- Email: [email protected]
The effect of soluble fiber dextrin on postprandial appetite and subsequent food intake in healthy adults
Accepted Manuscript The effect of soluble fiber dextrin on postprandial appetite and subsequent food intake in healthy adults. Christine H. Emilien, Yong Zhu, Walter H. Hsu, Patricia Williamson, James H. Hollis PII:
S0899-9007(17)30201-0
DOI:
10.1016/j.nut.2017.08.016
Reference:
NUT 10034
To appear in:
Nutrition
Received Date: 1 March 2017 Revised Date:
21 August 2017
Accepted Date: 29 August 2017
Please cite this article as: Emilien CH, Zhu Y, Hsu WH, Williamson P, Hollis JH, The effect of soluble fiber dextrin on postprandial appetite and subsequent food intake in healthy adults., Nutrition (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2017.08.016. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
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The effect of soluble fiber dextrin on postprandial appetite and subsequent food intake in healthy
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adults.
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Christine H. Emilien1, Yong Zhu2, Walter H. Hsu3, Patricia Williamson4 and James H. Hollis1*
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Department of Epidemiology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA
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Tate & Lyle Ingredients Americas LLC, Hoffman Estates, IL
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Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA
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*Corresponding Author: James Hollis PhD, 220 MacKay Hall, Department of Food Science and
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Human Nutrition, Iowa State University Ames, IA 50011 United States Phone: +1-515-294-9567;
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Fax: +1-515-294-8181; Email: [email protected]
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Abstract Objective This crossover study investigated the effect of consuming a beverage containing
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soluble fiber dextrin (SFD) on appetite and food intake in adults. It was hypothesized that beverages
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containing 10g or 20g of fiber from SFD would be more satiating than the control beverage.
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Research methods and procedures Forty-one participants consumed lunch with a beverage
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containing 0g, 10g or 20g of fiber from SFD. Appetite questionnaires were completed and blood samples
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collected immediately before lunch and at regular intervals over the following 150 minutes. Then, the
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participants were provided with an afternoon snack and the amount eaten recorded. The participants then
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left the laboratory but were asked to complete hourly appetite questionnaires and record food intake for
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the remainder of the day.
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Results Consuming SFD had no effect on appetite over the 150 minutes following consumption
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of the lunch meal (p>0.05).
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consumption of the beverage containing 20g of fiber from SFD (p<0.05) after the participants left the
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laboratory. There was no effect of consuming SFD on food intake at the snack meal or for the rest of the
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day (p>0.05). Plasma GIP was lower during the 150 minutes following consumption of the 20g of fiber
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from SFD beverage (p<0.05). There was no treatment effect on the plasma concentration of other
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biomarkers of glycemic response or appetite (p>0.05).
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Hunger and desire to eat were lower and fullness higher following
Conclusions Overall this study’s results did not show an effect of SFD on appetite, food intake
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and plasma markers of appetite for the first 150 minutes post-consumption. Further research is required
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to quantify how SFD influences appetite several hours after consumption.
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minutes post-consumption •
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The consumption of 20 or 40g of SFD has no effect on appetite or food intake during the 150
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Highlights
The consumption of 40g SFD may influence appetite several hours after consumption although confirmatory studies are required
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The consumption of 20 or 40g of SFD reduced post-prandial GIP but had no effect on other
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markers of appetite or glycemia
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Keywords: Dietary Fiber, Resistant Dextrin, Appetite, Food Intake
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Introduction The rapid rise in the number of overweight and obese individuals has increased efforts to identify
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foods or food ingredients that promote satiety and reduce energy intake. Dietary fiber has attracted
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considerable interest because increased fiber consumption is associated with a lower body weight (1-4) or
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a lower body mass index (BMI) (5-8). At this time, it has not been established why fiber is associated
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with a lower body weight or BMI but one possible explanation is that dietary fiber increases satiety and
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decreases short-term energy intake (9-13). While a recent review questioned the satiating effect of some
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dietary fibers (13) there are substantial differences in the physical and chemical characteristics of different
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fibers and it is likely that their effect on satiety needs to be individually determined by testing using
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human participants.
