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The Effect of Music on the Perception of Effort and Mood During Aerobic Type Exercise
RESEARCH REPORT
The Effect of Music on the Perception of Effort and Mood During Aerobic Type Exercise Lorna Seath Moorcsg Thou, K a y Words AeroMc exercise, music, perception of effort and personal
tee#ng.
summry The effect of musk on individuals’ perception of exercise effort and associated personal pleasurddispleasure during exercise
wasmeasured.
From a sample of 34 physiotherapy students exercising t w i i weekly for slx weeks, measurements of perception, using the Rate of Perceived Exertion scale. and feeling, using the Rejeski Feeling scale, were canied out. The research findlngs suggest highly significant differences between the use of music and no music. relatjve tothe perception of both effort and feeling. This study poses interesting questionS regarding the use of music during aerobic exercise and deciding on work levels in a clinical setting.
defines a mode of activity as ‘any activity that uses large muscle groups that can be maintained for a prolonged period, and is rhythmic and aerobic in nature’. Examples of aerobic exercise modes a r e jogging, swimming, skipping and aerobic dance. During aerobic dance-type exercise, music with a consistent beat and high levels of noise are commonplace. Where music is used to encourage rhythm, its effect on performance is disputed. It is claimed that exercise performance is enhanced, arousal is increased and it can distract from t h e effort of exercise (Copeland and Franks,1991).Music has also been used effectively as a distraction to decrease perception of pain in dentistry (Corah et al, 1981).
Investigations have shown little or no difference with music as an ergogenic tool (Schwarz et al, 1990).Copeland and Franks’ findings (1991)did not support the popular hypothesis (Smith and Morris, 1977)that music of a loud, fast and stimulating tempo enhances arousal of a physiological or psychological nature. Physiologically Introduction The health related benefits for symptomatic there are limits that determine the capacity to and apparently normal individuals of regular, perform maximal exercise, eg upper range of particularly aerobic, exercise have been well heart rate; but at sub-maximal levels of intendocumented (Dargie and Grant, 1991).The exer- sity, eg at 50-80% of the subject’s maximal heart as used for aerobic dance, music can cise modes available are many and varied: for rate (-1, alter the perception of internal and external instance, jogging, running, cycling, skiing, hillinformation h m both the body and the environwalking, swimming, skipping and ‘aerobic’ ment (Ben-Sira, 1986). dance. All achieve the desired aerobic effect. The last 15 years have witnessed a marked Perception of effort and stress during exercise increase in the number of people participating in aerobic dance type exercise. 6 7 Very, very light This is also reflected in the areas where physio8 therapists are involved in ‘exercise’. Aerobic 9 Very light dance-type mode is often used, both for a 10 therapy intervention such as cardiac and respFairly light 11 12 iratory rehabilitation, and for health-related 13 Somewhat hard benefits such as primary prevention of coronary 14 heart disease, weight reduction, and ante- and Hard 15 post-natal care. 16 17 Very hard Historically, dance has been valued as an art18 istic form of expression associated with social Very, very hard 19 discussions and gatherings, and not as a mode of 20 exercise (Rockefeller and Burke, 1979). The American College of Sports Medicine (1991)
can oRen determine whether or not that effort is increased, decreased or terminated (Morgan, 1981). One rating of perceived exertion, developed and validated by Borg (1967) and his colleagues requires the individual to respond to a numerical scale, thereby assessing the extent of hidher physical work (fig 1).
Measumments and M a t e r i h Responses to exercise were recorded on Bows Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale which measures the perception of effort during activity and Rejeski’s Feeling scale (FS)which mmures feelings of mood. However, Hardy and Rejeski (1985) claim that The heart rates of six students were recorded on additional subjective measures are necessary to Polar Electro Sports Tester 3000 units. complete the picture of exercise behaviour. They A brief questionnaire administered after the believe that two people exercising a t the same final session asked (1) how the individual felt workloads may respond with identical Rates of with and without music, (2) if additional inforPerceived Exertion (RPEs),yet one may perceive mation could have affected these feelings, and the effort as feeling bad and another as feeling (3) for comments on the exercise mutinee. good (fig 2). procedure Sessions were held on Tuesdays and Thursdays -5 Very bad during the lunchtime break. The students were 4 -3 Bad encouraged to follow the same pattern of eating, -2 sleeping, fluid intake and general activity from -1 Fairly bad the evening before each session. 0 +1 Fairly good Instructions on use of the scales were clearly +2 illustrated and verbally explained by the exer+3 Good cise instructor. The instructions (fig 3,4) and +4 scales were displayed on six largeboardsat every +5 very good session so that the subjects could refer to them Fia 2 Fqeski wing scale (Fs) as they exercised. This study sought to establish whether or not music altered the subjects’ perception of the effort of exercise and which feelings were experienced during the sessions.
