- Email: [email protected]
The effect of gender and communication mode on conflict resolution
Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782 www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh
The eect of gender and communication mode on con¯ict resolution R.M. Wachter* School of Business, University of Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN 46227, USA
Abstract This paper examines the eect of gender and con¯ict on the process and outcomes of people using various forms of communication media. Of interest in the study is the eect which gender exerts on the evaluation of the capability of the communication environment to provide relational support under conditions of con¯ict. It was predicted that members of femaleonly and male-only dyads would demonstrate satisfaction dierences and variances in their ratings of the communication environment as a function of their gender distinctions. The results indicate that there were no dierences in performance levels across media and gender composition. However, there was an interaction between media and gender concerning evaluations of the communication environment's ability to support aection, domination, similarity, and trust. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Gender; Communication; Con¯ict resolution; Computer-mediated communication
1. Introduction Several trends underscore the interest in the eect of gender on organizational communication and on the use of technology to mediate that communication. First, women have entered the workforce at an increasing rate. By the year 2000, 47% of the workforce will be female (Johnson, 1987). One consequence of this trend is that females will increase their participation in occupations held traditionally by males. It has been estimated recently that females comprise approximately one-half of all accounting, personnel, and ®nancial management positions in the USA (Truman & Baroudi, 1994). With respect to role behaviors and occupations, gender dierences have been found to exist (Deux, 1995; Eagly & Wood, 1991; Tannen, 1990). In general, * Tel.: +1-317-335-2276; fax: +1-317-788-3300. E-mail address: [email protected] 0747-5632/99/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0747-5632(99)00046-1
764
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
research has shown men to be perceived as more assertive, aggressive, independent, and task oriented (Anderson & Blanchard, 1982; Eagly & Karau, 1991; Terhue, 1970). Conversely, females are perceived as more unsel®sh, caring, and concerned with socio-emotional issues. While a helpful behavior for the maintenance of group harmony, concern for others can carry negative connotations. With regard to negotiations, ``niceness does not help one to win'' (Watson, 1994, p. 118). Thus, men typically have been credited with being more eective negotiators than women (Caplow, 1968; Kelley, 1965). A second trend is that organizations are deploying rapidly new forms of communication media. Once conducted face-to-face, communication and coordination activities are being conducted increasingly through advanced communication technologies such as videoconferencing, electronic mail, and computer conferencing. Organizations hope to bene®t by reducing costs, improving ¯exibility, and optimizing resource utilization (Casson, 1994; Sproull & Kiesler, 1991). The convergence of these trends means that men and women will be communicating by means of computer networks and other technology in ever increasing numbers (Zmud, Lind & Young, 1990). This is of particular concern since there is evidence that women's experiences with these media might be dierent from men's (Savicki, Kelley & Lingenfelter, 1996a, b). If there are persistent dierences between male dyads and female dyads during bargaining interactions, to what extent does communication via these new media reinforce or mitigate those dierences? To address this question, several important variables can be examined: process and outcome satisfaction reported, interpersonal and issue con¯ict experienced, objective performance, and perceptions of relational behavior supported by the communication environment. The review of the literature which follows is not comprehensive since such a review is beyond the scope of a single article. Rather, the literature review is con®ned to a focused set of concepts which are both compelling within this research area and able to be operationalized. 2. Literature review Relatively little research has been conducted in recent years which addresses the issue of gender dierences in negotiation attitudes and behavior. Results from early research studies of the 1960s and 1970s uphold gender-role expectations. Women have been found typically to be `softer' negotiators than men, i.e. they tend to prefer an accommodating style, are generous, and are more concerned that all parties will be treated fairly than they are interested in gaining positive, substantive outcomes for themselves (Bartos, 1970; Tedeschi, Schlenker & Bonoma, 1973; Terhue, 1970). These same studies have shown also that men are `tough' negotiators. They make many demands and oer few concessions. Men are concerned more often about winning outcomes for themselves than for the welfare of the other party. In spite of these seemingly immutable dierences, Rubin and Brown (1975) demonstrated in their review of the literature that dierences between males and
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
765
females in their bargaining behavior and in the quality of outcomes achieved were not supported in a consistent manner. Nevertheless, popular opinion holds the expectation that women will be weaker negotiators than men. Tannen's (1994) study of communication in the workplace provides current evidence of this belief system. She suggests that dierences emerge between genders in the manner by which they address con¯ict in the workplace. For example, one tool which men use regularly to achieve their goals is antagonism. Among men, this `ritual ®ghting'' is a normal and expected form of interaction. Opposing ideas are attacked and defended vigorously. Tannen (1994) continues by stating that women are unaccustomed generally to the practice of open, heated debate. Instead, they become defensive and are prone to interpret the con¯ict as a personal attack. As a consequence, their bargaining outcomes suer. Women's seemingly weak response under confrontational conditions might be, in part, a matter of self-con®dence, not skill. Clark (1993) concluded that men's and women's self-con®dence in a communication setting may dier, but that the nature of the dierence is contingent upon the speci®c kind of communicative task at hand and, in particular, women's familiarity with the task. There is evidence which indicates that women themselves perpetuate the belief that they are less capable, i.e. they do not perceive themselves generally to be eective negotiators. In one study, managerial women reported less self-con®dence than did men before they took part in a simulated negotiation; less satisfaction with themselves after the negotiation; and the belief that they had been less successful than men, even though this was not true based on the experimenters' de®nition of success (Watson & Homan, 1992). The eect of gender on negotiation performance outcomes might not be a matter of attitude, but one of power. Of 34 negotiation studies conducted since 1975, a small handful examine gender and objective performance (see review by Watson, 1994). The studies show that gender tends to produce an eect when considered in conjunction with situational power. These results, however, were not always predictable. Among the results which were expected and subsequently observed, greater situational power led to greater visual dominance, to more expressions of overt hostility toward one's opponent, to greater feelings of competitiveness, and to greater satisfaction with the outcome of negotiation (Watson, 1994). Unexpectedly, strong situational power led men to behave in what the researchers de®ned as more competitive ways, but not women (Kravitz & Iwaniszek, 1984; Scudder, 1988). A competitive performance consisted of winning better payos and issuing ultimatums. Furthermore, powerlessness was found to cause men, but not women, to adopt an approach that has been labeled `soft competition' (Watson & Homan, 1992). A soft approach consists of a statement of a demand followed by logical reasons for it. Finally, Molm (1986) found that female/female pairs were less likely to engage in a turn-taking, tradeo strategy than would male/male pairs. This is an important ®nding since a quid pro quo strategy has been found to be the best one to ensure positive, joint, long-term outcomes in mixed motive situations (Pruitt, 1981). The implication is that ``. . .women may be less likely to settle on a cooperative pattern when they bargain with another woman than will men when
766
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
they bargain with another man. . .'' (Watson, 1994, p. 123). None of the studies found dierences in actual performance levels between male dyads and female dyads. One way people learn about the likely power of others is through behavioral con®rmation, i.e. people look to several communication cues to give context to a particular behavior. In a face-to-face setting, there is maximum opportunity for behavioral con®rmation. Parties may seek several cue sources to provide evidence, whether real or imagined, as to the intent and capability of the other party. For example, aggressive gazing and a defensive body stance (e.g. crossed arms) by one party may serve to reinforce perceptions of competitiveness by the other. The direction of behavioral con®rmation sought has important implications for opening moves in the negotiation. ``The early initiation of cooperative behavior tends to promote the development of trust and mutually bene®cial, cooperative relationship; early competitive behavior, on the other hand, tends to induce mutual suspicion and competition. . .'' (Rubin & Brown, 1975, p. 263). If situational power might be gained, in part, through the manipulation of one's presentation to the other party, the communication environment might moderate the relationship between gender and negotiation outcomes. The number and form of communication cues oered by a medium might in¯uence the degree to which the negotiators perceive themselves and the other party as able to manipulate the situation to their respective satisfaction. A restricted communication medium such as computer-mediated communication neutralizes the capability of bargainers to access or to manipulate visual and audio cues. Negotiators are unable to use those cues to interpret (or misinterpret) the status, capability, or power of their opponents. In support of this notion, it has been found that the presence of a visual barrier tends to cause bargainers to focus on the issues and not on personalities, resulting in more balanced outcomes (Carnevale, Pruitt & Seilheimer, 1981; Fry, 1985; Wachter, 1993; Sheeld, 1988). It should be noted that this ®nding is contradictory to popular media theories. These popular theories suggest that more communication cues are necessary to coordinate eorts and to establish trust during negotiations, thereby precluding the use of computer-mediated communication due to its paucity of cues (Daft & Lengel, 1984; McGrath & Hollingshead, 1993). Burgoon and Hale (1987) suggest that people de®ne their relationships with one another through several dimensionsÐaection, dominance, trust, equality, similarity, formality, and composure. These dimensions re®ne two central relational themes posited by Wilmot (1987)Ðlove/hate and dominance/submission. If men truly are concerned with determining status as suggested by Holmes (1992), they may ®nd themselves less powerful or less able to manipulate their environment when using electronic mail and other restricted media. Hence, they might evaluate a restricted environment unfavorably in terms of its ability to support their domination of the other party. If women are more concerned with solidarity or connection, a medium which supports only limited communication cues and provides less `presence' might frustrate them (Poole & Jackson, 1993). Women might evaluate such a restrictive communication environment more poorly in terms of its ability to support aection and trust.
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
767
From the preceding discussion, the following hypotheses are proposed: H1:
Regardless of the communication medium, females will report more relational con¯ict than will males. H2: There will be no dierence between the amounts of issue con¯ict reported by females and males. H3a: There will be no dierence between males and females in their evaluations of the face-to-face communication condition. H3b: Males will evaluate all other conditions less favorably than females on ability to support dominance, equality, formality, and composure. H3c: Females will evaluate all other conditions less favorably than males on ability to support aection, trust, and similarity. H4: Regardless of the communication medium, females will report less satisfaction with the decision-making process than will males. H5: Regardless of the communication medium, females will report less satisfaction with the outcome than will males. H6: There will be no dierences in performance according to the gender composition of the dyad.