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Dietary fiber consumption is below recommended levels in many countries (14, 15).
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Consequently, the development of dietary strategies to increase the consumption of fiber may be useful in
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reducing the number of overweight and obese individuals. While strategies for increasing fiber intake
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have generally focused on increasing the consumption of high fiber foods such as fruits and vegetables,
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these interventions have had limited success in changing eating habits and therefore little impact on
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overall fiber intake (16, 17). An alternative strategy is to develop functional fibers that can be
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incorporated into a wide array of commonly eaten foods. One such functional fiber ingredient is soluble
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fiber dextrin (SFD); a type of dietary fiber that completely dissolves in water without noticeably changing
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its appearance, taste or viscosity (18). SFD is resistant to digestion in the small intestine although a study
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using a rodent model reported that SFD is fermented in the colon (19). At this time, it is not clear to what
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extent SFD is fermented in the human colon and over what timeframe. Moreover, the effect of long-term
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consumption of SFD on the human gut microbiota is not known although a study using a rodent model
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found that the regular consumption of SFD results in a distinctive gut microbiota (20). To date, only a
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limited number of studies have been conducted regarding the impact of SFD on appetite or food intake.
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These studies have found that adding SFD to a beverage reduces food intake at a subsequent test meal
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 5 (18). This effect on food intake may be explained, in part, because SFD suppresses the post-prandial
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ghrelin response (21). The influence of SFD on other hormones related to appetite such as
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cholecystokinin-8 (CCK-8), glucagon like peptide 1 (GLP-1), peptide YY3-36 (PYY3-36), ghrelin, and
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glucose-dependent insulintropic polypeptide (GIP) has not been investigated. In addition, SFD may also
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influence the post-prandial glycemic response. For example, studies have shown that dietary fiber reduces
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the post-prandial plasma concentration of glucose and insulin (22, 23). This effect may be due to the
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replacement of available carbohydrate with fiber (24), a change in glucose absorption kinetics due to a
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slower gastric emptying rate (25), or the fermentation of fiber to produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)
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that improve glycemic control (26). A change in the postprandial glycemic response may also influence
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appetite by reducing the glycemic index of a meal (27). However, the effect of SFD on the glycemic
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response has not been adequately characterized.
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The primary aim of this present study was to test the effect of a beverage containing SFD on
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subjective appetite in healthy adults. Additionally, the effect of SFD on food intake, glucose, insulin,
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CCK-8, GLP-1, PYY3-36, ghrelin, and GIP was determined. Based on previous work (18), we hypothesize
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that SFD will increase feelings of satiety and decrease energy intake at subsequent meals and that these
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effects will be modulated, in part, by changes in the plasma concentration of putative satiety hormones.
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Materials and Methods
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This study was conducted with the approval of the Iowa State University Institutional Review Board and signed informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to enrolling in the study.
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Participants
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Potential participants were informed about the study via a mass email sent out to Iowa State
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University faculty, students and staff and flyers advertising the study posted in the local community.
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Individuals interested in the study were invited to a screening session where they completed a
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questionnaire that posed questions about their general health. In addition, the participant’s height and
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body weight was measured using a calibrated stadiometer (Model S100, Ayrton Corp., Prior Lake, MN)
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and clinical weighing scales (Detecto 758C, Cardinal Scale Manufacturing Company, Webb City, MO).
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 6 The participants were asked to taste samples of all the test foods and rate each of them on a 9-point scale.
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Participants were only included in the study if they were aged between 18 – 40 years, had a BMI between
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19.9 and 29.9 and were willing to eat the test foods. Participants were excluded from the study if they:
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had a presence or history of gastrointestinal disease, were a restrained eater (≥14 on the restraint section
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of the three-factor eating questionnaire) (28), used tobacco products, did not find the test foods palatable
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(< 5 on a 9 point scale), had an acute or chronic disease, were using medication that lists an effect on
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appetite as a side effect, or did not regularly consume an afternoon snack (< 4 times a week).
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Protocol
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This study used a double-blind, randomized, cross-over design with each participant completing
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three separate test sessions. There was a washout period of at least one week between each test session.