am exetdsing we want you to by to esUmate how hard you fed the work is, we want you to fate the degree of percehred exedion you fed. By percehred exwtion we mean lhe total amount of exertbn and physiml fatigue. Don’t concern yourself with any on, factor such as kg pain. shortness d breath, or& gmde, but try to concentrate on your total,inner feeling of exectkn. l t y to as posdbk. Don’t estimate as honestly and underestimate the degm of exertkn ycu feel, but don’t overestimate it eimer. Just try to aatknats as e c a r w aspo5sibk.
While you
Method Subjects
A convenience sample of 34 physiotherapy students was invited to participate in twiceweekly exercise sessions for six weeks (N = 34, female = 30, male = 4, age range 18-32, x = 19, SD + 3.6). The participants were ‘active’ within the constraints of their physiotherapy course at least twice per week per week for 20 minutes. Six of them were selected at random to wear hearbrate monitors during the exercise sessions. Exercise Sessions The sessions consisted of a five-minute warmup, 15 minutes of aerobic exercise, and five minutes cool down. All were held in the same area and the ambient temperature was standardised. During the aerobic dance routine, participants performed 15 standardised exercises using large muscle groups and made free upper limb movements. The same instructor took all exercise cessions.
I
I
While participating in this exerdse you may experience various changes in mood (eg some indMduals find the
may jump back and forth between the two extremes at different times during exercise). Remember that there are no expected changes, however, you may find that one develops. The important point is that you feel free to select one ofthe ten points in a w 1 best repre sents your true feelings across the exerase. I
Fb 4: InoWwtbm to R.J.rld H b t g Sale (FS)
The first two weeks were used to familiarise subjects and recorders with using the scales. Data gathered during eight sessions in the last four w e e b were analysed. Each scale was wed on four occasions, twice with music and twice
with a metronome. We played ‘pop’ music with 132 beats per minute a t 95 decibels. The metronome was set at 132 beak per minute. The order of the sessions with and without music was randomised. The recorders (ten students and physiotherapy staff volunteers) noted the responses from subjects every 30 seconds during the aerobic exercise. No recorder monitored the same subject for every session.
-*
The data were analysed using the Wilcoxon signed radu test, to determine ifthere were any significant differences in W E and FS with and without music.
Results The results indicate a significant influence of music i n t h e enhancement of the subject’s personal feelings (z = 3.258, p = < 0.05). There was also a significant effect of music on reducing the perception of effort (z = 4.630, p = .c 0.05). The range of t h e combined scores for each subject, ie t w o scores with music using BORG or FE and two scores without music using BORG or FS can be seen in figures 5 and 6. The responses from t h e questionnaire all reflected that when exercising with music there was a more ‘positive’ experience. The heart rates showed no significant Merence with or without music. All were within 6040% of the age-adjusted predicted maximum heart rate (220 minus age). Therefore the exercise levels with and without music were consistent.
Discussion T h e results significantly illustrate the positive influence of music on the participants’ feelings of pleasure/displeasure and the reduction of perceived effort during aerobic exercise for this sample. The questionnaire responses of the subjecte also support this, with comments such as ’increased enthusiasm’, ‘higher levels of motivation’, ‘ability to maintain interest level’ and ‘exercises appeared easier‘. In contrast, with no music the subjects forwarded comments relating to boredom, pain, d i ~ ~ ~ m f oless r t , motivation to exercise and difl?culty in maintaining a rhythm. The day-to-day mood was not measured, this could have an influence on the measurements. In a f u t u r e study a ‘day-to-day’ baee line measure could more clearly reflect the influence of music on the subjecte.