Because of the trend toward the use of new forms of communication media to support organizational communication, it is important to understand the role of gender on the interaction process supported by these media. These hypotheses test the idea that gender-related predispositions toward communication and negotiation interact with and surface across communication media. 3. Materials and methods 3.1. Experimental design Subjects consisted of upper-level undergraduate students enrolled in introductory speech communication and information systems classes at a large midwestern university. The sample is comprised of 694 participants. Subjects received course credit for their participation. This study examined two variables: (1) the gender of the communicators; and (2) the number of communication and coordination cues aorded by the medium. The design of the experiment can be seen in Table 1. Men and women were randomly assigned to one of two gender composition conditions: male-only (MO); or femaleonly (FO). The media chosen for this study provided a range of support for audio and nonaudio communication (Table 2). Face-to-face communication allowed the greatest amount of both types of communication. The telephone, set in the speakerphone mode, was selected because it isolates audio communication. The VideoPhone was a unique medium which delivered both verbal and non-verbal communication
768
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
Table 1 Experimental design Gender
Media Face-to-face
VideoPhone
Speakerphone
Computer-mediated
Male-only Female-only
Table 2 Communication mediaa Con®gurations
Face-to-face communication VideoPhone communication Speakerphone communication Computer-mediated communication
Communication channels Verbal
Visual
Non-verbal cues
Electronic
" " to $ " to $ ±
" " to $ ± ±
" " to # $ to # ±
± ± ± "
a ", the primary communication channel; $, communication channel is present, and actively utilized; #, communication channel is present, but is not likely to be actively utilized; ±, channel is not present.
through the video display. It consisted of a telephone set to which was attached a 3 300 ¯ip-up video display. The computer-mediated mode (a custom-written VAXbased interactive chat program) was chosen to allow synchronous, text-only communication. The task chosen for the study involved a con¯ict of interest. One refers to tasks which have con¯icts of interest as mixed-motive tasks (McGrath, 1984). These tasks do not assume that all members want the same outcome for the group. Instead, the tasks ``. . .put members' interests into con¯ict,. . .and are also designed so that members are motivated to cooperate. . .'' (McGrath, 1984, p. 96). Although the interests of group members are pitted against one another, there is also room for the group to obtain a good joint outcome if they cooperate. The particular task employed is one which has been used to study con¯ict in information systems and in negotiation research and was chosen because the quality of the outcome could be established objectively (Foroughi, 1990; Jones, 1988). Parties negotiated four issues of a 3-year contract for the purchase of engine parts. The buyer, Roberts Inc., needed turbochargers for its new line of four-wheel drive vehicles. Simo, the supplier, wanted the opportunity to supply Roberts Inc. in order to increase its product line. The issues to be resolved were price, quantity, delivery time, and warranty period. Each issue was given a range of possibilities and assigned a value in terms of points. The more points one earned on an issue, the better the resultant contract. During the negotiation, subjects possessed a table which displayed these point value
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
769
structures. They were instructed not to reveal it. To do so would cause them to be disquali®ed from the experiment. Issue con¯ict was manipulated through the point weightings on the issues. In order to create a high degree of con¯ict, similar weightings were assigned to the same issues for both the buyer and the seller. The most weight was assigned to price, followed by quantity, delivery, and warranty period. Thus, both buyer and seller were trying to achieve outcomes which were mutually exclusive. It should be noted that this was not exactly a zero-sum game, i.e. what the seller conceded did not result necessarily in an equal gain to the buyer; it was very close, however. In actual bargaining situations, it is highly unlikely that the weightings of the parties will be exactly equal. Further, all treatments were biased in the same manner. ``While other negotiation paradigms such as the Acme Trucking Game and Prisoner's Dilemma contain many or all of the characteristics of a true bargaining relationship, they tend to bear little resemblance to more familiar bargaining encounters. . .'' (Pruitt & Rubin, 1986, p. 29). This task held not only several characteristics which make it a close approximation to true bargaining and con¯ict resolution situations, but it had also more face validity. This is an important characteristic in media research (Gallupe, 1986). The task was interesting and authentic. The subjects were presented with realistic background information about their roles. Of course, the degree of realism depends on the subjects' abilities to play roles. Initial pilots showed that the subjects became involved actively in their roles, often improvising extra information about their situations in order to explain their contract needs. There were other important characteristics of the task which contributed to its realism. First, the parties were engaged in a voluntary relationship. They had the choice to push for a possible agreement with each other or were able to dissolve the relationship by accepting an alternate default contract with another vendor. Second, the activity focused on the resolution of one or more tangible or intangible issues. An example of a tangible issue would be the achievement of a desirable number of points. An intangible issue might be the perceived dominance or manipulation of the other party and the resultant satisfaction in doing so. Third, the activity involved the exchange of oers and counter-oers whereby subjects could re®ne their negotiation outcome. Finally, the task was designed so that subjects could consider tradeos on several issues simultaneously. For example, with four issues to resolve, subjects could construct oers which presented concessions on two of the issues (i.e. warranty and price) in trade for gains on the other two issues (i.e. service and delivery). Mandatory participation in an experiment might not always result in active participation. In order to increase the likelihood of lively interaction, a ®nancial incentive was oered. The goal was to create an incentive system which preserved the mixed-motive nature of the task. Thus, two rewards were proeredÐone $200 reward to the best joint outcome achieved by a dyad, and $100 to the best individual performance. Subjects then had the choice either to compete to earn the $100 or to cooperate with the other party in the hope of acquiring the joint prize.
770
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
3.2. Procedures To ensure consistency in the explanation of the experiment, procedures, and communication equipment, the experimenter followed a script. Upon arrival at the experimental session, subjects were assigned randomly to a communication medium treatment and then were lead immediately to a separate room. The experimenter wanted to ensure that the subjects did not see their opposite party's appearance before the session began, particularly for the speakerphone and computer treatments. Face-to-face bargainers were positioned 15 feet distant from one another. The other rooms were far enough apart so that people could not hear each other talking through the walls. Before engaging in the task, subjects were asked to ®ll out a consent form and a pre-session questionnaire which directed them to answer background questions. The parties who were in the speakerphone, VideoPhone, and computer rooms were provided with instructions on the use of the equipment. Subjects then were given the task. After reviewing the task, the subjects received time to request clari®cations. The subjects had scratch paper and a pencil with which to make calculations during the session. No calculators were allowed. The subjects were given as much time as they needed to come to an agreement. A deadlock meant that they must each take their alternative contract. When subjects signaled that they were ®nished, they were instructed to complete a post-session questionnaire. 3.3. Instruments and measures 3.3.1. Objective measures of performance Instead of using self-reports of perceived performance, several objective measures of the negotiators' performance were used. One measure of the success achieved by the negotiators in the negotiation session was the joint outcome. In order to arrive at a contract which was bene®cial to both parties and which exceeded the maximum number of points obtainable by any one individual, the negotiators had to cooperate and explore thoroughly the alternatives. Each subject received point values for each of the four negotiated issues. The points for the four issues were added together which resulted in a ®nal contract score for the subject. The ®nal scores from both subjects' contracts were added together to create the joint outcome. Each subject had the opportunity to take an alternative contract at its disposal which had been assigned a predetermined number of points. This contract could be taken if the dyad failed to reach an agreement or if it voluntarily decided to dissolve the relationship. In these cases, the joint outcome was equal to the sum of the points assigned to the alternative contracts for the subjects. While joint outcome measured the overall success of the negotiation session, it was a biased measure in that one member of the dyad might have been much more successful than the other. Contract balance, therefore, was measured according to the numerical similarity of the outcomes of the buyer and seller. This measure was taken to show whether the outcome was equal or fair in terms of the extent to which the outcomes of the two bargainers were similar (Pruitt, 1981). The score for balance
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
771
was the absolute value of the dierence between the total points for the buyer and the total points for the seller. The smaller the dierence, the more balanced was the contract. 3.3.2. Process measures Burgoon and Hale (1987) have identi®ed and validated seven distinct but interrelated message themes which are central to the de®nition of interpersonal relationships. The seven dimensions through which people de®ne their relationship and exchange messages about it are: (1) aection; (2) composure; (3) dominance; (4) equality; (5) formality; (6) similarity; and (7) trust. The original Burgoon and Hale scale was altered so that the questions elicited responses about the ability of the communication environment to facilitate or to hinder the particular behavior or attitude. The coecients of reliability were as follows: aection (0.81); composure (0.80); dominance (0.70); equality (0.70); formality (0.75); similarity (0.79); and trust (0.76). Low scores indicate a more positive evaluation of the communication environment. Satisfaction with both the outcome and the process was assessed. The satisfaction scales for process and outcome came from a subset of the original scales developed by Green and Taber (1980). These scales have been used extensively in information systems research on group support systems and communications media. Their coef®cients of reliability were 0.85 and 0.80, respectively. Low scores indicate greater satisfaction. The measures used to assess the degree of con¯ict came from Miranda and Bostrom (1993). One scale measured the degree to which the communicators experienced con¯ict which was due to the issues at stake (issue-based con¯ict). The other scale measured interpersonal or relational con¯ict. These scales have had reported coecients of reliability of 0.84 for issue-based con¯ict and 0.80 for interpersonal con¯ict. Low scores indicate low perceived con¯ict. Information on academic performance was collected to check for outcome differences as a result of motivation (e.g. low bargaining outcomes associated with poorer students). Information was also collected on subjects' typing ability and experience with electronic mail. Poor typing ability or unfamiliarity with the computer might aect performance in the computer condition, which may in turn have colored perceptions about the medium as well as satisfaction with the process and outcome. There exists some debate as to whether observations for measures such as satisfaction, which are based on mutual in¯uence, are independent observations in each cell. Although there was no reason to suspect dierences, the role to which a person was assigned was run as a covariate during tests of such variables. 4. Results and discussion Generally, the gender composition of the dyad produced signi®cant eects on evaluations of the process and of the communication media. In the following section, the results will be discussed in relationship to the research hypotheses.