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Participants were asked to avoid alcohol consumption and strenuous physical activity for the 24 hours
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before each test session and to refrain from eating or drinking (except water) after 10:00pm on the
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evening before each test day. On the morning of each test session the participants were required to eat a
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standardized breakfast that was provided by the research team and then fast until reporting to the test
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facility four hours later.
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On arriving at the test facility, an indwelling catheter was placed into the participant’s non-
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dominant arm. Participants were then allowed to rest for 30 minutes before a baseline blood sample was
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collected and appetite questionnaire completed. Then, the participants were served lunch with one of three
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test beverages and asked to consume the test meal in its entirety within 15 minutes. On completion of this
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meal, participants were asked to fill out an appetite questionnaire and a blood sample was collected (t0).
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Further appetite questionnaires and blood samples were collected at t0+15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120 and 150
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minutes. Following the 150 minute measurement, subjects were served a snack and asked to eat until
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comfortably full. The snack meal was weighed before and after serving, without the participant’s
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knowledge, and the amount consumed recorded. The participant was not allowed to drink any fluids from
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the completion of the lunch meal until they finished eating the snack meal. The indwelling catheter was
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then removed and participants were instructed to complete hourly appetite questionnaires contained on a
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hand-held computer (PalmPilot) and record all foods and beverages eaten during the remainder of the day
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using a diet diary.
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Test Foods and Beverages The participant’s daily energy expenditure was calculated using validated equations to estimate
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basal metabolic rate (29) and multiplying this figure by a physical activity level of 1.5. The standardized
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breakfast meal consumed on the morning of each test session provided 25% of the participant’s estimated
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daily energy requirement. The macronutrient composition of the breakfast meal was 60% carbohydrate,
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14% protein and 26% fat and consisted of Honey Nut Cheerios® (General Mills Inc., Minneapolis, MN),
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Great Value whole milk (Wal-Mart Stores Inc., Bentonville, AR), wheat bread (Sara Lee Corp., Chicago,
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IL), and strawberry jelly (J.M. Smuckers Comp., Orville, OH). The lunch meal of chicken salad was
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prepared using Swanson® canned chicken (Campbell Soup Comp., Camden, NJ), fat free ranch dressing
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(Kraft Food Groups Inc., Northfield, Il), Kraft® light mayonnaise, iceberg lettuce, Great Value butter and
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dried cranberries (Ocean Spray ®, Lakeville, MA) and was served with Wonder Bread® white bread
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(Flower Foods, Thomasville, GA). Excluding the beverage, the test meal provided 25% of the
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participant’s total daily energy requirement and had a macronutrient profile of 55% carbohydrate, 15%
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protein and 30% fat. The ad libitum snack provided at the end of each test session consisted of sliced
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apples with a caramel dip (Crunch Pak ®, Cashmere, WA).
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The test beverage served with the lunch meal provided 0, 10 or 20 grams of fiber from SFD. The
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amounts of SFD used in the test foods were based on what could realistically be used in commercial
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products. The SFD ingredient (Tate & Lyle Ingredients Americas LLC, Hoffman Estates, IL) contained
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50% fiber and 50% digestible carbohydrate. Maltodextrin, a rapidly digestible carbohydrate, was added to
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match the beverages for available carbohydrate. Treatment 1 contained 10g fiber (20g SFD) plus 10g of
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maltodextrin and provided 20g total digestible carbohydrate. Treatment 2 contained 20g fiber (40g SFD)
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and provided 20g total digestible carbohydrate. The control beverage contained 20g of maltodextrin and
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provided 0g of fiber and 20g total digestible carbohydrate. In addition to being matched for available
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carbohydrate, all beverages were approximately matched for energy (80, 83, and 85 kcal for the control,
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treatment 1 and treatment 2 respectively). To create the test beverages, each treatment mixture was
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dissolved in 355ml of water and flavored with Crystal Light (Kraft Food Groups Inc, Northfield, Il). The
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nutritional information is presented in table one.
Treatment 2
Energy (Kcal)
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SFD (g)
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Fiber
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Available CHO (g)
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Water (ml)
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Measurement of Food Intake
Data from diet diaries were analyzed using NutritionistPro© software and checked for validity
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Table one – nutritional information of the test beverages
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using the McCrory method (30). No trends in over or under reporting of caloric intake were observed.