Poseible Mechanisms of Music Fillingham and Fine (1986)state that sensations of negative feelings originate from within the body; yet if sound or light (as external sources) of sufficient quantity or quality are to be processed, the external source will take precedence over the internal. If music of a sufficient decibel range and of a stimulating type is used, the internal mechanisms will have difficulty in processing their data concurrently with the external data. Further investigation is required on decibel levels which could alter sensation. Other studies within a n exercise setting (Bouthcher and Trenske, 1990)relate to the surroundings i n which exercise occurs. I n comparing a wooded cross-country route to a standard running track, subjects attained faster speeds in the former, again supporting the view t h a t external sources take precedence over internal sensations.
Music type^, Personality, Age and Sex h u e s Both Fillingham and Fine (1986)and Smith and Morris (1977)state that the overall effect of music is complex and must take account of the variables such as music type and personality. It would be interesting in a future study (1)to measure the personality types who volunteer for aerobic type exercise, (2) to investigate whether different personality types respond differently to music and exercise, and (3)to observe how subjects respond to different types of music. O’Neill et a1 (1992)found that with music, the actual heart rates of pregnant women doing aerobics superseded the predicted heart rates. Clinically, t h e same assumption should be considered: within a given client group, some will endeavour to continue exercising despite warning physiological signs (heart-ratehweat productiodbreathing rate, etc); others, perceiving these symptoms as potentially threatening, may choose to slow down or even stop. Inthis study the four men showed significant influence of music on RPE and FS. A future study could consider both sex and age to a greater extent.
It has also been suggested (Anahel et al, 1991) that awareness levels of effort and stress can be heightened by individuals monitoring their subjective feelings about the exercise. Their study highlighted the fact that the ‘at-risk’ type A personality continued to exercise in spite of perceiving fatigue. This should be considered clinically, eg with hypertensive, and cardiac patients and respiratory groups, where a n excess of exercise could aggravate the clinical condition.
Flg 5: Flmng. of combllwd .COI# for Berg (n2)with musk and (n2)without murlc
150 140 130 120 110 100
so 80
40
30 20 10 0 -1 0
40
Possible eolutions to the above would be definite structuring of exercise in terms and type and amount to achieve the most desirable aerobic effect. This should be linked to accurate monitoring of HR and RPE to ensure that individuals who may tend to over-exercise due to the effect of music are prevented from doing so.
Conclusion h m this study the use of 'pop' music at 95 dB appears to reduce significantly the perception of effort. This could be usefd where subjects wish to exercise a t higher levels, eg in athletic performance. However, it could be harmful in that perception will ale0 be reduced in more 'at risk' eubjects, eg pregnant women or cardiac patients. Therefore, where music is used, very controlled exercise levels with strict planning and monitoring are needed. If personal feelings and enjoyment are also ai@cantly improved with music, this suggests that it should be considered if appropriate to harness these effects, where enjoyment and improved adherence t o exercise could be achieved.
From the results of this study it seems that further work is required to investigate this area of physiotherapy practice which should also take account of the limitations of this study.
Addms tor C o ~ ~ ~ p o n d t m c e M K Thow BSc DipPE MCSP. Department of Physiotherapy, Podiatry and Radiography, Glasgow Caledonian University. Crawfurd Building, Southbrae Campus, Southbrae Drive, Jordanhill. Glasgow G13 1PP.
R American College of Sports Medicine (1991).Guidelines for Exercise Testing and PresCrption, Lea and Febiger. London, Pages 95-96. effect Anshel. S L, Anshel. M H and Gregory. W L (1991).'lbe of type A and type Band titness level on ratings of perceived exertion and physrarl fabyfmalm'. AustmUan Joumelof SdenceandMedidne in sporf. 23,4,106-110. Ben-Sira, D (1988).The P e m d Effort During ~~, Movement PuMicablons, New York. 175-190.
