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The effect of maternal vitamin D source on broiler hatching egg quality, hatchability, and progeny bone mineral density and performance
©2014 Poultry Science Association, Inc.
The effect of maternal vitamin D source on broiler hatching egg quality, hatchability, and progeny bone mineral density and performance J. L. Saunders-Blades and D. R. Korver1 Department of Agricultural, Food, and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada T6G 2P5
SUMMARY Vitamin D is involved in calcium metabolism as well as bone and shell quality, and is therefore important to broiler breeders. In this research we investigated the effects of maternal dietary 25-OH vitamin D3 on broiler breeder egg quality and hatchability, as well as on progeny bone mineral density and performance. In a field study, all hens were fed 3,000 IU of vitamin D3 (D) per kilogram of complete feed; in addition half of the hens also received 34.5 µg of 25OH vitamin D3 per liter in the drinking water (25OHD). Eggs from each treatment group were incubated and hatched; chicks were fed a common diet and grown to 41 d of age. Eggs from hens in the 25OHD treatment had a nearly 30% reduction in early embryo mortality. However, a larger egg size resulted in greater chick BW for the D chicks, although this did not affect broiler production performance. Broilers from the maternal 25OHD treatment had a lower FCR during the grower phase. Unexpectedly, chick plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 was only greater for the maternal 25OHD treatment at 4 d of age, but not at hatch, 2, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14 d of age. Maternal vitamin D3 source did not affect progeny 41-d bone mineral density. Maternal 25-OH vitamin D3 had a protective effect on the growing embryo, reducing early embryonic mortality, with minimal effects on progeny performance and bone mineral density to processing at 41 d of age. The previously reported effects of 25-OH vitamin D3 on increasing broiler performance and breast yield seem to be dependent on supplementation of the broiler diet; a carry-over effect of maternal supplementation is insufficient to achieve these effects. Key words: broiler breeder, vitamin D3, 25-hydroxyvitamin D3, egg quality, embryonic mortality, broiler 2014 J. Appl. Poult. Res. 23:773–783 http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/japr.2014-01006
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM Twenty-five hydroxycholecalciferol (25-OH vitamin D3) is a metabolite of vitamin D3 that is formed in the liver from vitamin D [1]. This metabolite is then hydroxylated to the active form, 1
Corresponding author: [email protected]
1,25(OH)2D3 in the kidney by 25-hydroxy-D31α-hydroxylase [2]. The 1,25(OH)2D3 is involved in intestinal Ca absorption, the deposition of skeletal Ca, as well as Ca resorption from bone tissues when plasma Ca levels are low [3]. Its role in skeletal metabolism makes vitamin D3
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Primary Audience: Producers, Industry, Nutritionists
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MATERIALS AND METHODS Experimental Design and Conditions The experimental protocols were conducted according to the Canadian Council on Animal Care guidelines [10]. Cobb 500 [11] broiler hatching eggs (n = 3,530) were obtained from 2
commercial breeder flocks on the same production complex at 29 wk of age. Approximately half of the eggs (n = 1,510) came from a flock that received 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D3 (D) during the breeder phase. The remainder of the eggs (n = 1,620) came from breeder hens that were fed the same diet as the control birds, as well as being supplemented with 34.5 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 (25OHD) per liter of drinking water starting 3 wk before fertile egg collection. Eggs were incubated [12] for 21.5 d at 37.5°C and 85% RH. Eggs were transferred to a hatcher at 18 d of age and placed in hatch baskets that held 18 eggs per basket (n = 84 and 88 hatch baskets for the D and 25OHD treatments, respectively). At hatch, stage of development at embryonic mortality [13], hatchability, and chick BW were assessed for each maternal dietary treatment group. Early (0 to 7 d) and late (8 to 18 d) embryonic mortality (mid embryonic mortality was combined with late embryonic mortality due to low mortality in both phases), late hatch (chicks requiring longer than 21.5 d to hatch), percent internal pip live and dead (IPL and IPD; those chicks that pipped through the shell membrane only before expiration), percent external pip live and dead (EPL and EPD; those chicks that pipped through the shell before expiration) were determined as a percentage of fertile eggs. Egg Quality In addition to the eggs placed in the incubator, eggs (n = 200 per treatment) were assessed for egg quality traits. Egg specific gravity was measured by the floatation method [14]. Individual eggs were weighed and the weights of yolk, albumen, and shell were recorded. Eggshell weight (with membranes attached) was measured after the eggshells were washed and air-dried overnight. Eggshell thickness was determined from the middle of the egg using a micrometer. Eggshell conductance was determined using the method described by O’Dea et al. [15] and calculations given by Ar et al. [16]. Briefly, the rate of egg weight loss (presumed to be moisture loss) was determined daily on eggs (n = 15 per treatment) that were placed in desiccators and covered in desiccant for a 9-d period. Room temperature was recorded daily for the determination of the saturation vapor pressure.
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and its metabolites a natural target for studies involving bone quality in poultry. The egg yolk is the main source of nutrition for the developing embryo and newly hatched chick [4]. The vitamin D3 level in the hens diet is positively correlated with vitamin D3 and 25-OH vitamin D3 contents within the egg yolk [5]. The enzyme 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1α-hydroxylase, which is responsible for the hydroxylation of 25-OH vitamin D3 to 1, 25(OH)2D3 is present as early as 12 d of incubation and increases in specific activity during further embryonic development [6]. The early development of vitamin D3 metabolism signifies the importance of this nutrient to the developing embryo. However, even with diets sufficient in vitamin D activity (2,200 IU), the addition of 1,100 IU of 25-OH vitamin D3 to the diet of turkey breeders increased egg hatchability as compared with dietary vitamin D3 alone [7]. This may be related to the fact that 25-OH vitamin D3 is more efficiently absorbed by the bird than vitamin D3 [8], which may also be the case for the chick embryo. Providing the broiler breeder hen with dietary 25-OH vitamin D3, may increase the absorption efficiency of Ca from the gut, leading to increased eggshell quality and less reliance on bone Ca as the bird ages. In addition, maternal supplementation of 25-OH vitamin D3, increases deposition of 25-OH vitamin D3 into the egg [9] and may result in increased egg hatchability and chick quality, which could in turn result in greater growth and efficiency of the broiler chick. Therefore the objectives of the current research were to investigate the effects of supplementation of a liquid 25-OH vitamin D3 water supplement to broiler breeders on egg quality and hatchability as well as progeny bone mineral density and performance. We hypothesized that maternal dietary 25-OH vitamin D3 would increase egg hatchability, chick quality, and overall broiler performance to slaughter at 41 d of age.
