.2 m. The vibration frequency was 4 Hz. The effect of stack height was tested at two different acceleration amplitudes: 0.5 and 0.8 g. 0.5 g is the minimum vertical acceleration measured during orchard bulk transport, 0.8 g is the average vertical acceleration amplitude during orchard bulk transport (Deli et al., unpublished data). In a completely filled bulk bin used in Belgium, the stack height is around 0.57 m. Simulations with this stack height were taken as reference. Simulations were also performed with a bulk bin with a stack height of 0.41 and 0.75 m (the latter means the use of higher bulk bins). Table 1 The number of apples with a bruise depth higher than 3 mm as a function of the stack height and acceleration amplitude (vibration frequency of 4 Hz) Stack height (m)
0.41 0.57 0.75
Peak acceleration 0.5 g
0.8 g
2/150 (1.3%) 16/200 (8.0%) 69/260 (26.5%)
9/150 (6.0%) 65/200 (32.5%) 153/260 (59%)
Fig. 3. Histogram of bruise depth for stack height of 0.75 m (260 particles) and acceleration amplitude of 0.8 g (vibration frequency of 4 Hz).
In Table 1, the number of apples with bruise depths higher than 3 mm (the American commercial threshold) is presented. Figs. 2 and 3 depict the histograms of maximum bruise depth for the simulation with 0.5 g acceleration amplitude and stack height 0.57 and 0.75 m, respectively. By analyzing the results of the simulations, it can be advised to keep the stack height at 0.57 m or to diminish the stack height. A substantial increase and decrease in bruise damage was noted for a stack height of 0.75 and 0.41 m, respectively. For higher peak acceleration (0.8 g compared to 0.5 g) the effect of stack height on apple bruise damage is more pronounced. As a general remark, the relative importance of the stack height could be dependent on the vibration frequency and the size of the apples but this was not investigated. 3.1.3. Effect of apple size on bruise damage The effect of apple size on apple damage during bulk transport was simulated. It was preferred to simulate the two extremes in apple size: small apples of diameter class
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Table 2 Number of apples with a bruise depth higher than 3 mm as a function of apple size (vibration frequency of 4 Hz and acceleration amplitude of 0.7 g) Radius of the apples
Number of apples with a bruise depth higher than 3 mm
0.0325 m (diameter class) 0.045 m (diameter class)
34/390 (9%) 77/140 (55%)
Fig. 4. Histogram of bruise depth for diameter class 85/90 (140 apples), vibration frequency of 4 Hz and acceleration amplitude of 0.7 g.
65/70 (radius of 0.0325 m) and large apples of diameter class 85/90 (radius of 0.045 m). The size of the box in the simulation was 0.4 m × 0.4 m × 1.2 m. The vibration frequency at all times was 4 Hz and the acceleration amplitude 0.7 g. For the simulations a stack height of 0.57 m (maximum stack height in Belgium) for both the small and large apples was chosen. In Table 2, the number of apples with a bruise depth beyond 3 mm is given. In Figs. 4 and 5, the histograms of the maximum bruise depth are shown for small and large apples
respectively. In percentage and even in absolute numbers, the small apples are less damaged than the large apples. As a general remark, the relative importance of the apple size on bruise damage could be dependent on the vibration frequency, stack height and acceleration amplitude, but this was not investigated here. 3.1.4. Spatial distribution of apple damage in bulk bins 3.1.4.1. Introduction. From a scientific viewpoint and possibly also from a practical viewpoint, interest exists in knowledge of the spatial distribution of mechanical damage in the bulk bins. In the literature, some contradictory results concerning this topic were found. O’Brien et al. (1965), cited by Mohsenin (1986), stated that fruit damage due to vibration gradually increases from the bottom layers to the upper layers. This work was based on peaches, but the conclusions were extended to all fruit. On the other hand, other research groups (Plumbee and Webb, 1974; Holt et al., 1981; Holt and Schoorl, 1985; Armstrong et al., 1991; Jones et al., 1991) and our own research (Deli et al., unpublished data) found the opposite effect: fruit damage gradually decreases from the bottom layers to the top layers. Except for the work of Plumbee et al. (1974) where peaches were used, all the work was done using apples. Simulations were executed in an attempt to clarify these contradictory results and to gain more insight into this topic. 3.1.4.2. Simulation of a real size bulk bin used in Belgium. In this simulation the vibration of a full size bulk bin (1.15 m × 0.96 m × 0.57 m) was simulated, entirely filled with 1500 apples of diameter class 75/80.The applied input acceleration signal had a frequency of 4 Hz and an acceleration amplitude of 0.5, 0.7 and 1.1 g. In Table 3, the number of apples with a bruise depth beyond 3 mm is presented for all three acceleration amplitudes. In Fig. 6, a spatial distribution is depicted for apples with a minimum bruise depth of 5 mm subjected to 1.1 g acceleration amplitude. A first conclusion is that most apple damage can be found in the bottom layers and the side walls of the bulk bin confirming the experimental results of Armstrong et al. (1991) (this becomes more clear when Fig. 6 is rotated in DEMeter++). A second conclusion is the presence of chains of apples with high damage in the centre of the apple stack as clearly seen in Fig. 7. This calls to mind the phenomena of force chains, well known in stacking of granular materials described by other researchers (Cates et al., 1999). Table 3 The number of apples with a bruise depth higher than 3 mm as a function of acceleration amplitude for a completely filled full size bulk bin (vibration frequency of 4 Hz)
Fig. 5. Histogram of bruise depth for diameter class 65/70 (390 apples), vibration frequency of 4 Hz and acceleration amplitude of 0.7 g.
Acceleration amplitude (g)
Apples with bruise depth above 3 mm
0.5 0.7 1.1
98/1500 (6.5%) 231/1500 (15.4%) 1040/1500 (69.3%)
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Fig. 6. Spatial distribution of apples with a maximum bruise depth of 5 mm and higher for the acceleration amplitude 1.1 g. Dark grey: apples with a maximum bruise depth more than 5 mm; light grey: remaining apples.
Fig. 7. Spatial distribution of apples with a maximum bruise depth of 5 mm and higher for an acceleration amplitude of 1.1 g. Apples with a maximum bruise depth less than 5 mm are invisible.