Borg, C and Llndehlm. H (1967).'Perceived exertion and pthe mte dudng graded execjse in Mlious age (pups'. Acts M&m scendhsvice (wppl), 472,1@4-208. Bouchsr. S H and Trsndce, M (1900).the^ effects of sensory degwtvation and musk on perceived exertion and affect during exembet', h u m a l d ~ a n d h @ a & g y , 12,167-176. Copdand. B L and Franks, B 0 (1BQl).'Effect8 of type8 and intendties of background music on treadmill endurance', Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitners, 31, 1,
100-1m. Cornh, N L, Qale, E N, Pace. L F a d Ssyrek. S K (1981). 'R.bxcltknandmurlclrlprognmmingu a nwuwof twhcing stram duhg d.nt.l pfocedum',Jwml d If78 Ammican ~ ~103,232-234. m ,
Dargkt, H J and Qrant, S (1991).The Health of the Nation: GtWdd, BrllbhM#&8lJoumJ, m,91-12. Filllngham, R B and Flne. M A (1886).The effect8 d kaeml mextemal information pfowdng on 8pcsp tkn Inan exenbe eetUng', MWUI Psyd&gy, 6.2.115-123.
--
-
Hardy, C J and Rojeski. W J (1985).'Not what but how one feels: The measurement of affect durn exedae', Jwmel of Sportend&&-. 11.3.rW-317. Morgan. W P (1981).'Psychophydology of self-awareness
durino
mactkrity',
cisbandsprxt 52.3.385-421.
0wldWlylor~~-
M E, Cooper, K A. Milk. C M, BOYW. E Sand Hunyoc. S N (1992).'Aaxlrscyd Berg's Ralingsd Pmebed Exumn in the prediction of heart rater during pregnancy', British Jownel &Sports m, 262,121-124. (YNeyI.
'w
Radcefeller, K A and Burke. E J (1979). andysis of an aerobic dance progrsmme for warm'. l3msh ~ornmelorsparlsmwm,13, n-80.
schwan. S E. F M . Band pkmnan. S A (1990).'EfteUad music on exercise performance'. Jwmel of a-mly flehabmtelkn. 10,312416. Smith, C A and Morris. L W (1977). 'Differential effects of stimulative and sedative music on anxiety, concentration and performance'.^ ' Reporc8,41,1047-!53.
The Effect of Music on the Perception of Effort and Mood During Aerobic Type Exercise Lorna Seath Moorcsg Thou, K a y Words AeroMc exercise, music, perception of effort and personal
tee#ng.
summry The effect of musk on individuals’ perception of exercise effort and associated personal pleasurddispleasure during exercise
wasmeasured.
From a sample of 34 physiotherapy students exercising t w i i weekly for slx weeks, measurements of perception, using the Rate of Perceived Exertion scale. and feeling, using the Rejeski Feeling scale, were canied out. The research findlngs suggest highly significant differences between the use of music and no music. relatjve tothe perception of both effort and feeling. This study poses interesting questionS regarding the use of music during aerobic exercise and deciding on work levels in a clinical setting.
defines a mode of activity as ‘any activity that uses large muscle groups that can be maintained for a prolonged period, and is rhythmic and aerobic in nature’. Examples of aerobic exercise modes a r e jogging, swimming, skipping and aerobic dance. During aerobic dance-type exercise, music with a consistent beat and high levels of noise are commonplace. Where music is used to encourage rhythm, its effect on performance is disputed. It is claimed that exercise performance is enhanced, arousal is increased and it can distract from t h e effort of exercise (Copeland and Franks,1991).Music has also been used effectively as a distraction to decrease perception of pain in dentistry (Corah et al, 1981).