Saunders-Blades and Korver: BROILER VITAMIN D SOURCE Broiler Production, Plasma 25-OH Vitamin D3, and Bone Quality
Statistical Analysis The egg was the experimental unit for the egg trait data. Each hatch basket of 18 eggs was the experimental unit for the hatch data. The pen was the experimental unit for the broiler growth data. One pen from the maternal 25OHD treatment was removed from the data set due to flooding within the pen, which affected broiler production traits. Most data, except for the percentage data [percent fertility, hatch (total eggs), hatch (fertile eggs), early and late mortality, late hatch, all the internal and external pips (live and dead) as well as the dead and culls at hatch] were analyzed as a one-way ANOVA with maternal dietary treatment as the main effect using the Mixed procedure in SAS [25]. The percentage data listed were analyzed as a Chi-squared analysis using SAS [25]. Plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 data were analyzed using the repeated measures procedure in Proc Mixed of SAS [25]. Means were compared using LSmeans comparisons of SAS [25]. Significance was assessed at a P ≤ 0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fertility, Hatchability, and Chick Quality The increase in hatchability of total and of fertile eggs approached significance (P = 0.072 and 0.071; respectively; Table 1) as a result of a nearly 30% reduction in early embryonic mortality when broiler breeders were supplemented with 25-OH vitamin D3 in the drinking water (P < 0.03; Table 1). In the current study, no differences were observed in late embryonic mortality, IPL, IPD, EPL, EPD, and percent dead and culls at hatch (P > 0.05; Table 1). At low levels of vitamin D3 relative to typical commercial supplementation, the addition of 1,100 IU of 25-OH vitamin D3 to a diet that already contained 2,200 IU of vitamin D3 increased hatchability of fertile turkey eggs from 48-wkold hens by 2- to 3-fold [7]. Supplementation of breeder hen diets with 3,125 ng of 25-OH vitamin D3 per kilogram of feed reduced late, but not early, embryonic mortality as compared with 3,125 ng of vitamin D3 per kilogram of feed [26]. According to some sources, 3,125 ng/
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Chicks from each maternal treatment group were randomly allocated to 20 floor pens (n = 60 birds per pen at 17.44 birds/m2) according to the maternal dietary treatment groups (n = 1,200 per maternal dietary treatment). Due to overcrowding, 10 birds per pen were removed after weighing on d 14. The new stocking density was 14.09 birds/m2. The birds were fed a nutritionally complete crumbled broiler starter ration (23% CP, 3,067 kcal/kg of ME, 1.1% Ca, 0.50% available P, and 2,500 IU of supplemental vitamin D per kilogram of diet) from 0 to 14 d of age. The grower (20% CP, 3,152 kcal/kg of ME, 0.90% Ca, 0.45% available P, and 2,500 IU of supplemental vitamin D per kilogram of diet; fed from 15 to 27 d of age) and finisher (19% CP, 3,196 kcal/kg of ME, 0.85% Ca, 0.42% available P, and 2,500 IU of supplemental vitamin D per kilogram of diet; fed from 28 to 41 d of age) rations were pelleted. All diets were wheat-based, supplemented with a commercial arabinoxylanase enzyme [17], and formulated to meet or exceeded NRC [18] and primary breeder [19] nutrient recommendations. Broiler pen BW was measured at 0, 7, 14, 27, and 42 d. Feed consumption and FCR were calculated on a pen basis at 7, 14, 27, and 42 d of age. During the first 2 wk posthatch, 10 chicks per maternal treatment were assessed for plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 levels every 2 d. Blood samples were collected and centrifuged at 4,000 × g for 15 min at 4°C. The plasma was removed and stored at −20 C until further analysis. The 25-OH vitamin D3 was extracted from plasma as described by Aksnes [20]. A standard curve was obtained using dilutions of a 25-OH vitamin D3 standard [21]. Femur bone mineral density (BMD), cross-sectional area, and bone mineral content (BMC) at 41 d was measured on the right femur of male birds (n = 25 per treatment) selected at random from each maternal treatment group using quantitative computed tomography [22] using procedures and calculations outlined in Saunders-Blades et al. [23]. In addition, femur breaking strength was measured using an Instron Material Tester [24] as described by Saunders-Blades et al. [23]
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JAPR: Field Report 0.1187 0.9594 0.6006 0.2604 0.9247 0.3736 0.6118 0.8396 0.0242 0.0711 0.0717 0.6266 1
Treatment means within same column with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05). 1 Number for fertility and hatch (total eggs) was 1,510 for the D and 1,620 for the 25-OHD treatments; for the rest of the variables n = 1,447 and 1,555 for the D treatment and the 25OHD treatment, respectively. 2 IPL = internal pip live (chick pipped through membrane only and was alive); IPD = internal pip dead (chick pipped only through membrane and was dead); EPL = external pip live (chick pipped through shell and was alive); EPD = external pip dead (chick pipped through shell and was dead). 3 Broiler breeders fed a diet containing 3,000 IU/kg of vitamin D3 as the sole supplemental source of vitamin D activity. 4 Broiler breeders supplemented with 34.5µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per liter of water starting at 26 wk of age in addition to 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D3.
a,b
1.11 0.58 0.07 0.06 0.21 0.13 0.21 0.45
Treatment (%) D3 25OHD4 Chi-square, probability Treatment
95.70 96.05
84.66 86.91
88.46 90.48
6.22a 4.37b
2.14 2.25
0.07 0.13
0.07 0.19
0.55 0.58
EPD2 IPD2 IPL2 Late hatch Late mortality Early mortality Hatch (fertile eggs) Hatch (total eggs) Fertility df Item
Table 1. Effect of maternal vitamin D source on hatchability and fertility from 29-wk-old broiler breeders1
kg of 25-OH vitamin D3 would provide a greater amount of vitamin D3 bioactivity than 3,125 ng/ kg of vitamin D3 [27], which could be the cause for the different results than the current study. However, when the breeder hen dietary levels of 25-OH vitamin D3 and vitamin D3 were increased to 12,500 ng/kg (500 IU/kg), no difference in embryonic mortality was noted between treatments [26]. Other studies have suggested that the bioefficacy of 25-OH vitamin D3 relative to vitamin D3 to increase BW and reduce tibial dischondroplasia in broiler chickens is greater per unit of supplementation at levels below 1,000 IU/kg, but above this level the difference is minimal [28]. In the current study, all of the hens would have received sufficient levels of vitamin D3 activity, regardless of the source. Therefore, the protective effect of 25-OH vitamin D3 observed on early embryonic mortality in the current study are not likely due simply to the level of vitamin D activity supplemented, but rather to the form of vitamin D3 added. In broiler chicks, 25-OH vitamin D3 is absorbed more efficiently from the gut than vitamin D3 [8], and young chicks may have lower ability to convert vitamin D3 to 25-OH vitamin D3 [29]. Therefore, chicken embryos may be metabolically limited in the ability to use vitamin D3, and provision of preformed 25-OH vitamin D3 via maternal supplementation may provide a survival advantage to the embryo relative to vitamin D3. In contrast, Torres et al. [30] reported no difference in hatchability in 54- and 64-wk-old Cobb 500 broiler breeder hens supplemented with up to 69 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per kilogram of feed (equivalent to 2,670 IU of vitamin D3) in addition to 2,000 or 3,400 IU of vitamin D3 per kilogram of feed as compared with the same levels of vitamin D3 alone. The hatch weight of chicks from the broiler breeders on the D treatment was greater than those from the 25OHD eggs (P < 0.001; Table 2). This was a result of the greater set and transfer weight of the eggs from the D hens (P < 0.0001 and 0.0059; respectively; Table 2). Egg size is one of the main factors affecting chick weight at hatch [31]. A smaller egg mass from birds supplemented with 25-OH vitamin D3 as compared with vitamin D3 has also been reported in laying hens [32], although no significant difference in egg production was reported.
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EPL2
Dead
Cull
776
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Table 2. Effect of maternal vitamin D source on set, transfer, and weight loss of hatching eggs during incubation and chick hatch BW from 29-wk-old broiler breeders1
Item Treatment D3 25OHD4 SEM ANOVA, probability Treatment
Set egg weight2 (g)
Transfer egg weight2 (g)
Weight loss2 (%)
Eggshell conductance2 (mg of H2O/d per mmHg)
Chick BW (g)
56.0a (1,510) 55.5b (1,619) 0.09
49.9a (1,399) 49.6b (1,523) 0.09
10.98a (1,399) 10.82b (1,523) 0.05
11.32 (15) 11.76 (15) 0.42
38.2a (84) 37.7b (88) 0.10
0.4624
0.0004
<0.0001
0.0059
0.0088
Treatment means within same column with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05). 1 Means are followed by n in parentheses; n for egg data = number of eggs for each treatment, n for BW = number of hatch basket sections (18 eggs/basket). 2 Set egg weight = weight of egg when first put in incubator; transfer egg weight = weight of egg after 18 d of incubation; weight loss = percent of weight loss of the egg from 0 to 18 d of incubation; eggshell conductance = rate of water loss from egg when stored for 7 d covered with desiccant. 3 Broiler breeders fed a diet containing 3,000 IU of vitamin D3 as the sole supplemental source of vitamin D activity. 4 Broiler breeders supplemented with 34.5 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per liter of water starting at 26 wk of age in addition to 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D3.