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3.1.4.3. Detailed study of the relation bruise damage– position. The MATLAB bruise analysis program divides the stack into six equal horizontal parts and calculates the average maximum bruise depth in each horizontal part. The size of the box in the simulations was 0.2 m × 0.2 m × 1 m. Simulations were performed with 50 and 100 particles. With 100 apples in the simulation the maximum stack height of 0.57 m was reached and with 50 apples the stack height of 0.297 m was obtained. The radius of the apples in all simulations was 0.0325 m (smallest size of commercialized apples). In Tables 4 and 5, the effect of the acceleration amplitude on the spatial distribution of the average maximum bruise depth per part is presented for stack heights 0.57 m (100 apples) and 0.297 m (50 apples), respectively. The standard deviation of the maximum bruise depth for the bottom horizontal part was around 1 mm, for the other parts it was around 0.5 mm. It can be concluded that bruise damage increases gradually from the upper layers to the bottom layers, but there are some exceptions. The top part contracted more bruise damage than the part just below it in the case of acceleration amplitudes of 1.3 g and higher. It was noted that in the case of 50 apples the differences between the layers were less pronounced than in the case of the 100 apple simulation. In the case of the 50 apples simulation (situation of bulk bin filled for 50%), starting from 1.5 g, the upper part contracted as much bruise damage as the bottom part while the parts in between contracted less bruise damage. Besides the effect of the peak acceleration, the effect of the vibration frequency on spatial distribution of the apple bruise damage was also investigated. Table 6 depicts the effect of vibration frequency on the spatial distribution of the apple bruise damage for acceleration amplitude 1.4 g. Starting from a vibration frequency of 2 Hz the bruise damage is without exception increasing from the upper layers to the bottom layers. A vibration frequency of 1 Hz gave rise to a more or less equal distribution of the bruise damage. The results of the apple bruise damage in the different simulations can be explained by two conflicting processes. These two processes are ‘peak acceleration’ and ‘weight pres-
Table 4 Simulation of the effect of acceleration amplitude on the distribution of the bruise damage (average maximum bruise depth) for stack height 0.57 m Acceleration amplitude (g)
Part 1 (top)
Part 2
Part 3
Part 4
Part 5
Part 6 (bottom)
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 2 3
0 0 0.004 0.289 1.547 2.989 2.257 3.136 3.455 3.700 4.131 5.602
0 0.021 0.038 0.373 1.678 2.521 1.974 3.032 2.932 3.231 3.741 5.289
0.067 0.765 0.814 0.666 1.444 3.215 2.330 3.471 3.592 3.778 4.623 6.0827
0.635 1.393 0.974 2.335 2.758 4.024 3.266 4.692 5.317 4.825 5.342 7.613
2.699 2.404 2.400 4.666 3.989 5.312 4.873 6.084 5.437 6.145 6.858 8.959
3.494 3.222 3.796 5.311 5.468 6.748 7.123 7.302 7.401 8.037 7.532 10.727
Average maximum bruise depth in (mm). Acceleration signal: sine with frequency of 4 Hz.
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Table 5 Simulation of the effect of acceleration amplitude on the distribution of the bruise damage (average maximum bruise depth) for stack height 0.297 m Acceleration amplitude (g)
Part 1 (top)
Part 2
Part 3
Part 4
Part 5
Part 6 (bottom)
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 2
0 0 0 0.609 0 0.602 0.795 4.047 3.551 4.056 5.674
0 0 0 0.226 0 0.559 1.041 3.282 2.869 2.890 5.731
0 0 0 0.051 0 0.515 0.619 3.030 3.788 2.951 5.746
0 0 0 0 0.226 0.815 0.912 2.284 3.442 3.410 5.416
0.0711 0 0.114 0.187 0.712 1.367 1.538 2.977 3.795 3.942 5.381
0.00568 0 0.186 0.414 0.416 0.822 1.731 3.236 4.460 4.184 5.633
Average maximum bruise depth in (mm). Acceleration signal: sine with frequency of 4 Hz.
Table 6 Simulation of the effect of vibration frequency on the distribution of the bruise damage (average maximum bruise depth) for stack height 0.57 m Frequency (Hz)
Displacement amplitude (m)
Part 1 (top)
Part 2
Part 3
Part 4
Part 5
Part 6 (bottom)
1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.3478 0.0869 0.0217 0.0097 0.0054 0.0035 0.0024 0.0018 0.0014 0.0011
9.92 7.00 2.07 0.02 0 0 0 0.12 0 0
10.28 6.71 4.41 0.13 0.19 0 0 0 0 0
10.30 8.27 4.62 1.16 1.31 0.61 0.17 0.07 0.67 0.23
9.37 10.04 5.87 3.05 2.93 1.19 0.49 0.59 0.63 0.05
8.55 12.45 6.62 3.62 3.52 1.76 1.07 0.36 0.32 0.42
11.69 13.59 9.52 4.72 4.41 3.68 1.98 1.68 1.12 1.35
Acceleration signal with constant acceleration amplitude of 1.4 g.
sure’. Higher acceleration levels of the individual particles will cause higher contact forces leading to higher damage. Higher weight pressure experienced by an individual particle (column weight) leads to higher contact forces (and damage) as well. It is known from the literature (O’Brien et al., 1965) and our own research (Deli et al., unpublished data) that peak accelerations of the individual particles (apples) increases gradually from the bottom layers to the top layers. This peak acceleration argument was described by O’Brien et al. (1965) as the only explanation for the higher mechanical damage in upper layers of peaches. However, the second process of ‘weight pressure’ is also an important factor determining mechanical fruit damage. Bollen et al. (2001) mentioned this argument as the only explanation for the higher apple damage in the bottom layers, proposing that apples submitted to ‘higher static forces also experience higher dynamic forces’. In reality, both processes have their importance. Because ‘peak acceleration’ and ‘weight pressure’ are conflicting processes: peak acceleration increases with height and weight pressure decreases with height (reference point is the bottom of the fruit box/bin), the resulting fruit damage is highly dependent on the equilibrium of certain parameters. The conflicting results in the literature are a result of this equilibrium.
The following parameters are important in this equilibrium: 1. 2. 3. 4.
stack height (demonstrated), acceleration amplitude of vibration signal (demonstrated), vibration frequency (demonstrated), mass of individual particles (both intra and inter species differences), 5. impact characteristics (spring-damper) (both intra and inter species differences). 3.2. Effect of fruit properties on apple bruise damage 3.2.1. Effect of apple temperature on bruise damage A significant interaction between fruit temperature and peak contact force has been indicated (Van Zeebroeck, 2005), and therefore simulations were carried out making use of Table 7 Numbers of apples with a maximum bruise volume higher than 500 mm3 as a function of the acceleration amplitude and apple temperature Acceleration amplitude (g)
Apple temperature (◦ C) 1
20
0.5 0.7
31/1500 (2.1%) 110/1500 (7.3%)
24/1500 (1.6%) 77/1500 (5.1%)
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Table 8 The average maximum bruise volume (mm3 ) and the standard deviation of the maximum bruise volume (mm3 ) as a function of ripeness stage and acceleration amplitude Acceleration amplitude (g)
Harvest date 10 days earlier
Optimal harvest date
10 days later
0.5 0.7
69 (115%) a ± 135 128 (112%) A ± 193
60 (100%) b ± 122 114 (100%) B ± 177
50 (83%) c ± 107 96 (84%) C ± 158
Letters a, b, c and A, B, C indicate significant difference on the 95% level. Table 9 The average maximum bruise volume (mm3 ) and the standard deviation of the maximum bruise volume (mm3 ) as a function of acoustic stiffness and acceleration amplitude Acceleration amplitude (g)
0.5 0.7
Acoustic stiffness 25 (×106 Hz2 g2/3 )
30 (×106 Hz2 g2/3 )
35 (×106 Hz2 g2/3 )
75 (106%) a ± 137 134 (101%) A ± 187
71 (100%) a ± 141 133 (100%) A ± 200
67 (94%) a ± 147 131 (98%) A ± 214
Letters a and A indicate no significant difference on the 95% level.