Investigations have shown little or no difference with music as an ergogenic tool (Schwarz et al, 1990).Copeland and Franks’ findings (1991)did not support the popular hypothesis (Smith and Morris, 1977)that music of a loud, fast and stimulating tempo enhances arousal of a physiological or psychological nature. Physiologically Introduction The health related benefits for symptomatic there are limits that determine the capacity to and apparently normal individuals of regular, perform maximal exercise, eg upper range of particularly aerobic, exercise have been well heart rate; but at sub-maximal levels of intendocumented (Dargie and Grant, 1991).The exer- sity, eg at 50-80% of the subject’s maximal heart as used for aerobic dance, music can cise modes available are many and varied: for rate (-1, alter the perception of internal and external instance, jogging, running, cycling, skiing, hillinformation h m both the body and the environwalking, swimming, skipping and ‘aerobic’ ment (Ben-Sira, 1986). dance. All achieve the desired aerobic effect. The last 15 years have witnessed a marked Perception of effort and stress during exercise increase in the number of people participating in aerobic dance type exercise. 6 7 Very, very light This is also reflected in the areas where physio8 therapists are involved in ‘exercise’. Aerobic 9 Very light dance-type mode is often used, both for a 10 therapy intervention such as cardiac and respFairly light 11 12 iratory rehabilitation, and for health-related 13 Somewhat hard benefits such as primary prevention of coronary 14 heart disease, weight reduction, and ante- and Hard 15 post-natal care. 16 17 Very hard Historically, dance has been valued as an art18 istic form of expression associated with social Very, very hard 19 discussions and gatherings, and not as a mode of 20 exercise (Rockefeller and Burke, 1979). The American College of Sports Medicine (1991)
can oRen determine whether or not that effort is increased, decreased or terminated (Morgan, 1981). One rating of perceived exertion, developed and validated by Borg (1967) and his colleagues requires the individual to respond to a numerical scale, thereby assessing the extent of hidher physical work (fig 1).
Measumments and M a t e r i h Responses to exercise were recorded on Bows Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale which measures the perception of effort during activity and Rejeski’s Feeling scale (FS)which mmures feelings of mood. However, Hardy and Rejeski (1985) claim that The heart rates of six students were recorded on additional subjective measures are necessary to Polar Electro Sports Tester 3000 units. complete the picture of exercise behaviour. They A brief questionnaire administered after the believe that two people exercising a t the same final session asked (1) how the individual felt workloads may respond with identical Rates of with and without music, (2) if additional inforPerceived Exertion (RPEs),yet one may perceive mation could have affected these feelings, and the effort as feeling bad and another as feeling (3) for comments on the exercise mutinee. good (fig 2). procedure Sessions were held on Tuesdays and Thursdays -5 Very bad during the lunchtime break. The students were 4 -3 Bad encouraged to follow the same pattern of eating, -2 sleeping, fluid intake and general activity from -1 Fairly bad the evening before each session. 0 +1 Fairly good Instructions on use of the scales were clearly +2 illustrated and verbally explained by the exer+3 Good cise instructor. The instructions (fig 3,4) and +4 scales were displayed on six largeboardsat every +5 very good session so that the subjects could refer to them Fia 2 Fqeski wing scale (Fs) as they exercised. This study sought to establish whether or not music altered the subjects’ perception of the effort of exercise and which feelings were experienced during the sessions.
am exetdsing we want you to by to esUmate how hard you fed the work is, we want you to fate the degree of percehred exedion you fed. By percehred exwtion we mean lhe total amount of exertbn and physiml fatigue. Don’t concern yourself with any on, factor such as kg pain. shortness d breath, or& gmde, but try to concentrate on your total,inner feeling of exectkn. l t y to as posdbk. Don’t estimate as honestly and underestimate the degm of exertkn ycu feel, but don’t overestimate it eimer. Just try to aatknats as e c a r w aspo5sibk.
While you
Method Subjects
A convenience sample of 34 physiotherapy students was invited to participate in twiceweekly exercise sessions for six weeks (N = 34, female = 30, male = 4, age range 18-32, x = 19, SD + 3.6). The participants were ‘active’ within the constraints of their physiotherapy course at least twice per week per week for 20 minutes. Six of them were selected at random to wear hearbrate monitors during the exercise sessions. Exercise Sessions The sessions consisted of a five-minute warmup, 15 minutes of aerobic exercise, and five minutes cool down. All were held in the same area and the ambient temperature was standardised. During the aerobic dance routine, participants performed 15 standardised exercises using large muscle groups and made free upper limb movements. The same instructor took all exercise cessions.