772
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
Several analyses of variance were run to test the eects of the independent variables (media and gender) on the independent measures. The attitudinal variables are reported at the individual level. Results for outcome balance and joint score are reported at the group level. There were no signi®cant dierences found for the background variables and for the roles to which people were assigned. The analyses were run a second time to increase the power of the tests. 4.1. H1 and H2: con¯ict Consistent with H1, members of FO dyads reported that they experienced signi®cantly more relational con¯ict than did members of MO dyads irrespective of the medium which was used for communication (Table 3). H2 was also supported since there were no dierences between males and females on the level of issue con¯ict reported (Table 3). However, there was a dierence between communication media in the degree of issue con¯ict perceived. Visual access to the other party was the largest contributor to the reduction in the degree of issue con¯ict experienced by the bargainers. Negotiators in the face-to-face and VideoPhone conditions reported signi®cantly less con¯ict than did those in the speakerphone and computer-mediated conditions. 4.2. H3: evaluations of the communications environment In essence, H3a±c predicted that men would be more concerned about the ability of the communication environment to support their positions in terms of dominance/ submission. Conversely, women would be more concerned about the ability of the communication environment to support aection, similarity, and trust building. However, the resultant interactions provide only partial support (Table 4, Figs. 1±4). With respect to H3a, men and women held dierent impressions of the face-toface setting. Men considered the face-to-face condition more conducive for the display of aection, similarity, and domination of the other party. Women perceived that the face-to-face condition supported trust-building more than did men. To support H3b, males would have been expected to provide lower ratings than would females on the leaner communication media on the dimension of dominance. Males rated the VideoPhone and computer-mediated conditions lower, respectively, but not the speakerphone. To support H3c, males would need to rate the leaner media more favorably than would females in terms of aection, similarity, trust building. This was the case, except for the computer-mediated condition which females evaluated more positively than did males. For the other relational behaviors, there were no dierences in the reports between males and females, but there were dierences in the reports across media. To understand where the dierences were, Schee tests were conducted. For composure, the computer and face-to-face conditions were evaluated more positively than other conditions, followed by the VideoPhone and speakerphone conditions. Assessments of equality displayed a similar pattern. In terms of the ability of the
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
773
Table 3 Results for con¯ict, satisfaction and performance a Outcome Issue con¯ict
F Gender Media
GM Relational con¯ict
Gender
Process satisfaction
Gender Media
GM Solution satisfaction
Gender Media
GM
0.32 0.00 b F V S C
M F
0.73 0.00b
0.92 0.00b C V F S
F V C S
0.18 0.75 0.34
0.97
Joint outcome
Gender Media GM
0.50 0.30 0.97
Contract balance
Gender Media GM
0.35 0.35 0.40
a b c
Mean
N
Subgroups c 34.76 35.97 35.97 37.20 37.46
164 176 167 174
10.35 8.85
271 400
Subgroups c 10.78 10.96 11.03 12.17
173 176 163 166
17.62 17.44 17.25 17.49
164 164 176 173
F, face-to-face; S, speakerphone; V, VideoPhone; C, computer. Indicates signi®cant at or beyond indicated level. Subgroups are signi®cantly dierent at the 0.05 level.
communication environment to convey formality, the face-to-face and VideoPhone conditions were rated more favorably, followed by the computer-mediated condition. The speakerphone condition was rated lowest. Overall, the pattern of the results seems to indicate that women are less comfortable with direct confrontation than are men, although women were not presented directly with such a question in the study. While the evidence is indirect, it would explain some of the inconsistent results. First, women rated the computer-mediated condition far more favorably than did men. If women were indeed uncomfortable with
774
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
Table 4 Results for evaluations of the communication environment a Eect Outcome aect
Gender Media GM Males
Females
Similarity
Gender Media GM Males
Females
Equality
Gender Media GM Males
Females
Dominance
Gender Media GM
Mean
SD
N
b
F V S C
0.01 0.00b 0.00b
F V S C
F V S C
0.00b 0.13b 0.00b
F V S C
Gender Media
GM Outcome trust
F
0.30 0.00b C F V S
F V S C
7.52 7.88
13.20 14.96 15.97 18.83
4.50 4.83 4.75 4.40
66 70 65 70
14.11 16.74 18.53 17.49
5.33 4.86 5.00 5.72
98 106 102 104
10.62 11.71 12.26 13.44
3.74 3.87 3.67 3.67
66 70 65 70
11.21 12.79 13.97 12.00
4.35 3.72 3.92 4.86
98 106 102 104
8.53 9.02
174 164 176 167
16.09 17.18 19.01 20.01
5.71 5.35 5.56 5.77
66 70 65 70
15.03 17.82 20.79 18.93
5.89 5.52 6.05 6.37
98 106 102 104
Subgroupsc 7.88 8.53
0.37 0.88 0.00b 0.05b
F V S C 0.76 0.00b 0.05b
(continued on next page).
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
775
Table 4 (continued) Eect
Composure
b c
SD
N
F V S C
21.27 22.81 22.15 23.59
3.71 3.37 4.07 3.86
66 70 65 70
Females
F V S C
22.42 21.43 22.19 22.33
3.35 3.83 5.03 5.12
98 106 102 104
10.28 10.58
174 164 176 167
Gender Media
0.64 0.00b C F V S
Gender Media
GM a
Mean
Males
GM Formality
F
8.86 9.23
9.23 10.28
0.42 0.88 0.00b
F V C S
Subgroupsc
6.78 7.39 0.23
Subgroupsc 7.39 7.79 7.84
164 176 174 167
F, face-to-face; S, speakerphone; V, VideoPhone; C, computer. Indicates signi®cant at or beyond indicated level. Subgroups are signi®cantly dierent at the 0.05 level.
Fig. 1. Interaction eect of gender and communication media on aection.
con¯ict and confrontation, the computer-mediated condition might have aorded them the greatest distance. We do know that women reported experiencing more
776
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
Fig. 2. Interaction eect of gender and communication media on trust.
Fig. 3. Interaction eect of gender and communication media on similarity.
Fig. 4. Interaction eect of gender and communication media on dominance.
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
777
relational con¯ict across all media. Second, women clearly rated the face-to-face condition as the least conducive to their domination of the other party. It received the lowest evaluation score. In support of their eorts to dominate their opponents, women seemed to appreciate the distance which the VideoPhone and speakerphone conditions provided. Their favorable evaluations of these media suggest that they desired visual and verbal cues to assess the interaction and the other party. However, in order to mitigate the personal eects of the con¯ict, mediation was required. Physically distancing oneself or withdrawing personally in the face of con¯ict is a protective mechanism. Rubin and Brown (1975) explain this behavior in terms of Newcomb's ``autistic hostility'' theory. Newcomb's (1947) theory states that when interpersonal con¯ict escalates, people tend to withdraw from communication in order to avoid ego-damaging or unpredictable events. What the women might not have realized is that this behavior tends only to heighten the con¯ict. These ®ndings stand in contrast to those found for males. Males reported that the face-to-face communication environment enabled them to engage in the greatest domination of other males, while computer-mediated the least. Indeed the ability of the environment to provide visual cues seems to be the distinguishing factor between media for males. This pattern can be expected of bargainers with a competitive predispostition. Rubin and Brown (1975, p. 278) have observed that a competitive bargainer ``. . .wants to believe that he is capable of shaping the other's behavior, causing the other to choose as he (the other) does. . .''. Visual cues allow one to directly observe one's own in¯uence. Characteristics of the communication medium itself, not gender, seemed to distinguish whether the other dimensions of equality, formality and composure were supported. With respect to equality, the media which provided the largest and smallest number of communication cues were rated more favorably. This is not surprising because, in the face-to-face condition, one can assess the other party's age, gender, attractiveness, demeanor, clothing, etc., to look for status dierences. Conversely, the computer-mediated condition neutralizes all status cues, thereby forcing a large degree of equality. The results for composure are identical to those of equality. In the face-to-face condition, one can manipulate one's composure through posture, facial expression, and vocal intonation. The computer-mediated condition removed all cues which would convey that a party were nervous, uncertain, or uncomfortable with the interaction. Evidence of a lack of composure could be derived only from the written text on the screen. Whether a particular medium supports formality seems to depend on its ability to convey visual cues. This is not unexpected since facial expressions such as smiles, grimaces, and eye movements, as well as body posture can in¯uence one's evaluation of whether the other party appears to be relaxed or rigid. 4.3. H4 and H5: satisfaction with the process and outcome Neither H4 nor H5 were supported (Table 3). There were no signi®cant statistical dierences between men and women on their satisfaction with the decision-making
778
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
process or the outcome. There was, however, an eect of media on the satisfaction with the process. Schee tests revealed that dierences between media conditions with regard to satisfaction with the process were due primarily to the communicators' aversions to the speakerphone. Evidently, any disconcerted feelings held by women about the bargaining process did not translate into dissatisfaction with the overall process or ®nal outcome. This ®nding is consistent with other research which showed that, while women held lower expectations for performance on persuasive and justi®catory communication tasks, there tended to be no dierences between men and women in their assessments of the quality of the outcome or in their assessments of their own ability after the task was completed (Clark, 1993). 4.4. H6: performance Consistent with H6, there were no signi®cant dierences found between men and women with respect to the joint outcome or to the balance of the contracts which were negotiated (Table 3). Even though women might have felt less comfortable about the bargaining session, there seemed to be no dierence in their performances as compared to men's. Women negotiating against other women did so as eectively as did men bargaining against other men. 5. Conclusion and implications This study yielded several ®ndings about communication media, con¯ict, and gender which appear to be noteworthy. Of most importance is the ®nding that the eect of gender dierences cannot be ignored or assumed away. Although gender did not aect performance outcomes in the study, it did seem to lead to dierences in female negotiators' comfort levels with the situation. Overall, the study indicates that women are not necessarily softer or less eective negotiators than are men. Women seemed to be as likely to be oriented toward beating their opponent as were men, and as successful in doing so. Female/female pairs did not experience necessarily more cooperation than did male pairs. However, assuming positions of power and feeling comfortable with negotiation appear to be more problematic for women than for men. It was clear that the communication technology mitigated some of these problems by allowing women to distance themselves from the interpersonal con¯ict. This area needs to be researched more fully so that informed recommendations can be developed for women and for the deployment of communication technology. Worthy of consideration is the impact of behavior which does not conform to gender-role expectations on the subsequent evaluation of women in negotiation situations. Even when it might be appropriate for women to behave competitively to protect their own interest, they are likely to incur much more negative reactions for doing this than would men (Tannen, 1994; Watson, 1988).