different acceleration amplitudes. The apple temperatures simulated were 1 and 20 ◦ C and the acceleration amplitudes applied 0.5 and 0.7 g. The simulations were performed with apples of the optimal harvest date. The vibration of a full size bulk bin (1.15 m × 0.96 m × 0.57 m) was simulated, entirely filled with 1500 apples of diameter class 75/80. The vibration signal was a sine with a frequency of 4 Hz. Table 7 indicates the number of apples with a maximum bruise volume higher than 500 mm3 . The edge of 500 mm3 bruise volume was chosen because bruise volumes higher than 500 mm3 are easily noticed by the consumers (Van Zeebroeck, 2005). From the simulations it can be concluded that apples at 1 ◦ C are more damaged than apples at 20 ◦ C due to vibration during transport. It can be concluded that at high acceleration amplitudes (‘rough handling’) the effect of temperature on the apple bruise damage is more pronounced. 3.2.2. Effect of harvest date on bruise damage In Table 8, the effect of apple harvest date on the average maximum bruise volume is presented for three different harvest dates and two different acceleration amplitudes. The apples in the simulation were at room temperature. The vibration of a full size bulk bin (1.15 m × 0.96 m × 0.57 m) was simulated, entirely filled with 1500 apples of diameter class 75/80. The vibration signal was a sine with a frequency of 4 Hz. It can be concluded that early harvested apples are more easily damaged during transport, compared to apples harvested on the optimal harvest date (optimal harvest date is defined by the equilibrium between shelf-life and taste, determined by the Flanders Centre of Postharvest Technology). The opposite is true for later harvested apples. The interaction of the harvest date with the peak contact force (Van Zeebroeck, 2005) is not pronounced because of the small difference between the acceleration amplitudes. The high standard deviation of the maximum bruise volume in Table 8 is due to the bruise damage–apple position in stacking relation described in Section 3.1.4. Although there is a
high standard deviation, significant differences (* P < 0.05) in maximum bruise volume between the simulations were identified. 3.2.3. Effect of apple acoustic stiffness on bruise damage In Table 9, the effect of acoustic stiffness on the average maximum bruise volume is presented for three different acoustic stiffness and two different acceleration amplitudes. The apples in the simulation were at room temperature and were harvested at the optimal harvest date. The vibration of a full size bulk bin (1.15 m × 0.96 m × 0.57 m) was simulated, entirely filled with 1500 apples of diameter class 75/80. The vibration signal was a sine with a frequency of 4 Hz. It can be concluded that stiffer apples at the acceleration amplitude of 0.5 g (gently handled apples) experience less bruising. To the contrary, almost no effect of acoustic stiffness was noted for apples at the acceleration amplitude of 0.7 g (more roughly handled apples). This can be explained by the acoustic stiffness–peak contact force interaction of the bruise model (Van Zeebroeck, 2005). High acoustic stiffness has a positive effect on bruise damage for low impacts (0.5 g acceleration amplitude), for medium impacts (0.7 g) no effect of acoustic stiffness was identified. On the other hand, for high impacts the acoustic stiffness has a negative effect on bruise damage (>0.7 g), however this has not been demonstrated here. The high standard deviation of the maximum bruise volume in Table 9 is due to the bruise damage–apple position in stacking relation described in Section 3.1.4. No significant differences between the simulations were identified (* P < 0.05).
4. Conclusions This paper involved a case study in which both the influence of mechanical parameters and fruit properties on vibration damage of apples were investigated. As acceleration input, a sine in the vertical direction was utilized. Appro-
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priate contact force model parameters and bruise prediction models were applied (Van Zeebroeck, 2005; Van Zeebroeck et al., 2006). The investigated mechanical parameters were peak acceleration and frequency of the vibration signal, stack height and size of the apples. The fruit properties under research were apple temperature, acoustic stiffness and harvest date. As a general conclusion, it can be stated that major influences of mechanical parameters on the vibration damage were identified, in particular stack height and fruit size, and minor influences of fruit properties. In the case of acceleration amplitudes occurring in practice (below 2 g), the apple bruise damage gradually decreases with increasing vibration frequency. This statement confirms most studies described in the literature. The phenomenon of a resonance frequency (described by O’Brien et al. (1965) for most fruit, except apples) was only clearly identified for high acceleration amplitudes not occurring in practice. In addition a study was performed to investigate the relation between apple positions in the stacking and bruise damage. It was demonstrated that the position–bruise damage relation depends on the acceleration amplitude, vibration frequency and stack height. For full bulk bins the apple bruise damage gradually increased from top to bottom for peak acceleration below 1.3 g for all frequencies. For higher peak accelerations (rare in practice) the top layers contracted slightly more bruise damage than the layers just below. The apple bruise damage of the other layers, however, still gradually increased from top to bottom. On the other hand a more or less uniform distribution of the apple bruise damage was identified in the half-full bins. The distribution of the bruise damage can be explained by the balance between two conflicting processes: the column weight of the apples and the peak acceleration of the individual apples. The existence of damage chains within the centre of the apple stack was also identified. This is in accordance with the well-known force chains in bulk materials.
Acknowledgments The authors thank the Fund for Scientific Research– Flanders (FWO) and the Institute for Promotion of Innovation by Science and Technology in Flanders (IWT).
References Armstrong, P.A., Timm, E.J., Schulte, N.L., 1991. Apple bruising in bulk bins during road transport. ASAE Paper No. 91-1020, St. Joseph, Michigan. Bollen, A.F., Timm, E.J., Dela Rue, B.T., 2001. Relation of individual forces on apples and bruising during orchard transport of bulk bins. Appl. Eng. Agric. 17, 193–200.