Egg Traits The eggs from the D treatment lost a greater proportion of weight throughout the 21.5 d of incubation (P < 0.05; Table 2), which may be explained by the greater percentage of eggshell of the eggs from the breeders on the 25OHD treatment (Table 3). Eggshell water vapor conductance increases with egg weight [33]. In the current study, although no treatment effect on eggshell conductance was observed, any potential effect on egg size was likely eliminated because eggs used for conductance measurement were selected to be within 56.3 ± 0.5 g of egg weight (Table 2). Eggs from the breeders on the 25OHD treatment had approximately 1.7% greater eggshell as a proportion of egg weight relative to eggs from breeders on the D treatment (Table 3). No differences in egg specific gravity, shell weight, or thickness were seen between the 2 treatment groups (Table 3). This is contrary to a previous study where a strong positive correlation was found between specific gravity and percent eggshell in eggs from laying hens [34]. In the current study, although the percent shell was different between the treatments, the difference may have been small enough that no measurable effect on specific gravity could be detected. However, similar to the results of the current study, supplementation of laying hens diets with 25-OH vitamin D3 in place of vitamin D3 did not
increase egg specific gravity [9, 32], nor were albumen weight and shell breaking strength affected [9]. Dietary supplementation of 1,100 IU of 25-OH vitamin D3 per kilogram of feed in addition to 2,200 IU of vitamin D3 per kilogram of feed did not affect turkey egg specific gravity in comparison with dietary vitamin D3 alone [7]. On the contrary, in older broiler breeders, eggspecific gravity was greater in eggs from hens fed 25-OH vitamin D3 than in eggs from hens fed vitamin D3 at equivalent levels [30]. Eggs from the maternal 25OHD treatment had increased yolk weight as a proportion of egg weight relative to the D treatment (P < 0.05; Table 3). An increase in the proportion of egg yolk caused by dietary 25-OH vitamin D3 has not previously been reported in the literature. In spite of the difference in yolk size, the eggs from the 25OHD hens were smaller than eggs from the D hens. No significant difference was observed between dietary treatments in percent albumen (Table 3). Broiler Growth and FE The greater chick BW at hatch of the D group (Table 2) did not lead to differences in chick BW, gain, feed consumption, and FCR during the starter and finisher periods (Table 4). The only maternal treatment effect on broiler pro-
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a,b
JAPR: Field Report
0.1164 0.0421 0.0394 0.7295 0.4035 0.7195 0.2416 1
Treatment means within same column with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05). 1 Specific gravity was measured by the floatation method with a series of saline solutions of increasing specific gravity ranging from 1.060 to 1.010 in increments of 0.002. Shell weight is the weight of the washed and air-dried egg shell (with membrane). Shell thickness was determined on the egg shell from the middle of the egg using a micrometer. Percent shell, yolk, and albumen were determined as a percentage of the total egg weight. 2 Broiler breeders fed a diet containing 3,000 IU/kg of vitamin D3 as the sole supplemental source of vitamin D activity. 3 Broiler breeders supplemented with 34.5 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per liter of water starting at 26 wk of age in addition to 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D.
a,b
57.21 56.87 0.18 29.44b 29.91a 0.160 9.68b 9.84a 0.055 5.43 5.47 0.038
Treatment D2 25OHD3 SEM ANOVA, probability Treatment
200 200
56.08 55.66 0.255
1.079 1.080 0.0004
0.415 0.414 0.002
Yolk1 (%) Shell thickness1 (mm) Shell weight1 (g) Specific gravity1 Egg weight (g) N df Item
Table 3. Effect of maternal vitamin D source on egg quality from 29-wk-old broiler breeders
duction was found during the grower phase (15– 27 d), when chicks from the 25OHD maternal treatment had a lower FCR than those from the D hens (Table 4). Body weight and gain during this phase were nearly significantly greater for the broilers from the maternal 25OHD treatment (P = 0.0592 and 0.0762; respectively; Table 4), with no difference in feed consumption. Maternal 25-OH vitamin D3 supplementation did not have lasting effects on broiler performance, as no differences in final BW and overall FCR were noted. Atencio et al. [35] reported a greater BW gain of progeny from hatch to 16 d of age with maternal dietary vitamin D3 increasing from a deficient (125 IU/kg) to a sufficient (2,000 IU/ kg) level. Broiler performance past 16 d was not investigated in that study. In the current study, vitamin D3 supplementation was well in excess of 2,000 IU/kg. When 25-OH vitamin D3 was fed directly to broilers in previous studies, increases in BW, BW gain, and breast muscle yield were noted [28, 36, 37]. The minimal and transient effect of maternal vitamin D3 source on broiler chick performance indicates that the effects of 25-OH vitamin D3 on broiler performance are therefore dependent upon dietary supplementation of the broiler; breeder supplementation of 25-OH vitamin D3 to diets sufficient in vitamin D3 does not appear to influence broiler performance to 41 d of age. Broiler Chick Plasma 25-OH Vitamin D3 from Hatch to 14 d Chick plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 at hatch was greater for the 25OHD maternal treatment than the D treatment at 4 d of age (Figure 1). Increasing dietary vitamin D3 in laying hen diets from 1,064 to 8,640 IU/kg and 25-OH vitamin D3 from 30 to 122 μg/kg (equivalent to 1,200 to 4,880 IU/kg) increased both egg yolk vitamin D3 and 25-OH vitamin D3 [5, 9]; however, the effect of egg vitamin D3 and its metabolites on the plasma levels in the offspring has not been previously reported. The cause of the delay in the appearance of treatment differences in plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 is unknown. The yolk sac is intensively absorbed during the first 5 d posthatch [38], suggesting that stored 25-OH vitamin D3 (either tissue or yolk sac) may be readily available to the fast-growing chick. It is
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Shell1 (%)
Albumen1 (%)
778
20 19
20 19
20 19
20 19
N
0.0301
38.2a 37.8b 0.14
d0
0.7026
138 139 1.4
d7
0.4989
367.7 370.1 2.50
d 14
0.0592
1205 1230 9.0
d 27
0.2537
2338.4 2362.4 14.46
d 41
52.8 53.8 0.47 0.1275
0.8587
0.3896
0.4209 16.3 16.4 0.15
1.85 1.87 0.02
0.2615
0.6667 1.15 1.14 0.01
28.4 28.8 0.24
d 8–14
14.2 14.3 0.19
d 0–7
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0.8124 1.95 1.95 0.02 0.8479
0.0762 1.42a 1.39b 0.01 0.0250
0.6921
0.5828
160.4 161.3 1.16
82.4 82.7 0.88
70.3 71.9 0.64
100.0 100.5 0.85
d 28–41
d 15–27
Treatment means within same column with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05). 1 Broilers from broiler breeders fed a diet containing 3,000 IU of vitamin D3 as the sole supplemental source of vitamin D activity. 2 Broilers from broiler breeders supplemented with 34.5 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per liter of water starting at 26 wk of age in addition to 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D3.
a,b
BW (g) D1 25OHD2 SEM ANOVA, probability Treatment Gain (g/bird per d) D 250HD SEM ANOVA, probability Treatment FCR D 250HD SEM ANOVA, probability Treatment Feed consumption (g/bird per d) Treatment D 25OHD SEM ANOVA, probability Treatment
Item
Table 4. Effect of maternal vitamin D source on broiler BW, gain, feed consumption, and FCR from 0 to 41 d
0.4051
92.9 93.5 053
0.4337
1.69 1.68 0.01
0.2062
55.0 55.7 0.36
Overall
Saunders-Blades and Korver: BROILER VITAMIN D SOURCE 779
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age may reflect a limited ability of the chick to convert dietary vitamin D3 to 25-OH vitamin D3 in the liver. Our laboratory has shown that plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 levels decrease after hatch when chicks are fed only vitamin D3 [29]. To our knowledge, no previous reports exist on the effect of maternal dietary 25-OH vitamin D3 on the chick plasma 25-OH vitamin D3. Broiler Bone Mineral Density Femur total, cortical, and trabecular BMD, cross-sectional areas, BMC, and bone breaking strength of broilers at 41 d of age were not different between the 2 maternal dietary treatments (P > 0.05; Table 5). Although broiler bone ash was not measured in the current study, BMD and bone ash are positively correlated in many species [39, 40]. Early in life, chicken bones are not well mineralized; maximum BMD is not reached until 35 wk posthatch [41]. In the
Figure 1. The effect of maternal vitamin D source on broiler chick plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 from hatch to 14 d. The D treatment was chicks from broiler breeders fed a diet containing 3,000 IU/kg of vitamin D3 as the sole supplemental source of vitamin D activity. The 25OHD treatment was chicks from broiler breeders supplemented with 34.5 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per liter of water in addition to 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D3. n = 12 birds per treatment at each sample day. Means with differing lowercase letters (a,b) are significantly different within each age (P < 0.05). Means over time across treatment with differing uppercase letters (A–C) are significantly different over time (P < 0.05).