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
779
Another meaningful ®nding is that the cues which the communication environment provides contribute to perceptions about one's ability to manipulate the negotiation environment. With regard to the availability of cues for establishing equality and composure, it appears to be an all-or-nothing situation in that either all cues are necessary or no cues should be presented. This is to say, the number and variety of cues aorded by a face-to-face setting seem necessary to coordinate behavior in order to promote a consistent image. An absence of these same cues, however, creates a level reference for negotiation precisely because of what is not revealed. Finally, visual access to the other party did seem to mitigate the level of con¯ict experienced by the bargainers. This ®nding is dierent from prior research which suggested that the audio channel is the greater in¯uence on the induction of cooperative behavior (Carnevale et al., 1981; Fry, 1985). 5.1. Limitations and recommendations for future research 5.1.1. Subjects (type and dyad compostion) Whether student subjects behave in the same manner as more experienced negotiators in organizations is still a debated matter (Greenberg, 1987). The justi®cation for using student subjects in this study relies primarily on the fact that negotiation occurs in everyday life (although it may not be formal). It might involve what movie to see, who is going to clean the apartment, or when `quiet' hours are to be kept. ``Negotiation skills are essential to anyone who must interact with other people to accomplish their social objectives. . .'' (Thompson & Hastie, 1990, p. 99). Since not only this study, but also negotiation research in general, is built upon studies of undergraduates, possible limits to the drawing of generalizations from these populations need to be explored. This study represents the two extremes in terms of dyad composition. The use of same sex dyads eliminates problems with respect to which sex played which role (e.g. did male buyers against female sellers perform dierently than female buyers against female sellers, and so on). Future research could examine the outcomes and process of negotiations when the parties are of mixed gender. 5.1.2. Field study There is no guarantee that behavior observed in the laboratory will be found outside the arti®cial setting. While there is implied accountability to the hypothetical ®rm in the bargaining scenario, the behavior exhibited by bargainers might be different if the accountability were enforced directly. Such a `stick' might be a more powerful motivator than the monetary reward oered to the dyads in this study. While the task used in the study re¯ects many of the components found in real bargaining situations, successful outcomes rest on the assumption that utilities can be determined for various preferences. In real negotiation sessions, the value of various outcomes might not be assessed so readily. Moreover, the negotiations took place over one session. Real-life negotiations can span several days, weeks, or even years. This prolonged interaction might in¯uence not only the attitudes of the
780
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
bargainers toward each other but also their perceptions of the medium which was used for communication. For instance, Walther and Burgoon (1992) posited that temporal and relational development are two factors which might serve to in¯uence the impact of restricted media. Over time they found signi®cant, positive changes in the relationships supported by and in the behaviors conveyed across lean media. 5.1.3. Media The synchronous computer-mediated communication mode might not be the usual mode for negotiation. If electronic interchange takes place, it may be through nonsynchronous modes such as electronic mail. Thus, the computer-mediated condition in the experiment is somewhat arti®cial. It was synchronous, however, so that direct comparisons could be made with the other modes and so that it did not introduce another dimension to the study (synchronicity). Future research could examine dierent forms of media and the presentation of those media.
References Anderson, L., & Blanchard, P. (1982). Sex dierences in task and social-emotional behavior. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 3, 109±139. Bartos, O. (1970). Determinants and consequences of toughness. In P. Swingle, The structure of con¯ict. New York: Academic Press, (pp. 17±35). Burgoon, J., & Hale, J. (1987). Validation and measurement of the fundamental themes of relational communication. Communication Monographs, 54, 19±41. Caplow, T. (1968). Two against one: coalition in triads. Englewood Clis, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Carnevale, P., Pruitt, D., & Seilheimer, S. (1981). Looking and competing: accountability and visual access in integrative bargaining. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 111±120. Casson, M. (1994). Why are ®rms hierarchial? Journal of the Economics of Business, 1, 47±76. Clark, R. A. (1993). Men's and women's self-con®dence in persuasive, comforting, and justi®catory communicative tasks. Sex Roles, 28, 553±567. Daft, R., & Lengel, R. (1984). Information richness: a new approach to manager information processing and organization design. In B. Straw, & L. Cummings, Research in organizational behavior. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, (pp. 1±36). Deux, K. (1995). How basic can you be? The evolution of research on gender stereotypes. Journal of Social Issues, 51, 11±20. Eagly, A., & Karau, S. (1991). Gender and emergence of leaders: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 60, 685±710. Eagly, A., & Wood, W. (1991). Explaining sex dierences in social behavior: a meta-analytic perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 306±315. Foroughi, A. (1990). An empirical study of an interactive, session oriented computerized negotiation support system. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Indiana University, IN. Fry, W. (19985). The eect of dyad machiavelliasm and visual access on integrative bargaining outcomes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 11, 51±62. Gallupe, B. (1986). Experimental research into group decision support systems: practical issues and problems. In Proceedings of the 19th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, January, Los Almitos, CA, pp. 515±524. Green, S., & Taber, T. (1980). The eects of three social decision schemes on decision group process. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 25, 97±106. Greenberg, J. (1987). The college sophomore as guinea pig: setting the record straight. Academy of Management Review, 12, 157±159.
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
781
Holmes, J. (1992). Women's talk in public contexts. Discourse and Society, 3, 131±150. Johnson, W. (1987). Workforce 2000, work and workers for the 21st Century. Indianapolis, IN: Hudson Institute. Jones, B. (1988). Analytical negotiation: an empirical examination of the eects of computer support for dierent levels of con¯ict in two-party bargaining. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Indiana University, IN. Kelley, H. (1965). Experimental studies of threats in interpersonal negotiations. Journal of Con¯ict Resolution, 9, 79±105. Kravitz, D., & Iwaniszek, J. (1984). Number of coalitions and resources as sources of power in coalition bargaining. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 534±548. McGrath, J. (1984). Groups: interaction and performance. Englewood Clis, NJ: Prentice-Hall. McGrath, J., & Hollingshead, A. (1993). Putting the ``group'' back in group support systems: some theoretical issues about dynamic processes in groups with technological enhancements. In L. Jessup, & J. Valacich, Group support systems: new perspectives. New York: Macmillan, (pp. 78±96). Miranda, S. & Bostrom, B. (1993). The impact of group support systems on group con¯ict and con¯ict management: an empirical investigation. In Proceedings of the 26th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. January, Maui, Hawaii, pp. 83±94. Molm, L. (1986). Gender, power, and legitimation: a test of three theories. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 1356±1386. Newcomb, T. (1947). Autistic hostility and social reality. Human Relations, 1, 69±86. Poole, M. S., & Jackson, M. H. (1993). Communication theory and group systems support. In L. M. Jesssup, & J. S. Valacich, Group support systems: new perspectives (pp. 281±293). New York: Macmillan. Pruitt, D. (1981). Negotiation behavior. New York: Academic Press. Pruitt, D., & Rubin, J. (1986). Social con¯ict: escalation, stalemate, and settlement. New York: Random House. Rubin, J., & Brown, B. (1975). The social psychology of bargaining and negotiation. New York: Academic Press. Savicki, V., Kelley, M., & Lingenfelter, D. (1996a). Gender and group communication in small task groups using computer-mediated communication. Computers in Human Behavior, 12 (2), 209±224. Savicki, V., Kelley, M., & Lingenfelter, D. (1996b). Gender, group composition, and task type in small task groups using computer-mediated communication. Computers in Human Behavior, 12 (4), 549± 565. Scudder, J. (1988). The in¯uence of power upon powerful speech: a social-exchange perspective. Communication Research Reports, 5, 140±145. Sheeld, J. (1988). The eects of bargaining orientation and communication medium on dyadic negotiations. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Arizona, AZ. Sproull, L., & Kiesler, S. (1991). Connections: new ways of working in the networked organization. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Tannen, D. (1990). You just don't understand. New York: Ballentine Books. Tannen, D. (1994). Talking 9-to-5. New York: Ballentine Books. Tedeshi, J., Schlenker, B., & Bonoma, T. (1973). Con¯ict, power, and games: the experimental study of interpersonal relations. Chicago: Aldine. Terhue, (1970). Gender role and power. Journal of Personality, 47, 71±84. Thompson, L., & Hastie, R. (1990). Social perception in negotiation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 47, 98±123. Truman, G., & Baroudi, J. (1994). Gender dierences in information systems managerial ranks: an assessment of potential discriminatory practices. MIS Quarterly, 6, 129±141. Wachter, R. M. (1993). An empirical investigation of the eects of communication media dierences and the social relationship of individuals on the performance of two-party negotiations. Unpublished dissertation, Indiana University, IN. Walther, J. B., & Burgoon, J. K. (1992). Relational communication in computer-mediated interaction. Human Communication Research, 19, 50±88. Watson, C. (1988). When a woman is the boss: dilemmas in taking charge. Group and Organizational Studies, 13, 163±181.
782
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
Watson, C. (1994). Gender versus power as a predictor of negotiation behavior and outcomes. Negotiation Journal, 14, 117±127. Watson, C., & Homan, L. (1992). An examination of the impact of gender and power on manager's negotiation behavior and outcomes. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, December, Las Vegas, NV. Wilmot, W. (1987). Dyadic communication. New York: Random House. Zmud, R., Lind, M., & Young, F. (1990). An attribute space for organizational communication channels. Information Systems Research, 1, 440±457.