Cates, M.E., Wittmer, J.P., Bouchaud, J.-P., Claudin, P., 1999. Jamming and stress propagation in particulate matter. Physica A 263, 354– 361. Chen, H., De Baerdemaeker, J., 1995. Optimisation of impact parameters for reliable excitation of apples during firmness monitoring. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 61, 275–282. Chesson, J.H., O’Brien, M., 1971. Analysis of mechanical vibration of fruit during transportation. Trans. ASAE, Paper No. 69-628. De Baerdemaeker, J., Lemaitre, L., Meire, R., 1982. Quality detection by frequency spectrum analysis of the fruit impact force. Trans. ASAE, Paper No. 79-3060. De Ketelaere, B., De Baerdemaeker, J., 2001. Advances in spectral analysis of vibrations for non-destructive determination of tomato firmness. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 78, 177–185. Holt, J.E., Schoorl, D., 1983. The robustness of a model predicting bruising in impacted multilayered apple packs. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 28, 97–105. Holt, J.E., Schoorl, D., 1985. A theoretical and experimental analysis of the effects of suspension an road profile on bruising in multilayered apple packs. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 31, 297–308. Holt, J.E., Schoorl, D., Lucas, C., 1981. Prediction of bruising in impacted multilayered apple packs. Trans. ASAE 24, 242–247. Jones, C.S., Holt, J.E., Schoorl, D., 1991. A model to predict damage to horticultural produce during transport. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 50, 259–272. Mohsenin, N.N., 1986. Physical Properties of Plant and Animal Materials. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York. N.N., 2002. United States standards for grades of apples. United States department of Agriculture. O’Brien, M., Claypool, L.L., Leonard, S.J., York, G.K., McGillivray, J.H., 1963. Causes of Fruit Bruising on Transport Trucks. Hilgardia 35, 113–124. O’Brien, M., Gentry, J.P., Gibson, R.C., 1965. Vibrating characteristics of fruit as related to in-transit injury. Trans. ASAE 8, 241– 243. O’Brien, M., Guillon, R., 1969. An in-transit vibration simulator for fruithandling studies. Trans. ASAE, Paper No. 68–119. Plumbee, T.W., Webb, B.K., 1974. Effects of frequency and acceleration on peach bruising during transit. ASAE Paper No. 74-3514, St. Joseph, Michigan. Rong, G.H., Negi, S.C., Jofriet, J.C., 1993. DEM simulations of in-transit fruit damage. ASAE Paper No. 93-6503, St. Joseph, Michigan. Schoorl, D., Holt, J.E., 1982. Fresh fruit and vegetable distribution— management of quality. Sci. Hort. 17, 1–8. Singh, S.P., Xu, M., 1993. Bruising in apples as a function of truck vibration and packaging. Appl. Eng. Agric. 9, 455–460. Timm, E.J., Bollen, A.F., Dela Rue, B.T., Woodhead, I.M., 1998. Apple damage and compressive forces in bulk bins during orchard transport. Appl. Eng. Agric. 14, 165–172. Timm, E.J., Brown, G.K., Armstrong, P.R., 1996. Apple damage in bulk bins during semi-trailer transport. Appl. Eng. Agric. 12, 369– 377. Van Zeebroeck, M., 2005. The discrete element method (DEM) to simulate fruit impact damage during transport and handling. PhD Thesis No 643, Faculty of Applied Bioscience and Engineering, Catholic University Leuven. Van Zeebroeck, M., Tijskens, E., Dintwa, E., Kafashan, J., Loodts, J., De Baerdemaeker, J., Ramon, H., 2006. The discrete element method (DEM) to simulate fruit impact damage during transport and handling: model building and validation of DEM to predict bruise damage of apples. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 41, 85–91.
The discrete element method (DEM) to simulate fruit impact damage during transport and handling: Case study of vibration damage during apple bulk transport M. Van Zeebroeck ∗ , E. Tijskens, E. Dintwa, J. Kafashan, J. Loodts, J. De Baerdemaeker, H. Ramon Laboratory for Agro Machinery and Processing, Catholic University Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 30, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium Received 2 May 2005; accepted 14 February 2006
Abstract Making use of the discrete element method (DEM) a study is presented on the influence of mechanical parameters (vibration frequency and acceleration amplitude, apple size, stack height) and fruit properties (apple harvest date, apple temperature, apple acoustic stiffness) on vibration damage of apples. As acceleration input a sine in the vertical direction was used. Realistic parameters of the Kuwabara and Kono [Kuwabara, G., Kono, K., 1987. Restitution coefficient in a collision between two spheres. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 26, 1230–1233] contact force model for ‘Jonagold’ apples and bruise prediction models were applied. As a general conclusion, major influences of mechanical parameters on the vibration damage were identified, in particular stack height and fruit size, and minor influences of fruit properties. Also a detailed study was performed to investigate the relation between apple positions in the stacking and bruise damage. It was demonstrated that the position–bruise damage relation depends on the acceleration amplitude, vibration frequency and stack height. The existence of damage chains within the centre of the apple stack was also identified, that is in accordance with the well-known force chains in bulk materials. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Discrete element method; Fruit; Apple; Bruise; Vibration; Simulation
1. Introduction The distribution of fruit involves both handling and transportation, and as a result, considerable product damage occurs at various stages throughout the distribution system. The factors affecting damage are the same for all fruit, i.e. the physical properties of the fruit itself, the static and dynamic performance of the packaging and containers, the influence of individual fruit and neighboring fruit in modifying the impact and vibration input, the energy inputs to the system from handling at loading and sorting stages and from the transport operations from farm, through markets, to retail outlet. These factors are inter-related and together control the amount of fruit damage (Schoorl and Holt, 1982). Singh and Xu (1993) reported that as many as 80% of apples can be damaged during simulated transportation by ∗
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truck, depending on the type of truck, package and position of the container along the column. A considerable amount of experimental work has been done in fruit bruise damage (mostly apples and peaches) due to vibrations during transport (both continuous and transient vibrations) (O’Brien et al., 1963, 1965; Chesson and O’Brien, 1971; Plumbee and Webb, 1974; Holt and Schoorl, 1985; Schoorl and Holt, 1982; Armstrong et al., 1991; Jones et al., 1991; Singh and Xu, 1993; Timm et al., 1996, 1998; Bollen et al., 2001). Although these experimental studies gave many insights into the mechanisms causing fruit vibration damage, a lot of contradictory results emerged as well. Besides, extensive experimental work, few simulation models associated with some simple laboratory tests have been developed. The road–vehicle–load systems by Holt and Schoorl (1985) and Jones et al. (1991) using energy dissipation mechanisms for modelling a single column apple pack seem valuable and pioneering. However, the difficulty in modelling such a system is increased when a large quantity of fruit is involved. In an attempt to resolve
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this problem, pioneering research in DEM modelling of fruit bruise damage due to vibration has been executed by Rong et al. (1993). Rong et al. (1993) indicated that the experimental results by Holt and Schoorl (1985) could be reproduced by DEM. Only the effect of transient vibrations (shocks) on apple bruise damage, not continuous vibrations, were simulated. The simulation comprised a simulation of 12 apples (three rows of four apples) in two dimensions. Ten years later, computer CPU time has decreased considerably and 3D DEM computer models with thousands of particles have become available. A 3D DEM computer model for fruit has been described and validated for its applicability in predicting the bruise damage of ‘Jonagold’ apples by the authors (Van Zeebroeck et al., 2006). The validation step was necessary to proceed to the next step: the execution of simulations without experimental validation to gain insight into the process of bruising during transport and handling. The objective of this paper is, using a DEM computer model, to investigate fruit bruise damage due to continuous vibrations during transport and to clarify some contradictory results that emerged from experimental studies. Using the shaking box application compiled from the DEMeter++ library (Van Zeebroeck et al., in press), the effect of mechanical parameters (vibration frequency, stack height, size of the fruit) and fruit properties (ripeness, acoustic stiffness and temperature) on fruit bruise damage was investigated.