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possible the yolk sac of chicks from the 25OHD treatment hens had a greater store and, therefore, when the plasma levels of 25-OH vitamin D3 start to decrease for the D chicks, sufficient yolk 25-OH vitamin D3 was present to delay this decrease in the 25OHD maternal treatment. In both treatment groups, plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 decreased from hatch to 6 d of age, at which point it remained low to 10 d of age, after which chicks from both maternal treatments had increased plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 levels. Chicks at hatch had similar levels of plasma 25OH vitamin D3 regardless of maternal supplementation when supplemented with adequate levels of vitamin D3 activity. Although providing maternal 25-OH vitamin D3 minimized the decrease in plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 at 4 d of age, no further differences beyond that age were noted. This is likely related to the chick using up the yolk sac storage of the metabolite. The decrease in 25-OH vitamin D3 from 2 to 6 d of
JAPR: Field Report
Cortical = outer shell of the femur with a mineral density >500 mg/cm . Trabecular = measurements taken in the inner part of the bone in the trabecular space. 3 Total = the total for the entire bone. 4 Broilers from broiler breeders fed a diet containing 3,000 IU/kg of vitamin D3 as the sole supplemental source of vitamin D activity. 5 Broilers from broiler breeders supplemented with 34.5 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per liter of water starting at 26 wk of age in addition to 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D3.
0.4316 2
0.2743 0.6617 0.2797 0.3618 0.6778 0.2518 0.6998 0.2060 0.3154
current study, plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 levels between the D and 25OHD maternal treatment groups were equivalent from 0 to 2 and from 6 to 14 d posthatch (Figure 1). Rapid bone growth and formation occurs up to 28 d of age in broilers [42], with BMD, BMC, and cross-sectional bone areas in chicks increasing rapidly from 2 to 3 wk of age [43]. Therefore, it is likely that maternal dietary supplementation of 25-OH vitamin D3 would not have long-term effects on broiler bone formation. Increasing maternal dietary vitamin D3 from 0 to 4,000 IU/kg of feed increased 16-d progeny broiler bone ash and reduced tibial dyschondroplasia scores [35], whereas it increased bone ash from turkey poults up to 12 d when increased in the hen diet from 300 to 2,700 IU/kg of feed [44]. In the current study, all hens were provided with vitamin D3 greatly in excess of the NRC requirements [18], and the 25OHD hens received further vitamin D3 activity in the form of 25-OH vitamin D3. As intake of vitamin D3 activity was not likely limiting to the hens’ ability to deposit sufficient vitamin D3 and 25-OH vitamin D3, the lack of effects on many of the bone traits measured is not surprising.
CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
3 1
39.56 37.64 1.68 31.90 30.34 0.98 2.71 2.61 0.15 67.49 64.77 2.13 475.33 469.88 9.72
Treatment D4 25OHD5 SE ANOVA, probability Treatment
25 23
908.25 916.75 6.04
83.24 78.16 2.77
31.37 29.61 1.05
34.31 33.50 1.35
28.45 27.06 0.88
Total Trabecular Cortical Total Trabecular Cortical Total3 Trabecular2 Cortical1 N Item
Femur cross-sectional area (mm2) Femur density (mg/cm3)
Table 5. Effect of maternal vitamin D source on femur bone mineral density and area of 41-d-old broilers
781
1. Supplementing breeder hens with 25OH vitamin D3 in addition to sufficient levels of dietary vitamin D3 had a protective effect on the developing embryo from 0 to 7 d of incubation. This reduction in early embryonic mortality could increase overall productivity of broiler breeder flocks. 2. Based on the increase in hatchability (which approached significance), the increase in shell weight, and the protective effect against early embryonic mortality, either 25-OH vitamin D3 has effects beyond that of a sufficient dietary vitamin D3 level, the requirement of the hen to maximize these functions is higher than 3,000 IU/kg of feed, or both. 3. Although maternal 25-OH vitamin D3 supplementation had a positive influence on some early chick characteristics, no consistent long-lasting effects on broiler performance were observed.
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Femur mineral content (mg/mm)
Femur breaking strength (kg)
Saunders-Blades and Korver: BROILER VITAMIN D SOURCE
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4. To achieve the previously reported effects of 25-OH vitamin D3 on broiler performance, supplementation of the broiler diets directly may be necessary.
REFERENCES AND NOTES
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1. Soares, J. H., Jr., J. M. Kerr, and R. W. Gray. 1995. 25-Hydroxycholecalciferol in poultry nutrition. Poult. Sci. 74:1919–1934. 2. Norman, A. W., and S. Hurwitz. 1993. The role of the vitamin D endocrine system in avian bone biology. J. Nutr. 123:310–316. 3. DeLuca, H. F. 2004. Overview of general physiologic features and functions of vitamin D. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80:1689S–1696S. 4. Speake, B. K., A. M. Murray, and R. C. Noble. 1998. Transport and transformations of yolk lipids during development of the avian embryo. Prog. Lipid Res. 37:1–32. 5. Mattila, P., K. Lehikoinen, T. Kiiskinen, and V. Piironen. 1999. Cholecalciferol and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol content of chicken egg yolk as affected by the cholecalciferol content of feed. J. Agric. Food Chem. 47:4089–4092. 6. Turner, R. T., J. S. Graves, and N. H. Bell. 1987. Regulation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 metabolism in chick embryo. Am. J. Physiol. 252:E38–E43. 7. Manley, J. M., R. A. Voitle, and R. H. Harms. 1978. The influence of hatchability of turkey eggs from the addition of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol to the diet. Poult. Sci. 57:290–292. 8. Bar, A., M. Sharvit, D. Noff, S. Edelstein, and S. Hurwitz. 1980. Absorption and excretion of cholecalciferol and of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol and metabolites in birds. J. Nutr. 110:1930–1934. 9. Mattila, P. H., E. Valkonen, and J. Valaja. 2011. Effect of different vitamin D supplementations in poultry feed on vitamin D content of eggs and chicken meat. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59:8298–8303. 10. Canadian Council on Animal Care. 2009. CCAC Guidelines on: The Care and Use of Farm Animals in Research, Teaching and Testing. CCAC, Ottawa, ON, Canada. 11. Cobb-Vantress, Inc., Siloam Springs, AR. 12. Edwards, H. M., Jr. 2002. Studies on the efficacy of cholecalciferol and derivatives for stimulating phytate utilization in broilers. Poult. Sci. 81:1026–1031. 13. Hamburger, V., and H. L. Hamilton. 1951. A series of normal stages in the development of the chick embryo. J. Morphol. 88:49–92. 14. Hamilton, R. M. G. 1982. Methods and factors that affect the measurement of egg shell quality. Poult. Sci. 61:2022–2039. 15. O’Dea, E. E., G. M. Fasenko, J. J. Feddes, F. E. Robinson, J. C. Segura, C. A. Ouellette, and J. H. van Middelkoop. 2004. Investigating the eggshell conductance and embryonic metabolism of modern and unselected domestic avian genetic strains at two flock ages. Poult. Sci. 83:2059– 2070. 16. Ar, A., C. V. Paganelli, R. B. Reeves, D. G. Greene, and H. Rahn. 1974. The avian egg: Water vapor conductance, shell thickness and functional pore area. Condor 76:153–158.
17. Edwards, H. M., Jr., R. B. Shirley, W. B. Escoe, and G. M. Pesti. 2002. Quantitative evaluation of 1-alpha-hydroxycholecalciferol as a cholecalciferol substitute for broilers. Poult. Sci. 81:664–669. 18. NRC. 1994. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. Natl. Acad Press, Washington, DC. 19. Cobb-Vantress Inc. 2004. Broiler Nutrition Supplement. Cobb-Vantress Inc., Siloam Springs, AR. 20. Aksnes, L. 1992. A simplified high-performance liquid chromatographic method for determination of vitamin D3, 25-hydroxyvitamin D2 and 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 in human serum. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 52:177–182. 21. Boyan, B. D., L. F. Bonewald, V. L. Sylvia, I. Nemere, D. Larsson, A. W. Norman, J. Rosser, D. D. Dean, and Z. Schwartz. 2002. Evidence for distinct membrane receptors for 1 alpha,25-(OH)(2)D(3) and 24R,25-(OH)(2)D(3) in osteoblasts. Steroids 67:235–246. 22. David, J. P., M. Rincon, L. Neff, W. C. Horne, and R. Baron. 2001. Carbonic anhydrase II is an AP-1 target gene in osteoclasts. J. Cell. Physiol. 188:89–97. 23. Saunders-Blades, J. L., J. L. MacIsaac, D. R. Korver, and D. M. Anderson. 2009. The effect of calcium source and particle size on the production performance and bone quality of laying hens. Poult. Sci. 88:338–353. 24. Jin, S., J. L. Sell, and J. S. Haynes. 2001. Effect of dietary vitamin K1 on selected plasma characteristics and bone ash in young turkeys fed diets adequate or deficient in vitamin D3. Poult. Sci. 80:607–614. 25. SAS Institute. 1999. SAS/STAT User’s Guide Release 8.0. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC. 26. Atencio, A., G. M. Pesti, and H. M. Edwards Jr.. 2005. Twenty-five hydroxycholecalciferol as a cholecalciferol substitute in broiler breeder hen diets and its effect on the performance and general health of the progeny. Poult. Sci. 84:1277–1285. 27. Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intake, Food and Nutrition Board and Institute of Medicine. 1997. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D and Fluoride. Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, DC. 28. Fritts, C. A., and P. W. Waldroup. 2003. Effect of source and level of vitamin D on live performance and bone development in growing broilers. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 12:45–52. 29. Saunders-Blades, J. L., and D. R. Korver. 2014. The effect of hen age and maternal vitamin D source on performance, hatchability, bone mineral density, and progeny in vitro early innate immune function. Unpublished data, University of Alberta, Edmondton, Canada. 30. Torres, C. A., S. L. Vieira, R. N. Reis, A. K. Ferreira, P. X. da Silva, and F. V. F. Furtado. 2009. Productive performance of broiler breeder hens fed 25-hydroxycholecalciferol. R. Bras. Zootec. 38:1286–1290. 31. Wilson, H. R. 1991. Interrelationship of egg size, chick size, post-hatching growth, and hatchability. World’s Poult. Sci. J. 47:5–20. 32. Keshavarz, K. 2003. A comparison between cholecalciferol and 25-OH-cholecalciferol on performance and eggshell quality of hens fed different levels of calcium and phosphorus. Poult. Sci. 82:1415–1422. 33. Ar, A., C. V. Paganelli, R. B. Reeves, D. G. Greene, and H. Rahn. 1974. The avian egg: Water vapor conductance, shell thickness and functional pore area. Condor 76:153–158.