The eect of gender and communication mode on con¯ict resolution R.M. Wachter* School of Business, University of Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN 46227, USA
Abstract This paper examines the eect of gender and con¯ict on the process and outcomes of people using various forms of communication media. Of interest in the study is the eect which gender exerts on the evaluation of the capability of the communication environment to provide relational support under conditions of con¯ict. It was predicted that members of femaleonly and male-only dyads would demonstrate satisfaction dierences and variances in their ratings of the communication environment as a function of their gender distinctions. The results indicate that there were no dierences in performance levels across media and gender composition. However, there was an interaction between media and gender concerning evaluations of the communication environment's ability to support aection, domination, similarity, and trust. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Gender; Communication; Con¯ict resolution; Computer-mediated communication
1. Introduction Several trends underscore the interest in the eect of gender on organizational communication and on the use of technology to mediate that communication. First, women have entered the workforce at an increasing rate. By the year 2000, 47% of the workforce will be female (Johnson, 1987). One consequence of this trend is that females will increase their participation in occupations held traditionally by males. It has been estimated recently that females comprise approximately one-half of all accounting, personnel, and ®nancial management positions in the USA (Truman & Baroudi, 1994). With respect to role behaviors and occupations, gender dierences have been found to exist (Deux, 1995; Eagly & Wood, 1991; Tannen, 1990). In general, * Tel.: +1-317-335-2276; fax: +1-317-788-3300. E-mail address: [email protected] 0747-5632/99/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0747-5632(99)00046-1
764
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
research has shown men to be perceived as more assertive, aggressive, independent, and task oriented (Anderson & Blanchard, 1982; Eagly & Karau, 1991; Terhue, 1970). Conversely, females are perceived as more unsel®sh, caring, and concerned with socio-emotional issues. While a helpful behavior for the maintenance of group harmony, concern for others can carry negative connotations. With regard to negotiations, ``niceness does not help one to win'' (Watson, 1994, p. 118). Thus, men typically have been credited with being more eective negotiators than women (Caplow, 1968; Kelley, 1965). A second trend is that organizations are deploying rapidly new forms of communication media. Once conducted face-to-face, communication and coordination activities are being conducted increasingly through advanced communication technologies such as videoconferencing, electronic mail, and computer conferencing. Organizations hope to bene®t by reducing costs, improving ¯exibility, and optimizing resource utilization (Casson, 1994; Sproull & Kiesler, 1991). The convergence of these trends means that men and women will be communicating by means of computer networks and other technology in ever increasing numbers (Zmud, Lind & Young, 1990). This is of particular concern since there is evidence that women's experiences with these media might be dierent from men's (Savicki, Kelley & Lingenfelter, 1996a, b). If there are persistent dierences between male dyads and female dyads during bargaining interactions, to what extent does communication via these new media reinforce or mitigate those dierences? To address this question, several important variables can be examined: process and outcome satisfaction reported, interpersonal and issue con¯ict experienced, objective performance, and perceptions of relational behavior supported by the communication environment. The review of the literature which follows is not comprehensive since such a review is beyond the scope of a single article. Rather, the literature review is con®ned to a focused set of concepts which are both compelling within this research area and able to be operationalized. 2. Literature review Relatively little research has been conducted in recent years which addresses the issue of gender dierences in negotiation attitudes and behavior. Results from early research studies of the 1960s and 1970s uphold gender-role expectations. Women have been found typically to be `softer' negotiators than men, i.e. they tend to prefer an accommodating style, are generous, and are more concerned that all parties will be treated fairly than they are interested in gaining positive, substantive outcomes for themselves (Bartos, 1970; Tedeschi, Schlenker & Bonoma, 1973; Terhue, 1970). These same studies have shown also that men are `tough' negotiators. They make many demands and oer few concessions. Men are concerned more often about winning outcomes for themselves than for the welfare of the other party. In spite of these seemingly immutable dierences, Rubin and Brown (1975) demonstrated in their review of the literature that dierences between males and
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
765
females in their bargaining behavior and in the quality of outcomes achieved were not supported in a consistent manner. Nevertheless, popular opinion holds the expectation that women will be weaker negotiators than men. Tannen's (1994) study of communication in the workplace provides current evidence of this belief system. She suggests that dierences emerge between genders in the manner by which they address con¯ict in the workplace. For example, one tool which men use regularly to achieve their goals is antagonism. Among men, this `ritual ®ghting'' is a normal and expected form of interaction. Opposing ideas are attacked and defended vigorously. Tannen (1994) continues by stating that women are unaccustomed generally to the practice of open, heated debate. Instead, they become defensive and are prone to interpret the con¯ict as a personal attack. As a consequence, their bargaining outcomes suer. Women's seemingly weak response under confrontational conditions might be, in part, a matter of self-con®dence, not skill. Clark (1993) concluded that men's and women's self-con®dence in a communication setting may dier, but that the nature of the dierence is contingent upon the speci®c kind of communicative task at hand and, in particular, women's familiarity with the task. There is evidence which indicates that women themselves perpetuate the belief that they are less capable, i.e. they do not perceive themselves generally to be eective negotiators. In one study, managerial women reported less self-con®dence than did men before they took part in a simulated negotiation; less satisfaction with themselves after the negotiation; and the belief that they had been less successful than men, even though this was not true based on the experimenters' de®nition of success (Watson & Homan, 1992). The eect of gender on negotiation performance outcomes might not be a matter of attitude, but one of power. Of 34 negotiation studies conducted since 1975, a small handful examine gender and objective performance (see review by Watson, 1994). The studies show that gender tends to produce an eect when considered in conjunction with situational power. These results, however, were not always predictable. Among the results which were expected and subsequently observed, greater situational power led to greater visual dominance, to more expressions of overt hostility toward one's opponent, to greater feelings of competitiveness, and to greater satisfaction with the outcome of negotiation (Watson, 1994). Unexpectedly, strong situational power led men to behave in what the researchers de®ned as more competitive ways, but not women (Kravitz & Iwaniszek, 1984; Scudder, 1988). A competitive performance consisted of winning better payos and issuing ultimatums. Furthermore, powerlessness was found to cause men, but not women, to adopt an approach that has been labeled `soft competition' (Watson & Homan, 1992). A soft approach consists of a statement of a demand followed by logical reasons for it. Finally, Molm (1986) found that female/female pairs were less likely to engage in a turn-taking, tradeo strategy than would male/male pairs. This is an important ®nding since a quid pro quo strategy has been found to be the best one to ensure positive, joint, long-term outcomes in mixed motive situations (Pruitt, 1981). The implication is that ``. . .women may be less likely to settle on a cooperative pattern when they bargain with another woman than will men when
766
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
they bargain with another man. . .'' (Watson, 1994, p. 123). None of the studies found dierences in actual performance levels between male dyads and female dyads. One way people learn about the likely power of others is through behavioral con®rmation, i.e. people look to several communication cues to give context to a particular behavior. In a face-to-face setting, there is maximum opportunity for behavioral con®rmation. Parties may seek several cue sources to provide evidence, whether real or imagined, as to the intent and capability of the other party. For example, aggressive gazing and a defensive body stance (e.g. crossed arms) by one party may serve to reinforce perceptions of competitiveness by the other. The direction of behavioral con®rmation sought has important implications for opening moves in the negotiation. ``The early initiation of cooperative behavior tends to promote the development of trust and mutually bene®cial, cooperative relationship; early competitive behavior, on the other hand, tends to induce mutual suspicion and competition. . .'' (Rubin & Brown, 1975, p. 263). If situational power might be gained, in part, through the manipulation of one's presentation to the other party, the communication environment might moderate the relationship between gender and negotiation outcomes. The number and form of communication cues oered by a medium might in¯uence the degree to which the negotiators perceive themselves and the other party as able to manipulate the situation to their respective satisfaction. A restricted communication medium such as computer-mediated communication neutralizes the capability of bargainers to access or to manipulate visual and audio cues. Negotiators are unable to use those cues to interpret (or misinterpret) the status, capability, or power of their opponents. In support of this notion, it has been found that the presence of a visual barrier tends to cause bargainers to focus on the issues and not on personalities, resulting in more balanced outcomes (Carnevale, Pruitt & Seilheimer, 1981; Fry, 1985; Wachter, 1993; Sheeld, 1988). It should be noted that this ®nding is contradictory to popular media theories. These popular theories suggest that more communication cues are necessary to coordinate eorts and to establish trust during negotiations, thereby precluding the use of computer-mediated communication due to its paucity of cues (Daft & Lengel, 1984; McGrath & Hollingshead, 1993). Burgoon and Hale (1987) suggest that people de®ne their relationships with one another through several dimensionsÐaection, dominance, trust, equality, similarity, formality, and composure. These dimensions re®ne two central relational themes posited by Wilmot (1987)Ðlove/hate and dominance/submission. If men truly are concerned with determining status as suggested by Holmes (1992), they may ®nd themselves less powerful or less able to manipulate their environment when using electronic mail and other restricted media. Hence, they might evaluate a restricted environment unfavorably in terms of its ability to support their domination of the other party. If women are more concerned with solidarity or connection, a medium which supports only limited communication cues and provides less `presence' might frustrate them (Poole & Jackson, 1993). Women might evaluate such a restrictive communication environment more poorly in terms of its ability to support aection and trust.
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
767
From the preceding discussion, the following hypotheses are proposed: H1:
Regardless of the communication medium, females will report more relational con¯ict than will males. H2: There will be no dierence between the amounts of issue con¯ict reported by females and males. H3a: There will be no dierence between males and females in their evaluations of the face-to-face communication condition. H3b: Males will evaluate all other conditions less favorably than females on ability to support dominance, equality, formality, and composure. H3c: Females will evaluate all other conditions less favorably than males on ability to support aection, trust, and similarity. H4: Regardless of the communication medium, females will report less satisfaction with the decision-making process than will males. H5: Regardless of the communication medium, females will report less satisfaction with the outcome than will males. H6: There will be no dierences in performance according to the gender composition of the dyad.