2. Materials and methods In the simulations the same parameters for the normal and tangential contact force model were used as described in Van Zeebroeck et al. (2006). In the simulations of the effect of mechanical parameters on apple bruise damage, the bruise prediction model with the bruise depth as dependent variable and peak contact force and effective radius of curvature as independent variable were applied (Van Zeebroeck et al., 2005). In the simulations of the effect of the fruit properties on bruise damage, statistical bruise prediction models were applied with the bruise volume as dependent variable and besides the peak contact force and effective radius of curvature, also apple temperature, apple acoustic stiffness and harvest date as independent variables (Van Zeebroeck, 2005). The acoustic stiffness applied in the simulations (Table 9) and in the statistical bruise prediction models was determined by the acoustic impulse technique (De Baerdemaeker et al., 1982; Chen and De Baerdemaeker, 1995; De Ketelaere and De Baerdemaeker, 2001) as measured by the commercial AWETA® firmness sensor (AFS, Aweta, Nootdorp, The Netherlands). The maximum bruise depth or volume of an individual particle (apple) contracted during the total simulation time was taken as the evaluation parameter in the simulations. The average maximum bruise depth or volume is the average of the maximum bruise damage of all the particles in the
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simulation after the total simulation time. In the case of the bruise volume this must be interpreted as the ‘single impact’ maximum bruise volume. A ‘multi-impact’ maximum bruise volume could not be calculated because at this stage of the research ‘a particle coordinate system’ is not yet included in the DEMeter++ software. A particle coordinate system is a local coordinate system of the particle saving on the point on the particle surface where the impact occurred. The coupling of the bruise volume with peak contact force, effective radius of curvature and the fruit properties was executed in MATLAB. The contact force model parameters that were utilized in the DEMeter++ simulations were identical in all simulations. For example no distinction was made between the contact force model parameters of apples at 1 and 20 ◦ C. The influence of fruit properties (ripeness, fruit temperature, etc.) on the contact force model parameters has not been investigated. The errors made by ignoring the differences in contact force model parameters on the overall bruise damage are difficult to estimate. However, because the statistical bruise models with either the impact energy (not influenced by fruit properties) or the peak contact force as independent variables indicated more or less the same effect of the fruit properties on the apple bruise volume (Van Zeebroeck, 2005), DEM simulations of apples with different fruit properties were considered meaningful. For all simulations the real time simulation time was 5 s. Longer simulation times are not needed to obtain the maximum bruise depth/volume of the particles (Van Zeebroeck et al., 2005). To reduce the simulation time, reduced dimensions of an apple bulk bin were used in some simulations. Holt and Schoorl (1983) showed that the total volume of bruised tissue in a package is independent of the package arrangement. Furthermore, the level of bruising in the various layers of the packs, measured as a percentage of the total bruise volume, is also independent of the package arrangement. Apples in packages will behave as if they were stacked in columns, with each apple vertically above the corresponding apple in the layer below. Based on the assumption that the behaviour of fruit can be modeled as a single column, the results of a bulk bin with reduced dimensions can be generalized to a full size bulk bin. The specifications for each simulation (acceleration signal, size of the box, number of particles, size of the particles) are given in Section 3.
3. Results and discussion 3.1. Effect of mechanical parameters on apple bruise damage during transport 3.1.1. Effect of vibration frequency on apple bruise damage Simulations were executed to quantify the effect of the vibration frequency on mechanical damage during the bulk
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of suspension has to shift the energy in the 1–5 Hz domain to frequencies above 5 Hz. Although the results of the simulations are in agreement with our field research (Deli et al., unpublished data) and the research by Timm et al. (1998), it is not in agreement with all the literature data. Some authors (O’Brien et al., 1965; Chesson and O’Brien, 1971; Armstrong et al., 1991) claimed that most mechanical damage to fruit must be found around the resonance frequency of the fruit column. The resonance frequency of the fruit was determined using the equations for longitudinal vibration of a bar with one end fixed (O’Brien et al., 1965):
Fig. 1. Effect of vibration frequency on the bruise depth of apples at constant peak acceleration of 1.4 g.
transport of apples. In the simulations 100 particles (apples) with a radius of 0.0325 m were used. The size of the box in the simulations was equal to 0.2 m × 0.2 m × 1 m leading to a stack height of ±0.57 m, the maximum stack height of apples during bulk transport in Belgium. The vertical vibration signal used in the simulations was a sine with varying frequency but with a constant peak acceleration of 1.4 g. To achieve this constant peak acceleration, the vertical displacement amplitude was adapted for each frequency. The peak acceleration of 1.4 g in the simulations was 0.2 g higher than the maximum peak acceleration in the vertical direction that was measured on the fork-lift of a tractor during apple harvest at the K.U. Leuven fruit orchard (Deli et al., unpublished data). Fig. 1 depicts the results of average maximum bruise depth of the apples for each frequency. It can be concluded that by far the most damage is contracted below the vibration frequency of 5 Hz. Bruise depths of 3 mm and less are only visible from the outside by a trained eye. According to the United States Standards for Grades of Apples (N.N., 2002), bruise depths less than 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) are considered not to lead to a quality reduction of the apple. For that reason this threshold was indicated in Fig. 1. By considering this threshold it can be concluded that frequencies above 5 Hz, even with a rather high peak acceleration of 1.4 g are not leading to damage visible by consumers. These results are in agreement with the literature. Timm et al. (1998) showed dominant force spectral densities between 1–2 and 3.5–4.5 Hz (measurement with force membranes during orchard bulk transport). Pressure spectral density (PSD) analysis of the pressure data measured using Tekscan® tactile films during orchard bulk transport confirms these results (Deli et al., unpublished data). It can be interesting to reduce all the vibrations below 5 Hz to diminish the apple bruise damage during bulk orchard transport. This could be achieved by equipping the fork-lift of the tractor with a semi-active or active suspension. This type
1 fn = 4λ
Eg τ
(1)
with fn is the resonance frequency (Hz); E the column elasticity of fruit (Pa); λ the stack height of fruit (m); τ the bulk density of fruit (kg/m3 ); g is the gravity force (9.81 m/s2 ). It would be expected that, when the resonance frequency for a given kind of fruit is in the middle of the range of that of the transport vehicle, resonant vibration will occur leading to peak acceleration and displacement amplitudes depending on the fruit’s freedom of motion. The freedom of motion is high for the upper layers but decreases rapidly with depth of the fruit in the stack. By applying Eq. (1) for the apples in the simulation, a resonance frequency around 14 Hz was calculated for the maximum stack height of 0.57 m. Experimental verification of the resonance frequency for apples was performed by Armstrong et al. (1991). Resonance was defined as the peak in visual movement (of the apples) around a certain frequency. Armstrong et al. (1991) showed, using a video camera, a peak in the motion of the apples, primarily in the top layers, for hard wood bins at 11 Hz and for rigid (metal) bins at 14 Hz. These results were confirmed by Timm et al. (1996). Nevertheless, in both studies no relationship was developed between the fruit column (resonance) frequency and the bruise damage. In the data presented in Fig. 1 no increase in the (average) bruise damage around the resonance frequency (14 Hz, because the box in the simulation is perfectly rigid) could be noted. In later analysis of the distribution of the bruise damage in the bulk stacking a small increase in the bruise damage around 14 Hz in the upper layers was noticed (see Table 6, Section 3.1.4). This increase is very low compared to the bruise damage below 5 Hz. It can be concluded that for apples the phenomenon of resonance vibration, in contrast with other fruit such as peaches (O’Brien et al., 1965), is not important. This is because besides ‘peak acceleration’, ‘column weight’ also affects the bruise damage. This is discussed in more detail in Section 3.1.4. Analysis of the vibration simulator utilized by O’Brien and Guillon (1969) showed that sinusoidal tests also were performed by increasing the vibration frequency without adapting the displacement amplitude leading to increased acceleration amplitudes. In our opinion, this is not the right
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method to test the effect of the frequency itself on the mechanical damage because the effect of the frequency is mixed with the effect of peak acceleration. However, this led to the idea to perform DEM simulations to further investigate the effect of the resonance frequency on bruise damage by performing simulations at different vibration frequencies but constant displacement amplitude (leading to higher peak accelerations by increasing frequency). The stack height of 0.57 m resulted in a maximum bruise depth around 14 Hz and according to Eq. (1) a lower stack height (0.297 m) resulted in a maximum bruise depth at a higher frequency (16 Hz) (data not shown). These simulations validate the theory of O’Brien on maximum bruise damage around the fruit column resonance frequency. Nevertheless, the mechanical damage around the fruit column resonance frequency is not important for practice (at least for apples) due to the following reasons:
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Fig. 2. Histogram of bruise depth for stack height of 0.57 m (200 particles) and acceleration amplitude of 0.8 g (vibration frequency of 4 Hz).