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X-ray absorptiometry in live White Leghorns. Poult. Sci. 84:91–99. 41. Rath, N. C., G. R. Huff, W. E. Huff, and J. M. Balog. 2000. Factors regulating bone maturity and strength in poultry. Poult. Sci. 79:1024–1032. 42. Leslie, M. A., R. A. Coleman, S. Moehn, R. O. Ball, and D. R. Korver. 2006. Relationship between bicarbonate retention and bone characteristics in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 85:1917–1922. 43. Kim, W. K., S. A. Bloomfield, and S. C. Ricke. 2011. Effects of age, vitamin D3, and fructooligosaccharides on bone growth and skeletal integrity of broiler chicks. Poult. Sci. 90:2425–2432. 44. Stevens, V. I., R. Blair, and R. E. Salmon. 1984. Influence of maternal vitamin D3 carry-over on kidney 25-hydroxyvitamin D3-1-hydroxylase activity of poults. Poult. Sci. 63:765–774.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of DSM Nutritional Products, Parsippany, NJ. Technical assistance was provided by Kerry Nadeau and the Poultry Unit staff at the Poultry Research Centre, University of Alberta. Jordana Williams at the University of Alberta provided laboratory assistance.
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34. Holder, D. P., and M. V. Bradford. 1979. Relationship of specific gravity of chicken eggs to number of cracked eggs observed and percent shell. Poult. Sci. 58:250–251. 35. Atencio, A., H. M. Edwards Jr., and G. M. Pesti. 2005. Effect of the level of cholecalciferol supplementation of broiler breeder hen diets on the performance and bone abnormalities of the progeny fed diets containing various levels of calcium or 25-hydroxycholecalciferol. Poult. Sci. 84:1593–1603. 36. Yarger, J. G., C. L. Quarles, B. W. Hollis, and R. W. Gray. 1995. Safety of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol as a source of cholecalciferol in poultry rations. Poult. Sci. 74:1437– 1446. 37. Yarger, J. G., C. A. Saunders, J. L. McNaughton, C. L. Quarles, B. W. Hollis, and R. W. Gray. 1995. Comparison of dietary 25-hydroxycholecalciferol and cholecalciferol in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 74:1159–1167. 38. Jamroz, D., T. Wertelecki, A. Wiliczkiewicz, J. Orda, and J. Skorupinska. 2004. Dynamics of yolk sac resorption and post-hatching development of the gastrointestinal tract in chickens, ducks and geese. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. (Berl.) 88:239–250. 39. Waite, K. L., B. D. Nielsen, and D. S. Rosenstein. 2000. Computed tomography as a method of estimating bone mineral content in horses. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 20:49– 52. 40. Schreiweis, M. A., J. I. Orban, M. C. Ledur, D. E. Moody, and P. Y. Hester. 2005. Validation of dual-energy
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The effect of maternal vitamin D source on broiler hatching egg quality, hatchability, and progeny bone mineral density and performance J. L. Saunders-Blades and D. R. Korver1 Department of Agricultural, Food, and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada T6G 2P5
SUMMARY Vitamin D is involved in calcium metabolism as well as bone and shell quality, and is therefore important to broiler breeders. In this research we investigated the effects of maternal dietary 25-OH vitamin D3 on broiler breeder egg quality and hatchability, as well as on progeny bone mineral density and performance. In a field study, all hens were fed 3,000 IU of vitamin D3 (D) per kilogram of complete feed; in addition half of the hens also received 34.5 µg of 25OH vitamin D3 per liter in the drinking water (25OHD). Eggs from each treatment group were incubated and hatched; chicks were fed a common diet and grown to 41 d of age. Eggs from hens in the 25OHD treatment had a nearly 30% reduction in early embryo mortality. However, a larger egg size resulted in greater chick BW for the D chicks, although this did not affect broiler production performance. Broilers from the maternal 25OHD treatment had a lower FCR during the grower phase. Unexpectedly, chick plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 was only greater for the maternal 25OHD treatment at 4 d of age, but not at hatch, 2, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14 d of age. Maternal vitamin D3 source did not affect progeny 41-d bone mineral density. Maternal 25-OH vitamin D3 had a protective effect on the growing embryo, reducing early embryonic mortality, with minimal effects on progeny performance and bone mineral density to processing at 41 d of age. The previously reported effects of 25-OH vitamin D3 on increasing broiler performance and breast yield seem to be dependent on supplementation of the broiler diet; a carry-over effect of maternal supplementation is insufficient to achieve these effects. Key words: broiler breeder, vitamin D3, 25-hydroxyvitamin D3, egg quality, embryonic mortality, broiler 2014 J. Appl. Poult. Res. 23:773–783 http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/japr.2014-01006
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM Twenty-five hydroxycholecalciferol (25-OH vitamin D3) is a metabolite of vitamin D3 that is formed in the liver from vitamin D [1]. This metabolite is then hydroxylated to the active form, 1
Corresponding author: [email protected]
1,25(OH)2D3 in the kidney by 25-hydroxy-D31α-hydroxylase [2]. The 1,25(OH)2D3 is involved in intestinal Ca absorption, the deposition of skeletal Ca, as well as Ca resorption from bone tissues when plasma Ca levels are low [3]. Its role in skeletal metabolism makes vitamin D3
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Primary Audience: Producers, Industry, Nutritionists
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MATERIALS AND METHODS Experimental Design and Conditions The experimental protocols were conducted according to the Canadian Council on Animal Care guidelines [10]. Cobb 500 [11] broiler hatching eggs (n = 3,530) were obtained from 2
commercial breeder flocks on the same production complex at 29 wk of age. Approximately half of the eggs (n = 1,510) came from a flock that received 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D3 (D) during the breeder phase. The remainder of the eggs (n = 1,620) came from breeder hens that were fed the same diet as the control birds, as well as being supplemented with 34.5 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 (25OHD) per liter of drinking water starting 3 wk before fertile egg collection. Eggs were incubated [12] for 21.5 d at 37.5°C and 85% RH. Eggs were transferred to a hatcher at 18 d of age and placed in hatch baskets that held 18 eggs per basket (n = 84 and 88 hatch baskets for the D and 25OHD treatments, respectively). At hatch, stage of development at embryonic mortality [13], hatchability, and chick BW were assessed for each maternal dietary treatment group. Early (0 to 7 d) and late (8 to 18 d) embryonic mortality (mid embryonic mortality was combined with late embryonic mortality due to low mortality in both phases), late hatch (chicks requiring longer than 21.5 d to hatch), percent internal pip live and dead (IPL and IPD; those chicks that pipped through the shell membrane only before expiration), percent external pip live and dead (EPL and EPD; those chicks that pipped through the shell before expiration) were determined as a percentage of fertile eggs. Egg Quality In addition to the eggs placed in the incubator, eggs (n = 200 per treatment) were assessed for egg quality traits. Egg specific gravity was measured by the floatation method [14]. Individual eggs were weighed and the weights of yolk, albumen, and shell were recorded. Eggshell weight (with membranes attached) was measured after the eggshells were washed and air-dried overnight. Eggshell thickness was determined from the middle of the egg using a micrometer. Eggshell conductance was determined using the method described by O’Dea et al. [15] and calculations given by Ar et al. [16]. Briefly, the rate of egg weight loss (presumed to be moisture loss) was determined daily on eggs (n = 15 per treatment) that were placed in desiccators and covered in desiccant for a 9-d period. Room temperature was recorded daily for the determination of the saturation vapor pressure.