Because of the trend toward the use of new forms of communication media to support organizational communication, it is important to understand the role of gender on the interaction process supported by these media. These hypotheses test the idea that gender-related predispositions toward communication and negotiation interact with and surface across communication media. 3. Materials and methods 3.1. Experimental design Subjects consisted of upper-level undergraduate students enrolled in introductory speech communication and information systems classes at a large midwestern university. The sample is comprised of 694 participants. Subjects received course credit for their participation. This study examined two variables: (1) the gender of the communicators; and (2) the number of communication and coordination cues aorded by the medium. The design of the experiment can be seen in Table 1. Men and women were randomly assigned to one of two gender composition conditions: male-only (MO); or femaleonly (FO). The media chosen for this study provided a range of support for audio and nonaudio communication (Table 2). Face-to-face communication allowed the greatest amount of both types of communication. The telephone, set in the speakerphone mode, was selected because it isolates audio communication. The VideoPhone was a unique medium which delivered both verbal and non-verbal communication
768
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
Table 1 Experimental design Gender
Media Face-to-face
VideoPhone
Speakerphone
Computer-mediated
Male-only Female-only
Table 2 Communication mediaa Con®gurations
Face-to-face communication VideoPhone communication Speakerphone communication Computer-mediated communication
Communication channels Verbal
Visual
Non-verbal cues
Electronic
" " to $ " to $ ±
" " to $ ± ±
" " to # $ to # ±
± ± ± "
a ", the primary communication channel; $, communication channel is present, and actively utilized; #, communication channel is present, but is not likely to be actively utilized; ±, channel is not present.
through the video display. It consisted of a telephone set to which was attached a 3 300 ¯ip-up video display. The computer-mediated mode (a custom-written VAXbased interactive chat program) was chosen to allow synchronous, text-only communication. The task chosen for the study involved a con¯ict of interest. One refers to tasks which have con¯icts of interest as mixed-motive tasks (McGrath, 1984). These tasks do not assume that all members want the same outcome for the group. Instead, the tasks ``. . .put members' interests into con¯ict,. . .and are also designed so that members are motivated to cooperate. . .'' (McGrath, 1984, p. 96). Although the interests of group members are pitted against one another, there is also room for the group to obtain a good joint outcome if they cooperate. The particular task employed is one which has been used to study con¯ict in information systems and in negotiation research and was chosen because the quality of the outcome could be established objectively (Foroughi, 1990; Jones, 1988). Parties negotiated four issues of a 3-year contract for the purchase of engine parts. The buyer, Roberts Inc., needed turbochargers for its new line of four-wheel drive vehicles. Simo, the supplier, wanted the opportunity to supply Roberts Inc. in order to increase its product line. The issues to be resolved were price, quantity, delivery time, and warranty period. Each issue was given a range of possibilities and assigned a value in terms of points. The more points one earned on an issue, the better the resultant contract. During the negotiation, subjects possessed a table which displayed these point value
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
769
structures. They were instructed not to reveal it. To do so would cause them to be disquali®ed from the experiment. Issue con¯ict was manipulated through the point weightings on the issues. In order to create a high degree of con¯ict, similar weightings were assigned to the same issues for both the buyer and the seller. The most weight was assigned to price, followed by quantity, delivery, and warranty period. Thus, both buyer and seller were trying to achieve outcomes which were mutually exclusive. It should be noted that this was not exactly a zero-sum game, i.e. what the seller conceded did not result necessarily in an equal gain to the buyer; it was very close, however. In actual bargaining situations, it is highly unlikely that the weightings of the parties will be exactly equal. Further, all treatments were biased in the same manner. ``While other negotiation paradigms such as the Acme Trucking Game and Prisoner's Dilemma contain many or all of the characteristics of a true bargaining relationship, they tend to bear little resemblance to more familiar bargaining encounters. . .'' (Pruitt & Rubin, 1986, p. 29). This task held not only several characteristics which make it a close approximation to true bargaining and con¯ict resolution situations, but it had also more face validity. This is an important characteristic in media research (Gallupe, 1986). The task was interesting and authentic. The subjects were presented with realistic background information about their roles. Of course, the degree of realism depends on the subjects' abilities to play roles. Initial pilots showed that the subjects became involved actively in their roles, often improvising extra information about their situations in order to explain their contract needs. There were other important characteristics of the task which contributed to its realism. First, the parties were engaged in a voluntary relationship. They had the choice to push for a possible agreement with each other or were able to dissolve the relationship by accepting an alternate default contract with another vendor. Second, the activity focused on the resolution of one or more tangible or intangible issues. An example of a tangible issue would be the achievement of a desirable number of points. An intangible issue might be the perceived dominance or manipulation of the other party and the resultant satisfaction in doing so. Third, the activity involved the exchange of oers and counter-oers whereby subjects could re®ne their negotiation outcome. Finally, the task was designed so that subjects could consider tradeos on several issues simultaneously. For example, with four issues to resolve, subjects could construct oers which presented concessions on two of the issues (i.e. warranty and price) in trade for gains on the other two issues (i.e. service and delivery). Mandatory participation in an experiment might not always result in active participation. In order to increase the likelihood of lively interaction, a ®nancial incentive was oered. The goal was to create an incentive system which preserved the mixed-motive nature of the task. Thus, two rewards were proeredÐone $200 reward to the best joint outcome achieved by a dyad, and $100 to the best individual performance. Subjects then had the choice either to compete to earn the $100 or to cooperate with the other party in the hope of acquiring the joint prize.
770
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
3.2. Procedures To ensure consistency in the explanation of the experiment, procedures, and communication equipment, the experimenter followed a script. Upon arrival at the experimental session, subjects were assigned randomly to a communication medium treatment and then were lead immediately to a separate room. The experimenter wanted to ensure that the subjects did not see their opposite party's appearance before the session began, particularly for the speakerphone and computer treatments. Face-to-face bargainers were positioned 15 feet distant from one another. The other rooms were far enough apart so that people could not hear each other talking through the walls. Before engaging in the task, subjects were asked to ®ll out a consent form and a pre-session questionnaire which directed them to answer background questions. The parties who were in the speakerphone, VideoPhone, and computer rooms were provided with instructions on the use of the equipment. Subjects then were given the task. After reviewing the task, the subjects received time to request clari®cations. The subjects had scratch paper and a pencil with which to make calculations during the session. No calculators were allowed. The subjects were given as much time as they needed to come to an agreement. A deadlock meant that they must each take their alternative contract. When subjects signaled that they were ®nished, they were instructed to complete a post-session questionnaire. 3.3. Instruments and measures 3.3.1. Objective measures of performance Instead of using self-reports of perceived performance, several objective measures of the negotiators' performance were used. One measure of the success achieved by the negotiators in the negotiation session was the joint outcome. In order to arrive at a contract which was bene®cial to both parties and which exceeded the maximum number of points obtainable by any one individual, the negotiators had to cooperate and explore thoroughly the alternatives. Each subject received point values for each of the four negotiated issues. The points for the four issues were added together which resulted in a ®nal contract score for the subject. The ®nal scores from both subjects' contracts were added together to create the joint outcome. Each subject had the opportunity to take an alternative contract at its disposal which had been assigned a predetermined number of points. This contract could be taken if the dyad failed to reach an agreement or if it voluntarily decided to dissolve the relationship. In these cases, the joint outcome was equal to the sum of the points assigned to the alternative contracts for the subjects. While joint outcome measured the overall success of the negotiation session, it was a biased measure in that one member of the dyad might have been much more successful than the other. Contract balance, therefore, was measured according to the numerical similarity of the outcomes of the buyer and seller. This measure was taken to show whether the outcome was equal or fair in terms of the extent to which the outcomes of the two bargainers were similar (Pruitt, 1981). The score for balance
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
771
was the absolute value of the dierence between the total points for the buyer and the total points for the seller. The smaller the dierence, the more balanced was the contract. 3.3.2. Process measures Burgoon and Hale (1987) have identi®ed and validated seven distinct but interrelated message themes which are central to the de®nition of interpersonal relationships. The seven dimensions through which people de®ne their relationship and exchange messages about it are: (1) aection; (2) composure; (3) dominance; (4) equality; (5) formality; (6) similarity; and (7) trust. The original Burgoon and Hale scale was altered so that the questions elicited responses about the ability of the communication environment to facilitate or to hinder the particular behavior or attitude. The coecients of reliability were as follows: aection (0.81); composure (0.80); dominance (0.70); equality (0.70); formality (0.75); similarity (0.79); and trust (0.76). Low scores indicate a more positive evaluation of the communication environment. Satisfaction with both the outcome and the process was assessed. The satisfaction scales for process and outcome came from a subset of the original scales developed by Green and Taber (1980). These scales have been used extensively in information systems research on group support systems and communications media. Their coef®cients of reliability were 0.85 and 0.80, respectively. Low scores indicate greater satisfaction. The measures used to assess the degree of con¯ict came from Miranda and Bostrom (1993). One scale measured the degree to which the communicators experienced con¯ict which was due to the issues at stake (issue-based con¯ict). The other scale measured interpersonal or relational con¯ict. These scales have had reported coecients of reliability of 0.84 for issue-based con¯ict and 0.80 for interpersonal con¯ict. Low scores indicate low perceived con¯ict. Information on academic performance was collected to check for outcome differences as a result of motivation (e.g. low bargaining outcomes associated with poorer students). Information was also collected on subjects' typing ability and experience with electronic mail. Poor typing ability or unfamiliarity with the computer might aect performance in the computer condition, which may in turn have colored perceptions about the medium as well as satisfaction with the process and outcome. There exists some debate as to whether observations for measures such as satisfaction, which are based on mutual in¯uence, are independent observations in each cell. Although there was no reason to suspect dierences, the role to which a person was assigned was run as a covariate during tests of such variables. 4. Results and discussion Generally, the gender composition of the dyad produced signi®cant eects on evaluations of the process and of the communication media. In the following section, the results will be discussed in relationship to the research hypotheses.