• The DEMeter++ simulations showed that a clear peak in apple bruise damage around the fruit column resonance frequency is only present at high acceleration levels, but these acceleration levels were not measured in practice (only shocks can lead to such high accelerations). • In studies with realistic acceleration levels in which either the damage to the apples was directly measured or the pressure between the apples (directly correlated with damage) frequencies below 5 Hz were always most harmful to the apples (Timm et al., 1998; Deli et al., unpublished data). 3.1.2. Effect of stack height on apple bruise damage The effect of stack height during bulk transport (in orchard) on apple damage was simulated. The simulations were performed with apples of middle diameter class (diameter class 75/80, uniform randomization of the radius between 0.0375 and 0.040 m). The size of the box in the simulation was 0.4 m × 0.4 m × 1.2 m. The vibration frequency was 4 Hz. The effect of stack height was tested at two different acceleration amplitudes: 0.5 and 0.8 g. 0.5 g is the minimum vertical acceleration measured during orchard bulk transport, 0.8 g is the average vertical acceleration amplitude during orchard bulk transport (Deli et al., unpublished data). In a completely filled bulk bin used in Belgium, the stack height is around 0.57 m. Simulations with this stack height were taken as reference. Simulations were also performed with a bulk bin with a stack height of 0.41 and 0.75 m (the latter means the use of higher bulk bins). Table 1 The number of apples with a bruise depth higher than 3 mm as a function of the stack height and acceleration amplitude (vibration frequency of 4 Hz) Stack height (m)
0.41 0.57 0.75
Peak acceleration 0.5 g
0.8 g
2/150 (1.3%) 16/200 (8.0%) 69/260 (26.5%)
9/150 (6.0%) 65/200 (32.5%) 153/260 (59%)
Fig. 3. Histogram of bruise depth for stack height of 0.75 m (260 particles) and acceleration amplitude of 0.8 g (vibration frequency of 4 Hz).
In Table 1, the number of apples with bruise depths higher than 3 mm (the American commercial threshold) is presented. Figs. 2 and 3 depict the histograms of maximum bruise depth for the simulation with 0.5 g acceleration amplitude and stack height 0.57 and 0.75 m, respectively. By analyzing the results of the simulations, it can be advised to keep the stack height at 0.57 m or to diminish the stack height. A substantial increase and decrease in bruise damage was noted for a stack height of 0.75 and 0.41 m, respectively. For higher peak acceleration (0.8 g compared to 0.5 g) the effect of stack height on apple bruise damage is more pronounced. As a general remark, the relative importance of the stack height could be dependent on the vibration frequency and the size of the apples but this was not investigated. 3.1.3. Effect of apple size on bruise damage The effect of apple size on apple damage during bulk transport was simulated. It was preferred to simulate the two extremes in apple size: small apples of diameter class
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Table 2 Number of apples with a bruise depth higher than 3 mm as a function of apple size (vibration frequency of 4 Hz and acceleration amplitude of 0.7 g) Radius of the apples
Number of apples with a bruise depth higher than 3 mm
0.0325 m (diameter class) 0.045 m (diameter class)
34/390 (9%) 77/140 (55%)
Fig. 4. Histogram of bruise depth for diameter class 85/90 (140 apples), vibration frequency of 4 Hz and acceleration amplitude of 0.7 g.
65/70 (radius of 0.0325 m) and large apples of diameter class 85/90 (radius of 0.045 m). The size of the box in the simulation was 0.4 m × 0.4 m × 1.2 m. The vibration frequency at all times was 4 Hz and the acceleration amplitude 0.7 g. For the simulations a stack height of 0.57 m (maximum stack height in Belgium) for both the small and large apples was chosen. In Table 2, the number of apples with a bruise depth beyond 3 mm is given. In Figs. 4 and 5, the histograms of the maximum bruise depth are shown for small and large apples
respectively. In percentage and even in absolute numbers, the small apples are less damaged than the large apples. As a general remark, the relative importance of the apple size on bruise damage could be dependent on the vibration frequency, stack height and acceleration amplitude, but this was not investigated here. 3.1.4. Spatial distribution of apple damage in bulk bins 3.1.4.1. Introduction. From a scientific viewpoint and possibly also from a practical viewpoint, interest exists in knowledge of the spatial distribution of mechanical damage in the bulk bins. In the literature, some contradictory results concerning this topic were found. O’Brien et al. (1965), cited by Mohsenin (1986), stated that fruit damage due to vibration gradually increases from the bottom layers to the upper layers. This work was based on peaches, but the conclusions were extended to all fruit. On the other hand, other research groups (Plumbee and Webb, 1974; Holt et al., 1981; Holt and Schoorl, 1985; Armstrong et al., 1991; Jones et al., 1991) and our own research (Deli et al., unpublished data) found the opposite effect: fruit damage gradually decreases from the bottom layers to the top layers. Except for the work of Plumbee et al. (1974) where peaches were used, all the work was done using apples. Simulations were executed in an attempt to clarify these contradictory results and to gain more insight into this topic. 3.1.4.2. Simulation of a real size bulk bin used in Belgium. In this simulation the vibration of a full size bulk bin (1.15 m × 0.96 m × 0.57 m) was simulated, entirely filled with 1500 apples of diameter class 75/80.The applied input acceleration signal had a frequency of 4 Hz and an acceleration amplitude of 0.5, 0.7 and 1.1 g. In Table 3, the number of apples with a bruise depth beyond 3 mm is presented for all three acceleration amplitudes. In Fig. 6, a spatial distribution is depicted for apples with a minimum bruise depth of 5 mm subjected to 1.1 g acceleration amplitude. A first conclusion is that most apple damage can be found in the bottom layers and the side walls of the bulk bin confirming the experimental results of Armstrong et al. (1991) (this becomes more clear when Fig. 6 is rotated in DEMeter++). A second conclusion is the presence of chains of apples with high damage in the centre of the apple stack as clearly seen in Fig. 7. This calls to mind the phenomena of force chains, well known in stacking of granular materials described by other researchers (Cates et al., 1999). Table 3 The number of apples with a bruise depth higher than 3 mm as a function of acceleration amplitude for a completely filled full size bulk bin (vibration frequency of 4 Hz)
Fig. 5. Histogram of bruise depth for diameter class 65/70 (390 apples), vibration frequency of 4 Hz and acceleration amplitude of 0.7 g.