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and its metabolites a natural target for studies involving bone quality in poultry. The egg yolk is the main source of nutrition for the developing embryo and newly hatched chick [4]. The vitamin D3 level in the hens diet is positively correlated with vitamin D3 and 25-OH vitamin D3 contents within the egg yolk [5]. The enzyme 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1α-hydroxylase, which is responsible for the hydroxylation of 25-OH vitamin D3 to 1, 25(OH)2D3 is present as early as 12 d of incubation and increases in specific activity during further embryonic development [6]. The early development of vitamin D3 metabolism signifies the importance of this nutrient to the developing embryo. However, even with diets sufficient in vitamin D activity (2,200 IU), the addition of 1,100 IU of 25-OH vitamin D3 to the diet of turkey breeders increased egg hatchability as compared with dietary vitamin D3 alone [7]. This may be related to the fact that 25-OH vitamin D3 is more efficiently absorbed by the bird than vitamin D3 [8], which may also be the case for the chick embryo. Providing the broiler breeder hen with dietary 25-OH vitamin D3, may increase the absorption efficiency of Ca from the gut, leading to increased eggshell quality and less reliance on bone Ca as the bird ages. In addition, maternal supplementation of 25-OH vitamin D3, increases deposition of 25-OH vitamin D3 into the egg [9] and may result in increased egg hatchability and chick quality, which could in turn result in greater growth and efficiency of the broiler chick. Therefore the objectives of the current research were to investigate the effects of supplementation of a liquid 25-OH vitamin D3 water supplement to broiler breeders on egg quality and hatchability as well as progeny bone mineral density and performance. We hypothesized that maternal dietary 25-OH vitamin D3 would increase egg hatchability, chick quality, and overall broiler performance to slaughter at 41 d of age.
Saunders-Blades and Korver: BROILER VITAMIN D SOURCE Broiler Production, Plasma 25-OH Vitamin D3, and Bone Quality
Statistical Analysis The egg was the experimental unit for the egg trait data. Each hatch basket of 18 eggs was the experimental unit for the hatch data. The pen was the experimental unit for the broiler growth data. One pen from the maternal 25OHD treatment was removed from the data set due to flooding within the pen, which affected broiler production traits. Most data, except for the percentage data [percent fertility, hatch (total eggs), hatch (fertile eggs), early and late mortality, late hatch, all the internal and external pips (live and dead) as well as the dead and culls at hatch] were analyzed as a one-way ANOVA with maternal dietary treatment as the main effect using the Mixed procedure in SAS [25]. The percentage data listed were analyzed as a Chi-squared analysis using SAS [25]. Plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 data were analyzed using the repeated measures procedure in Proc Mixed of SAS [25]. Means were compared using LSmeans comparisons of SAS [25]. Significance was assessed at a P ≤ 0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fertility, Hatchability, and Chick Quality The increase in hatchability of total and of fertile eggs approached significance (P = 0.072 and 0.071; respectively; Table 1) as a result of a nearly 30% reduction in early embryonic mortality when broiler breeders were supplemented with 25-OH vitamin D3 in the drinking water (P < 0.03; Table 1). In the current study, no differences were observed in late embryonic mortality, IPL, IPD, EPL, EPD, and percent dead and culls at hatch (P > 0.05; Table 1). At low levels of vitamin D3 relative to typical commercial supplementation, the addition of 1,100 IU of 25-OH vitamin D3 to a diet that already contained 2,200 IU of vitamin D3 increased hatchability of fertile turkey eggs from 48-wkold hens by 2- to 3-fold [7]. Supplementation of breeder hen diets with 3,125 ng of 25-OH vitamin D3 per kilogram of feed reduced late, but not early, embryonic mortality as compared with 3,125 ng of vitamin D3 per kilogram of feed [26]. According to some sources, 3,125 ng/
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Chicks from each maternal treatment group were randomly allocated to 20 floor pens (n = 60 birds per pen at 17.44 birds/m2) according to the maternal dietary treatment groups (n = 1,200 per maternal dietary treatment). Due to overcrowding, 10 birds per pen were removed after weighing on d 14. The new stocking density was 14.09 birds/m2. The birds were fed a nutritionally complete crumbled broiler starter ration (23% CP, 3,067 kcal/kg of ME, 1.1% Ca, 0.50% available P, and 2,500 IU of supplemental vitamin D per kilogram of diet) from 0 to 14 d of age. The grower (20% CP, 3,152 kcal/kg of ME, 0.90% Ca, 0.45% available P, and 2,500 IU of supplemental vitamin D per kilogram of diet; fed from 15 to 27 d of age) and finisher (19% CP, 3,196 kcal/kg of ME, 0.85% Ca, 0.42% available P, and 2,500 IU of supplemental vitamin D per kilogram of diet; fed from 28 to 41 d of age) rations were pelleted. All diets were wheat-based, supplemented with a commercial arabinoxylanase enzyme [17], and formulated to meet or exceeded NRC [18] and primary breeder [19] nutrient recommendations. Broiler pen BW was measured at 0, 7, 14, 27, and 42 d. Feed consumption and FCR were calculated on a pen basis at 7, 14, 27, and 42 d of age. During the first 2 wk posthatch, 10 chicks per maternal treatment were assessed for plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 levels every 2 d. Blood samples were collected and centrifuged at 4,000 × g for 15 min at 4°C. The plasma was removed and stored at −20 C until further analysis. The 25-OH vitamin D3 was extracted from plasma as described by Aksnes [20]. A standard curve was obtained using dilutions of a 25-OH vitamin D3 standard [21]. Femur bone mineral density (BMD), cross-sectional area, and bone mineral content (BMC) at 41 d was measured on the right femur of male birds (n = 25 per treatment) selected at random from each maternal treatment group using quantitative computed tomography [22] using procedures and calculations outlined in Saunders-Blades et al. [23]. In addition, femur breaking strength was measured using an Instron Material Tester [24] as described by Saunders-Blades et al. [23]
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JAPR: Field Report 0.1187 0.9594 0.6006 0.2604 0.9247 0.3736 0.6118 0.8396 0.0242 0.0711 0.0717 0.6266 1
Treatment means within same column with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05). 1 Number for fertility and hatch (total eggs) was 1,510 for the D and 1,620 for the 25-OHD treatments; for the rest of the variables n = 1,447 and 1,555 for the D treatment and the 25OHD treatment, respectively. 2 IPL = internal pip live (chick pipped through membrane only and was alive); IPD = internal pip dead (chick pipped only through membrane and was dead); EPL = external pip live (chick pipped through shell and was alive); EPD = external pip dead (chick pipped through shell and was dead). 3 Broiler breeders fed a diet containing 3,000 IU/kg of vitamin D3 as the sole supplemental source of vitamin D activity. 4 Broiler breeders supplemented with 34.5µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per liter of water starting at 26 wk of age in addition to 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D3.