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Subjective Appetite Measurements
Subjective appetite was measured using a standard appetite questionnaire (31) that posed the
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following questions: How hungry do you feel right now? How full do you feel right now? What is your
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desire to eat right now? What is your prospective consumption right now? How thirsty are you right now?
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Responses were measured using a visual analogue scale anchored with opposing statements at each end
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(e.g. not hungry at all or as hungry as I have ever felt). Responses to the appetite questions were captured
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and stored on a PalmPilot hand-held computer that placed a time and date stamp on each entry to check
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for protocol compliance. For all appetite measurements collected outside the laboratory, compliance was
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defined as completion of the appetite questionnaire within 15 minutes of the designated time. Only time
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points with a minimum of 70% of participants with compliant responses were included in the final
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analysis.
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Glucose and Hormone Analysis Blood was drawn into 4ml EDTA-coated vacutainer tubes and mixed with 400 µl of 10 000 KIU
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(1·4 mg)/ml aprotinin. Samples were centrifuged for 15 minutes at 3000 g and 4°C then divided into
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aliquots before being stored at -80°C for further analysis. Plasma samples were assayed for glucose using
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a biochemical analyzer (YSI Life Sciences, Model 2700 select) while all other analyses (insulin, GLP-1,
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PYY3-36, GIP, ghrelin and CCK) were completed using established RIA procedures (32). All samples
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were run in duplicate and all samples from a given participant were analyzed within the same batch.
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Insulin antibodies and the insulin and GIP tracers were made in Dr Hsu’s laboratory. All other
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Tracers used were purchased from PerkinElmer (Waltham, MA). The ghrelin and GIP analysis were done
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using T-4747 (Bachem, Bubendorf, Sui) and H-027-02 (Phoenix Pharmaceuticals Inc., Burlingame, CA)
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antibodies. Prior to RIA analysis for CCK, GLP-1 and PYY3-36, samples were ethanol extracted. Briefly,
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0.5 mL of plasma was mixed with 1mL of 96% ethanol and allowed to stand for 10 minutes at room
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temperature. Incubated samples were then centrifuged at 3000rpm and 4°C for 15 minutes. After
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centrifuging, the supernatant was decanted into a clean microcentrifuge tube and dried in a Jouan RC
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10.10 vacuum concentrator (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA) at 37°C. Dried extracts were then
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reconstituted using 0.5mL of assay buffer and stored at -20°C for further analysis. Antibodies for PYY3-36
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and GLP-1 were purchased from Bachem (T-4090 & T-4056) while CCK-8 antibody C2581 was
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purchased from Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis, MO. Detection limits and coefficient of variations (CV) for
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each of the RIA measured hormones are as follows: Insulin: 1.5 – 200 µU, interassay CV 10%, intra-
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assay CV 7%; Ghrelin: 50 – 1600 pg/mL, interassay CV 11%, intra-assay CV 7%; GLP-1: 7.5 –
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1000pg/mL, inter-assay CV 12%, intra-assay CV 8%, PYY3-36: 5 – 320pg/mL, inter-assay CV 12%, intra-
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assay CV 8%, GIP: 25 – 2500pg/mL, inter-assay CV 9%, intra-assay CV 6%, CCK-8: 0.5 – 80pg/mL,
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interassay CV 11%, intra-assay CV 7%.
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Statistical Analysis SPSS for windows (version 20, 2012, IBM, Armonk, NY) was used to perform all statistical
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analysis and data are presented as means ± standard error. A mixed model, repeated measures analysis of
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covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test overall treatment effect on plasma parameters. Baseline values
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were included as a covariate and participants were added as random variables in the model. The appetite
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data was split into two periods: in-laboratory data and free-living data. This was due to a change in the
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protocol and a reduction in compliance after the participants had left the laboratory. For the in-laboratory
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data, a mixed model, repeated measures ANCOVA was used to test overall treatment effect on plasma
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parameters and subjective appetite measurements. Baseline values were included as a covariate and
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participants were added as random variables in the model. For the free-living appetite data, the mean
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rating for each of the subjective appetite questions was calculated and analyzed using a one-way, repeated
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measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Differences in food intake were also analyzed using one-way,
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repeated measures ANOVA. For all measures, post-hoc analysis was performed by Bonferoni adjusted
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pairwise comparison of treatment effects. There was no evidence suggesting an effect of treatment order
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on the outcome measures. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05.