Acceleration amplitude (g)
Apples with bruise depth above 3 mm
0.5 0.7 1.1
98/1500 (6.5%) 231/1500 (15.4%) 1040/1500 (69.3%)
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Fig. 6. Spatial distribution of apples with a maximum bruise depth of 5 mm and higher for the acceleration amplitude 1.1 g. Dark grey: apples with a maximum bruise depth more than 5 mm; light grey: remaining apples.
Fig. 7. Spatial distribution of apples with a maximum bruise depth of 5 mm and higher for an acceleration amplitude of 1.1 g. Apples with a maximum bruise depth less than 5 mm are invisible.
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3.1.4.3. Detailed study of the relation bruise damage– position. The MATLAB bruise analysis program divides the stack into six equal horizontal parts and calculates the average maximum bruise depth in each horizontal part. The size of the box in the simulations was 0.2 m × 0.2 m × 1 m. Simulations were performed with 50 and 100 particles. With 100 apples in the simulation the maximum stack height of 0.57 m was reached and with 50 apples the stack height of 0.297 m was obtained. The radius of the apples in all simulations was 0.0325 m (smallest size of commercialized apples). In Tables 4 and 5, the effect of the acceleration amplitude on the spatial distribution of the average maximum bruise depth per part is presented for stack heights 0.57 m (100 apples) and 0.297 m (50 apples), respectively. The standard deviation of the maximum bruise depth for the bottom horizontal part was around 1 mm, for the other parts it was around 0.5 mm. It can be concluded that bruise damage increases gradually from the upper layers to the bottom layers, but there are some exceptions. The top part contracted more bruise damage than the part just below it in the case of acceleration amplitudes of 1.3 g and higher. It was noted that in the case of 50 apples the differences between the layers were less pronounced than in the case of the 100 apple simulation. In the case of the 50 apples simulation (situation of bulk bin filled for 50%), starting from 1.5 g, the upper part contracted as much bruise damage as the bottom part while the parts in between contracted less bruise damage. Besides the effect of the peak acceleration, the effect of the vibration frequency on spatial distribution of the apple bruise damage was also investigated. Table 6 depicts the effect of vibration frequency on the spatial distribution of the apple bruise damage for acceleration amplitude 1.4 g. Starting from a vibration frequency of 2 Hz the bruise damage is without exception increasing from the upper layers to the bottom layers. A vibration frequency of 1 Hz gave rise to a more or less equal distribution of the bruise damage. The results of the apple bruise damage in the different simulations can be explained by two conflicting processes. These two processes are ‘peak acceleration’ and ‘weight pres-
Table 4 Simulation of the effect of acceleration amplitude on the distribution of the bruise damage (average maximum bruise depth) for stack height 0.57 m Acceleration amplitude (g)
Part 1 (top)
Part 2
Part 3
Part 4
Part 5
Part 6 (bottom)
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 2 3
0 0 0.004 0.289 1.547 2.989 2.257 3.136 3.455 3.700 4.131 5.602
0 0.021 0.038 0.373 1.678 2.521 1.974 3.032 2.932 3.231 3.741 5.289
0.067 0.765 0.814 0.666 1.444 3.215 2.330 3.471 3.592 3.778 4.623 6.0827
0.635 1.393 0.974 2.335 2.758 4.024 3.266 4.692 5.317 4.825 5.342 7.613
2.699 2.404 2.400 4.666 3.989 5.312 4.873 6.084 5.437 6.145 6.858 8.959
3.494 3.222 3.796 5.311 5.468 6.748 7.123 7.302 7.401 8.037 7.532 10.727
Average maximum bruise depth in (mm). Acceleration signal: sine with frequency of 4 Hz.
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Table 5 Simulation of the effect of acceleration amplitude on the distribution of the bruise damage (average maximum bruise depth) for stack height 0.297 m Acceleration amplitude (g)
Part 1 (top)
Part 2
Part 3
Part 4
Part 5
Part 6 (bottom)
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 2
0 0 0 0.609 0 0.602 0.795 4.047 3.551 4.056 5.674
0 0 0 0.226 0 0.559 1.041 3.282 2.869 2.890 5.731
0 0 0 0.051 0 0.515 0.619 3.030 3.788 2.951 5.746
0 0 0 0 0.226 0.815 0.912 2.284 3.442 3.410 5.416
0.0711 0 0.114 0.187 0.712 1.367 1.538 2.977 3.795 3.942 5.381
0.00568 0 0.186 0.414 0.416 0.822 1.731 3.236 4.460 4.184 5.633
Average maximum bruise depth in (mm). Acceleration signal: sine with frequency of 4 Hz.
Table 6 Simulation of the effect of vibration frequency on the distribution of the bruise damage (average maximum bruise depth) for stack height 0.57 m Frequency (Hz)
Displacement amplitude (m)
Part 1 (top)
Part 2
Part 3
Part 4
Part 5
Part 6 (bottom)
1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.3478 0.0869 0.0217 0.0097 0.0054 0.0035 0.0024 0.0018 0.0014 0.0011
9.92 7.00 2.07 0.02 0 0 0 0.12 0 0
10.28 6.71 4.41 0.13 0.19 0 0 0 0 0
10.30 8.27 4.62 1.16 1.31 0.61 0.17 0.07 0.67 0.23
9.37 10.04 5.87 3.05 2.93 1.19 0.49 0.59 0.63 0.05
8.55 12.45 6.62 3.62 3.52 1.76 1.07 0.36 0.32 0.42
11.69 13.59 9.52 4.72 4.41 3.68 1.98 1.68 1.12 1.35
Acceleration signal with constant acceleration amplitude of 1.4 g.
sure’. Higher acceleration levels of the individual particles will cause higher contact forces leading to higher damage. Higher weight pressure experienced by an individual particle (column weight) leads to higher contact forces (and damage) as well. It is known from the literature (O’Brien et al., 1965) and our own research (Deli et al., unpublished data) that peak accelerations of the individual particles (apples) increases gradually from the bottom layers to the top layers. This peak acceleration argument was described by O’Brien et al. (1965) as the only explanation for the higher mechanical damage in upper layers of peaches. However, the second process of ‘weight pressure’ is also an important factor determining mechanical fruit damage. Bollen et al. (2001) mentioned this argument as the only explanation for the higher apple damage in the bottom layers, proposing that apples submitted to ‘higher static forces also experience higher dynamic forces’. In reality, both processes have their importance. Because ‘peak acceleration’ and ‘weight pressure’ are conflicting processes: peak acceleration increases with height and weight pressure decreases with height (reference point is the bottom of the fruit box/bin), the resulting fruit damage is highly dependent on the equilibrium of certain parameters. The conflicting results in the literature are a result of this equilibrium.