a,b
1.11 0.58 0.07 0.06 0.21 0.13 0.21 0.45
Treatment (%) D3 25OHD4 Chi-square, probability Treatment
95.70 96.05
84.66 86.91
88.46 90.48
6.22a 4.37b
2.14 2.25
0.07 0.13
0.07 0.19
0.55 0.58
EPD2 IPD2 IPL2 Late hatch Late mortality Early mortality Hatch (fertile eggs) Hatch (total eggs) Fertility df Item
Table 1. Effect of maternal vitamin D source on hatchability and fertility from 29-wk-old broiler breeders1
kg of 25-OH vitamin D3 would provide a greater amount of vitamin D3 bioactivity than 3,125 ng/ kg of vitamin D3 [27], which could be the cause for the different results than the current study. However, when the breeder hen dietary levels of 25-OH vitamin D3 and vitamin D3 were increased to 12,500 ng/kg (500 IU/kg), no difference in embryonic mortality was noted between treatments [26]. Other studies have suggested that the bioefficacy of 25-OH vitamin D3 relative to vitamin D3 to increase BW and reduce tibial dischondroplasia in broiler chickens is greater per unit of supplementation at levels below 1,000 IU/kg, but above this level the difference is minimal [28]. In the current study, all of the hens would have received sufficient levels of vitamin D3 activity, regardless of the source. Therefore, the protective effect of 25-OH vitamin D3 observed on early embryonic mortality in the current study are not likely due simply to the level of vitamin D activity supplemented, but rather to the form of vitamin D3 added. In broiler chicks, 25-OH vitamin D3 is absorbed more efficiently from the gut than vitamin D3 [8], and young chicks may have lower ability to convert vitamin D3 to 25-OH vitamin D3 [29]. Therefore, chicken embryos may be metabolically limited in the ability to use vitamin D3, and provision of preformed 25-OH vitamin D3 via maternal supplementation may provide a survival advantage to the embryo relative to vitamin D3. In contrast, Torres et al. [30] reported no difference in hatchability in 54- and 64-wk-old Cobb 500 broiler breeder hens supplemented with up to 69 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per kilogram of feed (equivalent to 2,670 IU of vitamin D3) in addition to 2,000 or 3,400 IU of vitamin D3 per kilogram of feed as compared with the same levels of vitamin D3 alone. The hatch weight of chicks from the broiler breeders on the D treatment was greater than those from the 25OHD eggs (P < 0.001; Table 2). This was a result of the greater set and transfer weight of the eggs from the D hens (P < 0.0001 and 0.0059; respectively; Table 2). Egg size is one of the main factors affecting chick weight at hatch [31]. A smaller egg mass from birds supplemented with 25-OH vitamin D3 as compared with vitamin D3 has also been reported in laying hens [32], although no significant difference in egg production was reported.
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EPL2
Dead
Cull
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Table 2. Effect of maternal vitamin D source on set, transfer, and weight loss of hatching eggs during incubation and chick hatch BW from 29-wk-old broiler breeders1
Item Treatment D3 25OHD4 SEM ANOVA, probability Treatment
Set egg weight2 (g)
Transfer egg weight2 (g)
Weight loss2 (%)
Eggshell conductance2 (mg of H2O/d per mmHg)
Chick BW (g)
56.0a (1,510) 55.5b (1,619) 0.09
49.9a (1,399) 49.6b (1,523) 0.09
10.98a (1,399) 10.82b (1,523) 0.05
11.32 (15) 11.76 (15) 0.42
38.2a (84) 37.7b (88) 0.10
0.4624
0.0004
<0.0001
0.0059
0.0088
Treatment means within same column with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05). 1 Means are followed by n in parentheses; n for egg data = number of eggs for each treatment, n for BW = number of hatch basket sections (18 eggs/basket). 2 Set egg weight = weight of egg when first put in incubator; transfer egg weight = weight of egg after 18 d of incubation; weight loss = percent of weight loss of the egg from 0 to 18 d of incubation; eggshell conductance = rate of water loss from egg when stored for 7 d covered with desiccant. 3 Broiler breeders fed a diet containing 3,000 IU of vitamin D3 as the sole supplemental source of vitamin D activity. 4 Broiler breeders supplemented with 34.5 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per liter of water starting at 26 wk of age in addition to 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D3.
Egg Traits The eggs from the D treatment lost a greater proportion of weight throughout the 21.5 d of incubation (P < 0.05; Table 2), which may be explained by the greater percentage of eggshell of the eggs from the breeders on the 25OHD treatment (Table 3). Eggshell water vapor conductance increases with egg weight [33]. In the current study, although no treatment effect on eggshell conductance was observed, any potential effect on egg size was likely eliminated because eggs used for conductance measurement were selected to be within 56.3 ± 0.5 g of egg weight (Table 2). Eggs from the breeders on the 25OHD treatment had approximately 1.7% greater eggshell as a proportion of egg weight relative to eggs from breeders on the D treatment (Table 3). No differences in egg specific gravity, shell weight, or thickness were seen between the 2 treatment groups (Table 3). This is contrary to a previous study where a strong positive correlation was found between specific gravity and percent eggshell in eggs from laying hens [34]. In the current study, although the percent shell was different between the treatments, the difference may have been small enough that no measurable effect on specific gravity could be detected. However, similar to the results of the current study, supplementation of laying hens diets with 25-OH vitamin D3 in place of vitamin D3 did not
increase egg specific gravity [9, 32], nor were albumen weight and shell breaking strength affected [9]. Dietary supplementation of 1,100 IU of 25-OH vitamin D3 per kilogram of feed in addition to 2,200 IU of vitamin D3 per kilogram of feed did not affect turkey egg specific gravity in comparison with dietary vitamin D3 alone [7]. On the contrary, in older broiler breeders, eggspecific gravity was greater in eggs from hens fed 25-OH vitamin D3 than in eggs from hens fed vitamin D3 at equivalent levels [30]. Eggs from the maternal 25OHD treatment had increased yolk weight as a proportion of egg weight relative to the D treatment (P < 0.05; Table 3). An increase in the proportion of egg yolk caused by dietary 25-OH vitamin D3 has not previously been reported in the literature. In spite of the difference in yolk size, the eggs from the 25OHD hens were smaller than eggs from the D hens. No significant difference was observed between dietary treatments in percent albumen (Table 3). Broiler Growth and FE The greater chick BW at hatch of the D group (Table 2) did not lead to differences in chick BW, gain, feed consumption, and FCR during the starter and finisher periods (Table 4). The only maternal treatment effect on broiler pro-
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a,b
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0.1164 0.0421 0.0394 0.7295 0.4035 0.7195 0.2416 1
Treatment means within same column with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05). 1 Specific gravity was measured by the floatation method with a series of saline solutions of increasing specific gravity ranging from 1.060 to 1.010 in increments of 0.002. Shell weight is the weight of the washed and air-dried egg shell (with membrane). Shell thickness was determined on the egg shell from the middle of the egg using a micrometer. Percent shell, yolk, and albumen were determined as a percentage of the total egg weight. 2 Broiler breeders fed a diet containing 3,000 IU/kg of vitamin D3 as the sole supplemental source of vitamin D activity. 3 Broiler breeders supplemented with 34.5 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per liter of water starting at 26 wk of age in addition to 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D.
a,b
57.21 56.87 0.18 29.44b 29.91a 0.160 9.68b 9.84a 0.055 5.43 5.47 0.038
Treatment D2 25OHD3 SEM ANOVA, probability Treatment
200 200
56.08 55.66 0.255
1.079 1.080 0.0004
0.415 0.414 0.002
Yolk1 (%) Shell thickness1 (mm) Shell weight1 (g) Specific gravity1 Egg weight (g) N df Item
Table 3. Effect of maternal vitamin D source on egg quality from 29-wk-old broiler breeders
duction was found during the grower phase (15– 27 d), when chicks from the 25OHD maternal treatment had a lower FCR than those from the D hens (Table 4). Body weight and gain during this phase were nearly significantly greater for the broilers from the maternal 25OHD treatment (P = 0.0592 and 0.0762; respectively; Table 4), with no difference in feed consumption. Maternal 25-OH vitamin D3 supplementation did not have lasting effects on broiler performance, as no differences in final BW and overall FCR were noted. Atencio et al. [35] reported a greater BW gain of progeny from hatch to 16 d of age with maternal dietary vitamin D3 increasing from a deficient (125 IU/kg) to a sufficient (2,000 IU/ kg) level. Broiler performance past 16 d was not investigated in that study. In the current study, vitamin D3 supplementation was well in excess of 2,000 IU/kg. When 25-OH vitamin D3 was fed directly to broilers in previous studies, increases in BW, BW gain, and breast muscle yield were noted [28, 36, 37]. The minimal and transient effect of maternal vitamin D3 source on broiler chick performance indicates that the effects of 25-OH vitamin D3 on broiler performance are therefore dependent upon dietary supplementation of the broiler; breeder supplementation of 25-OH vitamin D3 to diets sufficient in vitamin D3 does not appear to influence broiler performance to 41 d of age. Broiler Chick Plasma 25-OH Vitamin D3 from Hatch to 14 d Chick plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 at hatch was greater for the 25OHD maternal treatment than the D treatment at 4 d of age (Figure 1). Increasing dietary vitamin D3 in laying hen diets from 1,064 to 8,640 IU/kg and 25-OH vitamin D3 from 30 to 122 μg/kg (equivalent to 1,200 to 4,880 IU/kg) increased both egg yolk vitamin D3 and 25-OH vitamin D3 [5, 9]; however, the effect of egg vitamin D3 and its metabolites on the plasma levels in the offspring has not been previously reported. The cause of the delay in the appearance of treatment differences in plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 is unknown. The yolk sac is intensively absorbed during the first 5 d posthatch [38], suggesting that stored 25-OH vitamin D3 (either tissue or yolk sac) may be readily available to the fast-growing chick. It is
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Shell1 (%)
Albumen1 (%)
778
20 19
20 19
20 19
20 19
N
0.0301
38.2a 37.8b 0.14
d0
0.7026
138 139 1.4
d7
0.4989
367.7 370.1 2.50
d 14
0.0592
1205 1230 9.0
d 27
0.2537
2338.4 2362.4 14.46
d 41
52.8 53.8 0.47 0.1275
0.8587
0.3896
0.4209 16.3 16.4 0.15
1.85 1.87 0.02
0.2615
0.6667 1.15 1.14 0.01
28.4 28.8 0.24
d 8–14
14.2 14.3 0.19
d 0–7
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0.8124 1.95 1.95 0.02 0.8479
0.0762 1.42a 1.39b 0.01 0.0250
0.6921
0.5828
160.4 161.3 1.16
82.4 82.7 0.88
70.3 71.9 0.64
100.0 100.5 0.85
d 28–41
d 15–27
Treatment means within same column with different superscripts are significantly different (P < 0.05). 1 Broilers from broiler breeders fed a diet containing 3,000 IU of vitamin D3 as the sole supplemental source of vitamin D activity. 2 Broilers from broiler breeders supplemented with 34.5 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per liter of water starting at 26 wk of age in addition to 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D3.