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A power calculation indicated that a sample size of 38 would allow the detection of a 10%
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difference in subjective appetite measures (the primary outcome measure) with α=0.05 and β = 0.9. The
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power calculation was based on the standard deviations from previous studies of food intake and appetite
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conducted by the lead author (32-34). Forty five participants were recruited to allow for attrition.
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Results
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Participants Demographics
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Forty-five participants were recruited and randomized to a treatment order. Two males and two
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females withdrew from the study due to scheduling conflicts. Forty-one participants, 19 female and 22
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male, completed the study. The participant’s mean age was 24 ± 4 years and mean BMI was 23.4 ± 2.5
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kg/m2.
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The primary aim of this present study was to test the effect of a beverage containing SFD on subjective
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appetite in healthy adults.
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Hormones and Glucose Figure 1 shows the data for the plasma concentration of GIP, ghrelin, CCK-8 and PYY3-36 during
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the 150 minutes following consumption of the test meal. Statistical analysis of results revealed a
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significant effect of treatment on plasma GIP (F(2, 179) = 7.101, p = 0.001). Post hoc analysis revealed
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that the plasma concentration of GIP was lower following consumption of the 20g fiber from SFD
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beverage as compared to the control (p=0.001). No statistically significant effect of treatment was found
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on ghrelin (F(2, 294) = 2.663; p=0.071), CCK-8 (F(2, 200) = 2.496; p=0.085), or PYY3-36 (F(2, 11) =
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2.091; p=0.172). Additionally, there was no observed treatment effect on plasma glucose (F(2, 147) =
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1.250; p=0.290), insulin (F(2, 177) = 1.121;p=0.328) or GLP-1 (F(2, 246) = 0.028; p=0.973) (data not
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shown).
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Figure 1 Plasma hormone responses for cholecystokinin, peptide YY3-36, ghrelin and glucose-
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dependent insulintropic polypeptide measured from baseline through 150 minutes post
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consumption of a test beverage containing 0 g (squares), 10 g (triangles) or 20g (circles) of fiber
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from SFD. * Indicates a statistically significant decrease in plasma concentration as compared to
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control (p <0.05).
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Subjective Appetite
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Data collected in the laboratory
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Hunger, fullness, desire to eat and prospective consumption data that were collected in the
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laboratory are shown in Fig. 2. There was no statistically significant effect of treatment on: hunger (F (2,
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139) = 0.324; p=0.724), fullness (F(2, 178) = 1.351; p=0.262), desire to eat (F (2, 118) = 1.054; p=0.352),
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 13 prospective consumption (F (2, 54) = 0.843;p=0.436). In addition, there was no statistically significant
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effect on thirst (F(2, 112) = 0.977; p=0.379 (data not shown).
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Figure 2 VAS scores of hunger, fullness, prospective consumption and desire to eat rated from
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baseline through 150 minutes post consumption of a test beverage containing 0 g (squares), 10 g
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(triangles) or 20g (circles) of fiber from SFD. There were no statistically significant treatment
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differences observed (p > 0.05).
Appetite data collected outside the laboratory
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Figure 3 shows crude mean appetite ratings of the free-living data for hunger, fullness, desire to
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eat and prospective consumption. These time points correspond to 3.5 – 8.5 hours (210 – 510 minutes)
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post consumption of test beverages. Due to missing values the statistical analysis included 83% of the
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 14 possible number of data points. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant main treatment effects
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on hunger (F(2, 39) = 4.291; p=0.021), fullness (F(2, 39) = 4.145; p=0.023), and desire to eat (F (2, 39) =
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6.459; p=0.004). Post-hoc analysis showed lower hunger and desire to eat in addition to higher fullness
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following consumption of the 20 g fiber from SFD beverage as compared to the control. There was no
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significant main treatment effect for prospective consumption (F(2,39) =3.018; p=0.060). In addition,
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there was no statistically significant effect on thirst (F(2,39)=2.780; p =0.068) (data not shown).