The following parameters are important in this equilibrium: 1. 2. 3. 4.
stack height (demonstrated), acceleration amplitude of vibration signal (demonstrated), vibration frequency (demonstrated), mass of individual particles (both intra and inter species differences), 5. impact characteristics (spring-damper) (both intra and inter species differences). 3.2. Effect of fruit properties on apple bruise damage 3.2.1. Effect of apple temperature on bruise damage A significant interaction between fruit temperature and peak contact force has been indicated (Van Zeebroeck, 2005), and therefore simulations were carried out making use of Table 7 Numbers of apples with a maximum bruise volume higher than 500 mm3 as a function of the acceleration amplitude and apple temperature Acceleration amplitude (g)
Apple temperature (◦ C) 1
20
0.5 0.7
31/1500 (2.1%) 110/1500 (7.3%)
24/1500 (1.6%) 77/1500 (5.1%)
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Table 8 The average maximum bruise volume (mm3 ) and the standard deviation of the maximum bruise volume (mm3 ) as a function of ripeness stage and acceleration amplitude Acceleration amplitude (g)
Harvest date 10 days earlier
Optimal harvest date
10 days later
0.5 0.7
69 (115%) a ± 135 128 (112%) A ± 193
60 (100%) b ± 122 114 (100%) B ± 177
50 (83%) c ± 107 96 (84%) C ± 158
Letters a, b, c and A, B, C indicate significant difference on the 95% level. Table 9 The average maximum bruise volume (mm3 ) and the standard deviation of the maximum bruise volume (mm3 ) as a function of acoustic stiffness and acceleration amplitude Acceleration amplitude (g)
0.5 0.7
Acoustic stiffness 25 (×106 Hz2 g2/3 )
30 (×106 Hz2 g2/3 )
35 (×106 Hz2 g2/3 )
75 (106%) a ± 137 134 (101%) A ± 187
71 (100%) a ± 141 133 (100%) A ± 200
67 (94%) a ± 147 131 (98%) A ± 214
Letters a and A indicate no significant difference on the 95% level.
different acceleration amplitudes. The apple temperatures simulated were 1 and 20 ◦ C and the acceleration amplitudes applied 0.5 and 0.7 g. The simulations were performed with apples of the optimal harvest date. The vibration of a full size bulk bin (1.15 m × 0.96 m × 0.57 m) was simulated, entirely filled with 1500 apples of diameter class 75/80. The vibration signal was a sine with a frequency of 4 Hz. Table 7 indicates the number of apples with a maximum bruise volume higher than 500 mm3 . The edge of 500 mm3 bruise volume was chosen because bruise volumes higher than 500 mm3 are easily noticed by the consumers (Van Zeebroeck, 2005). From the simulations it can be concluded that apples at 1 ◦ C are more damaged than apples at 20 ◦ C due to vibration during transport. It can be concluded that at high acceleration amplitudes (‘rough handling’) the effect of temperature on the apple bruise damage is more pronounced. 3.2.2. Effect of harvest date on bruise damage In Table 8, the effect of apple harvest date on the average maximum bruise volume is presented for three different harvest dates and two different acceleration amplitudes. The apples in the simulation were at room temperature. The vibration of a full size bulk bin (1.15 m × 0.96 m × 0.57 m) was simulated, entirely filled with 1500 apples of diameter class 75/80. The vibration signal was a sine with a frequency of 4 Hz. It can be concluded that early harvested apples are more easily damaged during transport, compared to apples harvested on the optimal harvest date (optimal harvest date is defined by the equilibrium between shelf-life and taste, determined by the Flanders Centre of Postharvest Technology). The opposite is true for later harvested apples. The interaction of the harvest date with the peak contact force (Van Zeebroeck, 2005) is not pronounced because of the small difference between the acceleration amplitudes. The high standard deviation of the maximum bruise volume in Table 8 is due to the bruise damage–apple position in stacking relation described in Section 3.1.4. Although there is a
high standard deviation, significant differences (* P < 0.05) in maximum bruise volume between the simulations were identified. 3.2.3. Effect of apple acoustic stiffness on bruise damage In Table 9, the effect of acoustic stiffness on the average maximum bruise volume is presented for three different acoustic stiffness and two different acceleration amplitudes. The apples in the simulation were at room temperature and were harvested at the optimal harvest date. The vibration of a full size bulk bin (1.15 m × 0.96 m × 0.57 m) was simulated, entirely filled with 1500 apples of diameter class 75/80. The vibration signal was a sine with a frequency of 4 Hz. It can be concluded that stiffer apples at the acceleration amplitude of 0.5 g (gently handled apples) experience less bruising. To the contrary, almost no effect of acoustic stiffness was noted for apples at the acceleration amplitude of 0.7 g (more roughly handled apples). This can be explained by the acoustic stiffness–peak contact force interaction of the bruise model (Van Zeebroeck, 2005). High acoustic stiffness has a positive effect on bruise damage for low impacts (0.5 g acceleration amplitude), for medium impacts (0.7 g) no effect of acoustic stiffness was identified. On the other hand, for high impacts the acoustic stiffness has a negative effect on bruise damage (>0.7 g), however this has not been demonstrated here. The high standard deviation of the maximum bruise volume in Table 9 is due to the bruise damage–apple position in stacking relation described in Section 3.1.4. No significant differences between the simulations were identified (* P < 0.05).
4. Conclusions This paper involved a case study in which both the influence of mechanical parameters and fruit properties on vibration damage of apples were investigated. As acceleration input, a sine in the vertical direction was utilized. Appro-
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priate contact force model parameters and bruise prediction models were applied (Van Zeebroeck, 2005; Van Zeebroeck et al., 2006). The investigated mechanical parameters were peak acceleration and frequency of the vibration signal, stack height and size of the apples. The fruit properties under research were apple temperature, acoustic stiffness and harvest date. As a general conclusion, it can be stated that major influences of mechanical parameters on the vibration damage were identified, in particular stack height and fruit size, and minor influences of fruit properties. In the case of acceleration amplitudes occurring in practice (below 2 g), the apple bruise damage gradually decreases with increasing vibration frequency. This statement confirms most studies described in the literature. The phenomenon of a resonance frequency (described by O’Brien et al. (1965) for most fruit, except apples) was only clearly identified for high acceleration amplitudes not occurring in practice. In addition a study was performed to investigate the relation between apple positions in the stacking and bruise damage. It was demonstrated that the position–bruise damage relation depends on the acceleration amplitude, vibration frequency and stack height. For full bulk bins the apple bruise damage gradually increased from top to bottom for peak acceleration below 1.3 g for all frequencies. For higher peak accelerations (rare in practice) the top layers contracted slightly more bruise damage than the layers just below. The apple bruise damage of the other layers, however, still gradually increased from top to bottom. On the other hand a more or less uniform distribution of the apple bruise damage was identified in the half-full bins. The distribution of the bruise damage can be explained by the balance between two conflicting processes: the column weight of the apples and the peak acceleration of the individual apples. The existence of damage chains within the centre of the apple stack was also identified. This is in accordance with the well-known force chains in bulk materials.
Acknowledgments The authors thank the Fund for Scientific Research– Flanders (FWO) and the Institute for Promotion of Innovation by Science and Technology in Flanders (IWT).
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