a,b
BW (g) D1 25OHD2 SEM ANOVA, probability Treatment Gain (g/bird per d) D 250HD SEM ANOVA, probability Treatment FCR D 250HD SEM ANOVA, probability Treatment Feed consumption (g/bird per d) Treatment D 25OHD SEM ANOVA, probability Treatment
Item
Table 4. Effect of maternal vitamin D source on broiler BW, gain, feed consumption, and FCR from 0 to 41 d
0.4051
92.9 93.5 053
0.4337
1.69 1.68 0.01
0.2062
55.0 55.7 0.36
Overall
Saunders-Blades and Korver: BROILER VITAMIN D SOURCE 779
780
age may reflect a limited ability of the chick to convert dietary vitamin D3 to 25-OH vitamin D3 in the liver. Our laboratory has shown that plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 levels decrease after hatch when chicks are fed only vitamin D3 [29]. To our knowledge, no previous reports exist on the effect of maternal dietary 25-OH vitamin D3 on the chick plasma 25-OH vitamin D3. Broiler Bone Mineral Density Femur total, cortical, and trabecular BMD, cross-sectional areas, BMC, and bone breaking strength of broilers at 41 d of age were not different between the 2 maternal dietary treatments (P > 0.05; Table 5). Although broiler bone ash was not measured in the current study, BMD and bone ash are positively correlated in many species [39, 40]. Early in life, chicken bones are not well mineralized; maximum BMD is not reached until 35 wk posthatch [41]. In the
Figure 1. The effect of maternal vitamin D source on broiler chick plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 from hatch to 14 d. The D treatment was chicks from broiler breeders fed a diet containing 3,000 IU/kg of vitamin D3 as the sole supplemental source of vitamin D activity. The 25OHD treatment was chicks from broiler breeders supplemented with 34.5 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per liter of water in addition to 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D3. n = 12 birds per treatment at each sample day. Means with differing lowercase letters (a,b) are significantly different within each age (P < 0.05). Means over time across treatment with differing uppercase letters (A–C) are significantly different over time (P < 0.05).
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possible the yolk sac of chicks from the 25OHD treatment hens had a greater store and, therefore, when the plasma levels of 25-OH vitamin D3 start to decrease for the D chicks, sufficient yolk 25-OH vitamin D3 was present to delay this decrease in the 25OHD maternal treatment. In both treatment groups, plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 decreased from hatch to 6 d of age, at which point it remained low to 10 d of age, after which chicks from both maternal treatments had increased plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 levels. Chicks at hatch had similar levels of plasma 25OH vitamin D3 regardless of maternal supplementation when supplemented with adequate levels of vitamin D3 activity. Although providing maternal 25-OH vitamin D3 minimized the decrease in plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 at 4 d of age, no further differences beyond that age were noted. This is likely related to the chick using up the yolk sac storage of the metabolite. The decrease in 25-OH vitamin D3 from 2 to 6 d of
JAPR: Field Report
Cortical = outer shell of the femur with a mineral density >500 mg/cm . Trabecular = measurements taken in the inner part of the bone in the trabecular space. 3 Total = the total for the entire bone. 4 Broilers from broiler breeders fed a diet containing 3,000 IU/kg of vitamin D3 as the sole supplemental source of vitamin D activity. 5 Broilers from broiler breeders supplemented with 34.5 µg of 25-OH vitamin D3 per liter of water starting at 26 wk of age in addition to 3,000 IU/kg of dietary vitamin D3.
0.4316 2
0.2743 0.6617 0.2797 0.3618 0.6778 0.2518 0.6998 0.2060 0.3154
current study, plasma 25-OH vitamin D3 levels between the D and 25OHD maternal treatment groups were equivalent from 0 to 2 and from 6 to 14 d posthatch (Figure 1). Rapid bone growth and formation occurs up to 28 d of age in broilers [42], with BMD, BMC, and cross-sectional bone areas in chicks increasing rapidly from 2 to 3 wk of age [43]. Therefore, it is likely that maternal dietary supplementation of 25-OH vitamin D3 would not have long-term effects on broiler bone formation. Increasing maternal dietary vitamin D3 from 0 to 4,000 IU/kg of feed increased 16-d progeny broiler bone ash and reduced tibial dyschondroplasia scores [35], whereas it increased bone ash from turkey poults up to 12 d when increased in the hen diet from 300 to 2,700 IU/kg of feed [44]. In the current study, all hens were provided with vitamin D3 greatly in excess of the NRC requirements [18], and the 25OHD hens received further vitamin D3 activity in the form of 25-OH vitamin D3. As intake of vitamin D3 activity was not likely limiting to the hens’ ability to deposit sufficient vitamin D3 and 25-OH vitamin D3, the lack of effects on many of the bone traits measured is not surprising.
CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
3 1
39.56 37.64 1.68 31.90 30.34 0.98 2.71 2.61 0.15 67.49 64.77 2.13 475.33 469.88 9.72
Treatment D4 25OHD5 SE ANOVA, probability Treatment
25 23
908.25 916.75 6.04
83.24 78.16 2.77
31.37 29.61 1.05
34.31 33.50 1.35
28.45 27.06 0.88
Total Trabecular Cortical Total Trabecular Cortical Total3 Trabecular2 Cortical1 N Item
Femur cross-sectional area (mm2) Femur density (mg/cm3)
Table 5. Effect of maternal vitamin D source on femur bone mineral density and area of 41-d-old broilers
781
1. Supplementing breeder hens with 25OH vitamin D3 in addition to sufficient levels of dietary vitamin D3 had a protective effect on the developing embryo from 0 to 7 d of incubation. This reduction in early embryonic mortality could increase overall productivity of broiler breeder flocks. 2. Based on the increase in hatchability (which approached significance), the increase in shell weight, and the protective effect against early embryonic mortality, either 25-OH vitamin D3 has effects beyond that of a sufficient dietary vitamin D3 level, the requirement of the hen to maximize these functions is higher than 3,000 IU/kg of feed, or both. 3. Although maternal 25-OH vitamin D3 supplementation had a positive influence on some early chick characteristics, no consistent long-lasting effects on broiler performance were observed.
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Femur mineral content (mg/mm)
Femur breaking strength (kg)
Saunders-Blades and Korver: BROILER VITAMIN D SOURCE
JAPR: Field Report
782
4. To achieve the previously reported effects of 25-OH vitamin D3 on broiler performance, supplementation of the broiler diets directly may be necessary.
REFERENCES AND NOTES
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Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of DSM Nutritional Products, Parsippany, NJ. Technical assistance was provided by Kerry Nadeau and the Poultry Unit staff at the Poultry Research Centre, University of Alberta. Jordana Williams at the University of Alberta provided laboratory assistance.
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