772
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
Several analyses of variance were run to test the eects of the independent variables (media and gender) on the independent measures. The attitudinal variables are reported at the individual level. Results for outcome balance and joint score are reported at the group level. There were no signi®cant dierences found for the background variables and for the roles to which people were assigned. The analyses were run a second time to increase the power of the tests. 4.1. H1 and H2: con¯ict Consistent with H1, members of FO dyads reported that they experienced signi®cantly more relational con¯ict than did members of MO dyads irrespective of the medium which was used for communication (Table 3). H2 was also supported since there were no dierences between males and females on the level of issue con¯ict reported (Table 3). However, there was a dierence between communication media in the degree of issue con¯ict perceived. Visual access to the other party was the largest contributor to the reduction in the degree of issue con¯ict experienced by the bargainers. Negotiators in the face-to-face and VideoPhone conditions reported signi®cantly less con¯ict than did those in the speakerphone and computer-mediated conditions. 4.2. H3: evaluations of the communications environment In essence, H3a±c predicted that men would be more concerned about the ability of the communication environment to support their positions in terms of dominance/ submission. Conversely, women would be more concerned about the ability of the communication environment to support aection, similarity, and trust building. However, the resultant interactions provide only partial support (Table 4, Figs. 1±4). With respect to H3a, men and women held dierent impressions of the face-toface setting. Men considered the face-to-face condition more conducive for the display of aection, similarity, and domination of the other party. Women perceived that the face-to-face condition supported trust-building more than did men. To support H3b, males would have been expected to provide lower ratings than would females on the leaner communication media on the dimension of dominance. Males rated the VideoPhone and computer-mediated conditions lower, respectively, but not the speakerphone. To support H3c, males would need to rate the leaner media more favorably than would females in terms of aection, similarity, trust building. This was the case, except for the computer-mediated condition which females evaluated more positively than did males. For the other relational behaviors, there were no dierences in the reports between males and females, but there were dierences in the reports across media. To understand where the dierences were, Schee tests were conducted. For composure, the computer and face-to-face conditions were evaluated more positively than other conditions, followed by the VideoPhone and speakerphone conditions. Assessments of equality displayed a similar pattern. In terms of the ability of the
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
773
Table 3 Results for con¯ict, satisfaction and performance a Outcome Issue con¯ict
F Gender Media
GM Relational con¯ict
Gender
Process satisfaction
Gender Media
GM Solution satisfaction
Gender Media
GM
0.32 0.00 b F V S C
M F
0.73 0.00b
0.92 0.00b C V F S
F V C S
0.18 0.75 0.34
0.97
Joint outcome
Gender Media GM
0.50 0.30 0.97
Contract balance
Gender Media GM
0.35 0.35 0.40
a b c
Mean
N
Subgroups c 34.76 35.97 35.97 37.20 37.46
164 176 167 174
10.35 8.85
271 400
Subgroups c 10.78 10.96 11.03 12.17
173 176 163 166
17.62 17.44 17.25 17.49
164 164 176 173
F, face-to-face; S, speakerphone; V, VideoPhone; C, computer. Indicates signi®cant at or beyond indicated level. Subgroups are signi®cantly dierent at the 0.05 level.
communication environment to convey formality, the face-to-face and VideoPhone conditions were rated more favorably, followed by the computer-mediated condition. The speakerphone condition was rated lowest. Overall, the pattern of the results seems to indicate that women are less comfortable with direct confrontation than are men, although women were not presented directly with such a question in the study. While the evidence is indirect, it would explain some of the inconsistent results. First, women rated the computer-mediated condition far more favorably than did men. If women were indeed uncomfortable with
774
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
Table 4 Results for evaluations of the communication environment a Eect Outcome aect
Gender Media GM Males
Females
Similarity
Gender Media GM Males
Females
Equality
Gender Media GM Males
Females
Dominance
Gender Media GM
Mean
SD
N
b
F V S C
0.01 0.00b 0.00b
F V S C
F V S C
0.00b 0.13b 0.00b
F V S C
Gender Media
GM Outcome trust
F
0.30 0.00b C F V S
F V S C
7.52 7.88
13.20 14.96 15.97 18.83
4.50 4.83 4.75 4.40
66 70 65 70
14.11 16.74 18.53 17.49
5.33 4.86 5.00 5.72
98 106 102 104
10.62 11.71 12.26 13.44
3.74 3.87 3.67 3.67
66 70 65 70
11.21 12.79 13.97 12.00
4.35 3.72 3.92 4.86
98 106 102 104
8.53 9.02
174 164 176 167
16.09 17.18 19.01 20.01
5.71 5.35 5.56 5.77
66 70 65 70
15.03 17.82 20.79 18.93
5.89 5.52 6.05 6.37
98 106 102 104
Subgroupsc 7.88 8.53
0.37 0.88 0.00b 0.05b
F V S C 0.76 0.00b 0.05b
(continued on next page).
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
775
Table 4 (continued) Eect
Composure
b c
SD
N
F V S C
21.27 22.81 22.15 23.59
3.71 3.37 4.07 3.86
66 70 65 70
Females
F V S C
22.42 21.43 22.19 22.33
3.35 3.83 5.03 5.12
98 106 102 104
10.28 10.58
174 164 176 167
Gender Media
0.64 0.00b C F V S
Gender Media
GM a
Mean
Males
GM Formality
F
8.86 9.23
9.23 10.28
0.42 0.88 0.00b
F V C S
Subgroupsc
6.78 7.39 0.23
Subgroupsc 7.39 7.79 7.84
164 176 174 167
F, face-to-face; S, speakerphone; V, VideoPhone; C, computer. Indicates signi®cant at or beyond indicated level. Subgroups are signi®cantly dierent at the 0.05 level.
Fig. 1. Interaction eect of gender and communication media on aection.
con¯ict and confrontation, the computer-mediated condition might have aorded them the greatest distance. We do know that women reported experiencing more
776
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
Fig. 2. Interaction eect of gender and communication media on trust.
Fig. 3. Interaction eect of gender and communication media on similarity.
Fig. 4. Interaction eect of gender and communication media on dominance.
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
777
relational con¯ict across all media. Second, women clearly rated the face-to-face condition as the least conducive to their domination of the other party. It received the lowest evaluation score. In support of their eorts to dominate their opponents, women seemed to appreciate the distance which the VideoPhone and speakerphone conditions provided. Their favorable evaluations of these media suggest that they desired visual and verbal cues to assess the interaction and the other party. However, in order to mitigate the personal eects of the con¯ict, mediation was required. Physically distancing oneself or withdrawing personally in the face of con¯ict is a protective mechanism. Rubin and Brown (1975) explain this behavior in terms of Newcomb's ``autistic hostility'' theory. Newcomb's (1947) theory states that when interpersonal con¯ict escalates, people tend to withdraw from communication in order to avoid ego-damaging or unpredictable events. What the women might not have realized is that this behavior tends only to heighten the con¯ict. These ®ndings stand in contrast to those found for males. Males reported that the face-to-face communication environment enabled them to engage in the greatest domination of other males, while computer-mediated the least. Indeed the ability of the environment to provide visual cues seems to be the distinguishing factor between media for males. This pattern can be expected of bargainers with a competitive predispostition. Rubin and Brown (1975, p. 278) have observed that a competitive bargainer ``. . .wants to believe that he is capable of shaping the other's behavior, causing the other to choose as he (the other) does. . .''. Visual cues allow one to directly observe one's own in¯uence. Characteristics of the communication medium itself, not gender, seemed to distinguish whether the other dimensions of equality, formality and composure were supported. With respect to equality, the media which provided the largest and smallest number of communication cues were rated more favorably. This is not surprising because, in the face-to-face condition, one can assess the other party's age, gender, attractiveness, demeanor, clothing, etc., to look for status dierences. Conversely, the computer-mediated condition neutralizes all status cues, thereby forcing a large degree of equality. The results for composure are identical to those of equality. In the face-to-face condition, one can manipulate one's composure through posture, facial expression, and vocal intonation. The computer-mediated condition removed all cues which would convey that a party were nervous, uncertain, or uncomfortable with the interaction. Evidence of a lack of composure could be derived only from the written text on the screen. Whether a particular medium supports formality seems to depend on its ability to convey visual cues. This is not unexpected since facial expressions such as smiles, grimaces, and eye movements, as well as body posture can in¯uence one's evaluation of whether the other party appears to be relaxed or rigid. 4.3. H4 and H5: satisfaction with the process and outcome Neither H4 nor H5 were supported (Table 3). There were no signi®cant statistical dierences between men and women on their satisfaction with the decision-making
778
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
process or the outcome. There was, however, an eect of media on the satisfaction with the process. Schee tests revealed that dierences between media conditions with regard to satisfaction with the process were due primarily to the communicators' aversions to the speakerphone. Evidently, any disconcerted feelings held by women about the bargaining process did not translate into dissatisfaction with the overall process or ®nal outcome. This ®nding is consistent with other research which showed that, while women held lower expectations for performance on persuasive and justi®catory communication tasks, there tended to be no dierences between men and women in their assessments of the quality of the outcome or in their assessments of their own ability after the task was completed (Clark, 1993). 4.4. H6: performance Consistent with H6, there were no signi®cant dierences found between men and women with respect to the joint outcome or to the balance of the contracts which were negotiated (Table 3). Even though women might have felt less comfortable about the bargaining session, there seemed to be no dierence in their performances as compared to men's. Women negotiating against other women did so as eectively as did men bargaining against other men. 5. Conclusion and implications This study yielded several ®ndings about communication media, con¯ict, and gender which appear to be noteworthy. Of most importance is the ®nding that the eect of gender dierences cannot be ignored or assumed away. Although gender did not aect performance outcomes in the study, it did seem to lead to dierences in female negotiators' comfort levels with the situation. Overall, the study indicates that women are not necessarily softer or less eective negotiators than are men. Women seemed to be as likely to be oriented toward beating their opponent as were men, and as successful in doing so. Female/female pairs did not experience necessarily more cooperation than did male pairs. However, assuming positions of power and feeling comfortable with negotiation appear to be more problematic for women than for men. It was clear that the communication technology mitigated some of these problems by allowing women to distance themselves from the interpersonal con¯ict. This area needs to be researched more fully so that informed recommendations can be developed for women and for the deployment of communication technology. Worthy of consideration is the impact of behavior which does not conform to gender-role expectations on the subsequent evaluation of women in negotiation situations. Even when it might be appropriate for women to behave competitively to protect their own interest, they are likely to incur much more negative reactions for doing this than would men (Tannen, 1994; Watson, 1988).