I
I
While participating in this exerdse you may experience various changes in mood (eg some indMduals find the
may jump back and forth between the two extremes at different times during exercise). Remember that there are no expected changes, however, you may find that one develops. The important point is that you feel free to select one ofthe ten points in a w 1 best repre sents your true feelings across the exerase. I
Fb 4: InoWwtbm to R.J.rld H b t g Sale (FS)
The first two weeks were used to familiarise subjects and recorders with using the scales. Data gathered during eight sessions in the last four w e e b were analysed. Each scale was wed on four occasions, twice with music and twice
with a metronome. We played ‘pop’ music with 132 beats per minute a t 95 decibels. The metronome was set at 132 beak per minute. The order of the sessions with and without music was randomised. The recorders (ten students and physiotherapy staff volunteers) noted the responses from subjects every 30 seconds during the aerobic exercise. No recorder monitored the same subject for every session.
-*
The data were analysed using the Wilcoxon signed radu test, to determine ifthere were any significant differences in W E and FS with and without music.
Results The results indicate a significant influence of music i n t h e enhancement of the subject’s personal feelings (z = 3.258, p = < 0.05). There was also a significant effect of music on reducing the perception of effort (z = 4.630, p = .c 0.05). The range of t h e combined scores for each subject, ie t w o scores with music using BORG or FE and two scores without music using BORG or FS can be seen in figures 5 and 6. The responses from t h e questionnaire all reflected that when exercising with music there was a more ‘positive’ experience. The heart rates showed no significant Merence with or without music. All were within 6040% of the age-adjusted predicted maximum heart rate (220 minus age). Therefore the exercise levels with and without music were consistent.
Discussion T h e results significantly illustrate the positive influence of music on the participants’ feelings of pleasure/displeasure and the reduction of perceived effort during aerobic exercise for this sample. The questionnaire responses of the subjecte also support this, with comments such as ’increased enthusiasm’, ‘higher levels of motivation’, ‘ability to maintain interest level’ and ‘exercises appeared easier‘. In contrast, with no music the subjects forwarded comments relating to boredom, pain, d i ~ ~ ~ m f oless r t , motivation to exercise and difl?culty in maintaining a rhythm. The day-to-day mood was not measured, this could have an influence on the measurements. In a f u t u r e study a ‘day-to-day’ baee line measure could more clearly reflect the influence of music on the subjecte.
Poseible Mechanisms of Music Fillingham and Fine (1986)state that sensations of negative feelings originate from within the body; yet if sound or light (as external sources) of sufficient quantity or quality are to be processed, the external source will take precedence over the internal. If music of a sufficient decibel range and of a stimulating type is used, the internal mechanisms will have difficulty in processing their data concurrently with the external data. Further investigation is required on decibel levels which could alter sensation. Other studies within a n exercise setting (Bouthcher and Trenske, 1990)relate to the surroundings i n which exercise occurs. I n comparing a wooded cross-country route to a standard running track, subjects attained faster speeds in the former, again supporting the view t h a t external sources take precedence over internal sensations.
Music type^, Personality, Age and Sex h u e s Both Fillingham and Fine (1986)and Smith and Morris (1977)state that the overall effect of music is complex and must take account of the variables such as music type and personality. It would be interesting in a future study (1)to measure the personality types who volunteer for aerobic type exercise, (2) to investigate whether different personality types respond differently to music and exercise, and (3)to observe how subjects respond to different types of music. O’Neill et a1 (1992)found that with music, the actual heart rates of pregnant women doing aerobics superseded the predicted heart rates. Clinically, t h e same assumption should be considered: within a given client group, some will endeavour to continue exercising despite warning physiological signs (heart-ratehweat productiodbreathing rate, etc); others, perceiving these symptoms as potentially threatening, may choose to slow down or even stop. Inthis study the four men showed significant influence of music on RPE and FS. A future study could consider both sex and age to a greater extent.
It has also been suggested (Anahel et al, 1991) that awareness levels of effort and stress can be heightened by individuals monitoring their subjective feelings about the exercise. Their study highlighted the fact that the ‘at-risk’ type A personality continued to exercise in spite of perceiving fatigue. This should be considered clinically, eg with hypertensive, and cardiac patients and respiratory groups, where a n excess of exercise could aggravate the clinical condition.
Flg 5: Flmng. of combllwd .COI# for Berg (n2)with musk and (n2)without murlc
150 140 130 120 110 100
so 80
40
30 20 10 0 -1 0
40
Possible eolutions to the above would be definite structuring of exercise in terms and type and amount to achieve the most desirable aerobic effect. This should be linked to accurate monitoring of HR and RPE to ensure that individuals who may tend to over-exercise due to the effect of music are prevented from doing so.
Conclusion h m this study the use of 'pop' music at 95 dB appears to reduce significantly the perception of effort. This could be usefd where subjects wish to exercise a t higher levels, eg in athletic performance. However, it could be harmful in that perception will ale0 be reduced in more 'at risk' eubjects, eg pregnant women or cardiac patients. Therefore, where music is used, very controlled exercise levels with strict planning and monitoring are needed. If personal feelings and enjoyment are also ai@cantly improved with music, this suggests that it should be considered if appropriate to harness these effects, where enjoyment and improved adherence t o exercise could be achieved.
From the results of this study it seems that further work is required to investigate this area of physiotherapy practice which should also take account of the limitations of this study.
Addms tor C o ~ ~ ~ p o n d t m c e M K Thow BSc DipPE MCSP. Department of Physiotherapy, Podiatry and Radiography, Glasgow Caledonian University. Crawfurd Building, Southbrae Campus, Southbrae Drive, Jordanhill. Glasgow G13 1PP.
R American College of Sports Medicine (1991).Guidelines for Exercise Testing and PresCrption, Lea and Febiger. London, Pages 95-96. effect Anshel. S L, Anshel. M H and Gregory. W L (1991).'lbe of type A and type Band titness level on ratings of perceived exertion and physrarl fabyfmalm'. AustmUan Joumelof SdenceandMedidne in sporf. 23,4,106-110. Ben-Sira, D (1988).The P e m d Effort During ~~, Movement PuMicablons, New York. 175-190.
Borg, C and Llndehlm. H (1967).'Perceived exertion and pthe mte dudng graded execjse in Mlious age (pups'. Acts M&m scendhsvice (wppl), 472,1@4-208. Bouchsr. S H and Trsndce, M (1900).the^ effects of sensory degwtvation and musk on perceived exertion and affect during exembet', h u m a l d ~ a n d h @ a & g y , 12,167-176. Copdand. B L and Franks, B 0 (1BQl).'Effect8 of type8 and intendties of background music on treadmill endurance', Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitners, 31, 1,
100-1m. Cornh, N L, Qale, E N, Pace. L F a d Ssyrek. S K (1981). 'R.bxcltknandmurlclrlprognmmingu a nwuwof twhcing stram duhg d.nt.l pfocedum',Jwml d If78 Ammican ~ ~103,232-234. m ,
Dargkt, H J and Qrant, S (1991).The Health of the Nation: GtWdd, BrllbhM#&8lJoumJ, m,91-12. Filllngham, R B and Flne. M A (1886).The effect8 d kaeml mextemal information pfowdng on 8pcsp tkn Inan exenbe eetUng', MWUI Psyd&gy, 6.2.115-123.
--
-
Hardy, C J and Rojeski. W J (1985).'Not what but how one feels: The measurement of affect durn exedae', Jwmel of Sportend&&-. 11.3.rW-317. Morgan. W P (1981).'Psychophydology of self-awareness
durino
mactkrity',
cisbandsprxt 52.3.385-421.
0wldWlylor~~-
M E, Cooper, K A. Milk. C M, BOYW. E Sand Hunyoc. S N (1992).'Aaxlrscyd Berg's Ralingsd Pmebed Exumn in the prediction of heart rater during pregnancy', British Jownel &Sports m, 262,121-124. (YNeyI.
'w
Radcefeller, K A and Burke. E J (1979). andysis of an aerobic dance progrsmme for warm'. l3msh ~ornmelorsparlsmwm,13, n-80.
schwan. S E. F M . Band pkmnan. S A (1990).'EfteUad music on exercise performance'. Jwmel of a-mly flehabmtelkn. 10,312416. Smith, C A and Morris. L W (1977). 'Differential effects of stimulative and sedative music on anxiety, concentration and performance'.^ ' Reporc8,41,1047-!53.