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
779
Another meaningful ®nding is that the cues which the communication environment provides contribute to perceptions about one's ability to manipulate the negotiation environment. With regard to the availability of cues for establishing equality and composure, it appears to be an all-or-nothing situation in that either all cues are necessary or no cues should be presented. This is to say, the number and variety of cues aorded by a face-to-face setting seem necessary to coordinate behavior in order to promote a consistent image. An absence of these same cues, however, creates a level reference for negotiation precisely because of what is not revealed. Finally, visual access to the other party did seem to mitigate the level of con¯ict experienced by the bargainers. This ®nding is dierent from prior research which suggested that the audio channel is the greater in¯uence on the induction of cooperative behavior (Carnevale et al., 1981; Fry, 1985). 5.1. Limitations and recommendations for future research 5.1.1. Subjects (type and dyad compostion) Whether student subjects behave in the same manner as more experienced negotiators in organizations is still a debated matter (Greenberg, 1987). The justi®cation for using student subjects in this study relies primarily on the fact that negotiation occurs in everyday life (although it may not be formal). It might involve what movie to see, who is going to clean the apartment, or when `quiet' hours are to be kept. ``Negotiation skills are essential to anyone who must interact with other people to accomplish their social objectives. . .'' (Thompson & Hastie, 1990, p. 99). Since not only this study, but also negotiation research in general, is built upon studies of undergraduates, possible limits to the drawing of generalizations from these populations need to be explored. This study represents the two extremes in terms of dyad composition. The use of same sex dyads eliminates problems with respect to which sex played which role (e.g. did male buyers against female sellers perform dierently than female buyers against female sellers, and so on). Future research could examine the outcomes and process of negotiations when the parties are of mixed gender. 5.1.2. Field study There is no guarantee that behavior observed in the laboratory will be found outside the arti®cial setting. While there is implied accountability to the hypothetical ®rm in the bargaining scenario, the behavior exhibited by bargainers might be different if the accountability were enforced directly. Such a `stick' might be a more powerful motivator than the monetary reward oered to the dyads in this study. While the task used in the study re¯ects many of the components found in real bargaining situations, successful outcomes rest on the assumption that utilities can be determined for various preferences. In real negotiation sessions, the value of various outcomes might not be assessed so readily. Moreover, the negotiations took place over one session. Real-life negotiations can span several days, weeks, or even years. This prolonged interaction might in¯uence not only the attitudes of the
780
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
bargainers toward each other but also their perceptions of the medium which was used for communication. For instance, Walther and Burgoon (1992) posited that temporal and relational development are two factors which might serve to in¯uence the impact of restricted media. Over time they found signi®cant, positive changes in the relationships supported by and in the behaviors conveyed across lean media. 5.1.3. Media The synchronous computer-mediated communication mode might not be the usual mode for negotiation. If electronic interchange takes place, it may be through nonsynchronous modes such as electronic mail. Thus, the computer-mediated condition in the experiment is somewhat arti®cial. It was synchronous, however, so that direct comparisons could be made with the other modes and so that it did not introduce another dimension to the study (synchronicity). Future research could examine dierent forms of media and the presentation of those media.
References Anderson, L., & Blanchard, P. (1982). Sex dierences in task and social-emotional behavior. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 3, 109±139. Bartos, O. (1970). Determinants and consequences of toughness. In P. Swingle, The structure of con¯ict. New York: Academic Press, (pp. 17±35). Burgoon, J., & Hale, J. (1987). Validation and measurement of the fundamental themes of relational communication. Communication Monographs, 54, 19±41. Caplow, T. (1968). Two against one: coalition in triads. Englewood Clis, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Carnevale, P., Pruitt, D., & Seilheimer, S. (1981). Looking and competing: accountability and visual access in integrative bargaining. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 111±120. Casson, M. (1994). Why are ®rms hierarchial? Journal of the Economics of Business, 1, 47±76. Clark, R. A. (1993). Men's and women's self-con®dence in persuasive, comforting, and justi®catory communicative tasks. Sex Roles, 28, 553±567. Daft, R., & Lengel, R. (1984). Information richness: a new approach to manager information processing and organization design. In B. Straw, & L. Cummings, Research in organizational behavior. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, (pp. 1±36). Deux, K. (1995). How basic can you be? The evolution of research on gender stereotypes. Journal of Social Issues, 51, 11±20. Eagly, A., & Karau, S. (1991). Gender and emergence of leaders: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 60, 685±710. Eagly, A., & Wood, W. (1991). Explaining sex dierences in social behavior: a meta-analytic perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 306±315. Foroughi, A. (1990). An empirical study of an interactive, session oriented computerized negotiation support system. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Indiana University, IN. Fry, W. (19985). The eect of dyad machiavelliasm and visual access on integrative bargaining outcomes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 11, 51±62. Gallupe, B. (1986). Experimental research into group decision support systems: practical issues and problems. In Proceedings of the 19th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, January, Los Almitos, CA, pp. 515±524. Green, S., & Taber, T. (1980). The eects of three social decision schemes on decision group process. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 25, 97±106. Greenberg, J. (1987). The college sophomore as guinea pig: setting the record straight. Academy of Management Review, 12, 157±159.
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
781
Holmes, J. (1992). Women's talk in public contexts. Discourse and Society, 3, 131±150. Johnson, W. (1987). Workforce 2000, work and workers for the 21st Century. Indianapolis, IN: Hudson Institute. Jones, B. (1988). Analytical negotiation: an empirical examination of the eects of computer support for dierent levels of con¯ict in two-party bargaining. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Indiana University, IN. Kelley, H. (1965). Experimental studies of threats in interpersonal negotiations. Journal of Con¯ict Resolution, 9, 79±105. Kravitz, D., & Iwaniszek, J. (1984). Number of coalitions and resources as sources of power in coalition bargaining. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 534±548. McGrath, J. (1984). Groups: interaction and performance. Englewood Clis, NJ: Prentice-Hall. McGrath, J., & Hollingshead, A. (1993). Putting the ``group'' back in group support systems: some theoretical issues about dynamic processes in groups with technological enhancements. In L. Jessup, & J. Valacich, Group support systems: new perspectives. New York: Macmillan, (pp. 78±96). Miranda, S. & Bostrom, B. (1993). The impact of group support systems on group con¯ict and con¯ict management: an empirical investigation. In Proceedings of the 26th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. January, Maui, Hawaii, pp. 83±94. Molm, L. (1986). Gender, power, and legitimation: a test of three theories. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 1356±1386. Newcomb, T. (1947). Autistic hostility and social reality. Human Relations, 1, 69±86. Poole, M. S., & Jackson, M. H. (1993). Communication theory and group systems support. In L. M. Jesssup, & J. S. Valacich, Group support systems: new perspectives (pp. 281±293). New York: Macmillan. Pruitt, D. (1981). Negotiation behavior. New York: Academic Press. Pruitt, D., & Rubin, J. (1986). Social con¯ict: escalation, stalemate, and settlement. New York: Random House. Rubin, J., & Brown, B. (1975). The social psychology of bargaining and negotiation. New York: Academic Press. Savicki, V., Kelley, M., & Lingenfelter, D. (1996a). Gender and group communication in small task groups using computer-mediated communication. Computers in Human Behavior, 12 (2), 209±224. Savicki, V., Kelley, M., & Lingenfelter, D. (1996b). Gender, group composition, and task type in small task groups using computer-mediated communication. Computers in Human Behavior, 12 (4), 549± 565. Scudder, J. (1988). The in¯uence of power upon powerful speech: a social-exchange perspective. Communication Research Reports, 5, 140±145. Sheeld, J. (1988). The eects of bargaining orientation and communication medium on dyadic negotiations. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Arizona, AZ. Sproull, L., & Kiesler, S. (1991). Connections: new ways of working in the networked organization. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Tannen, D. (1990). You just don't understand. New York: Ballentine Books. Tannen, D. (1994). Talking 9-to-5. New York: Ballentine Books. Tedeshi, J., Schlenker, B., & Bonoma, T. (1973). Con¯ict, power, and games: the experimental study of interpersonal relations. Chicago: Aldine. Terhue, (1970). Gender role and power. Journal of Personality, 47, 71±84. Thompson, L., & Hastie, R. (1990). Social perception in negotiation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 47, 98±123. Truman, G., & Baroudi, J. (1994). Gender dierences in information systems managerial ranks: an assessment of potential discriminatory practices. MIS Quarterly, 6, 129±141. Wachter, R. M. (1993). An empirical investigation of the eects of communication media dierences and the social relationship of individuals on the performance of two-party negotiations. Unpublished dissertation, Indiana University, IN. Walther, J. B., & Burgoon, J. K. (1992). Relational communication in computer-mediated interaction. Human Communication Research, 19, 50±88. Watson, C. (1988). When a woman is the boss: dilemmas in taking charge. Group and Organizational Studies, 13, 163±181.
782
R.M. Wachter / Computers in Human Behavior 15 (1999) 763±782
Watson, C. (1994). Gender versus power as a predictor of negotiation behavior and outcomes. Negotiation Journal, 14, 117±127. Watson, C., & Homan, L. (1992). An examination of the impact of gender and power on manager's negotiation behavior and outcomes. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, December, Las Vegas, NV. Wilmot, W. (1987). Dyadic communication. New York: Random House. Zmud, R., Lind, M., & Young, F. (1990). An attribute space for organizational communication channels. Information Systems Research, 1, 440±457.