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Figure 3 Mean ± SE for subjective appetite measures hunger, fullness, desire to eat, and
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prospective consumption collected 3.5 – 8.5 hours post consumption of test beverages. Different
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letters for a given appetite response indicates statistically significant difference (p < 0.05)
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Food Intake
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Table 2 reports the mean energy intake for each treatment. There was no statistically significant
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effect of treatment on energy intake at the snack meal, consumption for the remainder of the test day (data
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from diet diary), or total daily energy intake.
305 Treatment Beverage (g fiber from SFD)
Snack
Diet Diary
Total
0
168 ± 15
1381 ± 93
1549 ± 82
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1257 ± 83
1409 ± 82
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171 ± 15
1365 ± 97
1536 ± 95
1.141
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1.005
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F (2, 39) Main Effect P-Value 306 307
Table 2 Food Intake Data – Means (kcal) ± SE Discussion
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The primary aim of this present study was to test the effect of a beverage containing SFD on
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subjective appetite in healthy adults. Additionally, the effect of SFD on food intake, glucose, insulin,
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CCK-8, GLP-1, PYY3-36, ghrelin, and GIP was determined. This present study found that consuming a
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beverage containing 20g fiber from SFD reduced the plasma concentration of GIP during the first 150
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minutes post consumption and reduces feelings of hunger and desire to eat while increasing fullness
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several hours (>3.5) after consumption. However, there was no effect on other biomarkers of appetite
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during the first 150 minutes after consumption or food intake throughout the test day. There was no effect
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of consuming a beverage containing 10g of SFD on any outcome measure.
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This study did not find significant differences in subjective appetite while participants were in the
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laboratory suggesting that SFD does not influence appetite in the short-term when the meals are matched
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for macronutrient content. However, participants reported increased fullness, reduced hunger and reduced
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desire to eat following the 20g fiber from SFD treatment 3.5 to 8.5 hours after the beverage was
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consumed. During this time the participants were not in the laboratory and it was not possible to make
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measurements that may provide a mechanistic explanation for these results. One possible explanation is
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that SFD is fermented in the colon and produces short chain fatty acids (SCFA). Ingestion of fermentable
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carbohydrates has been shown to produce SCFAs and increase satiety in both rodents and humans models
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potentially through regulation of satiety hormones GLP-1 and PYY3-36 (35-38). While this study found no
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effect of consuming SFD on GLP-1 and PYY3-36 during the first 150 minutes post-consumption it would
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likely take several hours for the SFD to reach the large intestine to be fermented and produce SCFA. In
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this present study, we cannot confirm that the SFD was fermented or if such fermentation would be
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temporally associated with changes in appetite or biomarkers of appetite such as GLP-1 or PYY3-36.
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Further studies are warranted to determine if SFD is fermented and if this is associated with increased
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secretion of GLP-1 or PYY3-36. In this present study, hand-held computers were used to measure subjective appetite after the
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participants left the laboratory. There are limitations to this approach that may limit the validity of the
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data. First, participant compliance to the protocol was reduced after the left the laboratory with many
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questionnaires either not been completed or not being completed within 10 minutes of the required time.
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Second, as the participants were free-living over the time in which treatment differences were observed,
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several other extraneous variables could influence appetite confounding the relationship between SFD and
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appetite. While there is no evidence of a systematic bias favoring the 20g SFD treatment the free-living
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data collected in this present study should be interpreted with caution. Further studies are required to
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understand how SFD influences appetite over an extended period under controlled laboratory conditions.
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Despite the observed changes in appetite 3.5 – 8.5 hours after consuming the SFD containing
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beverages, this did not translate into a reduction in ad libitum food intake as measured using diet diaries.
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These results differ from those provided by a previous study that found reduced food intake after
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consuming SFD despite no reduction in appetite (18). However, this previous study provided the SFD in
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multiple servings with the initial dose of SFD being given following an overnight fast. In this present
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study, a single preload was used and SFD was provided with lunch rather than breakfast. Regarding the
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reduction in appetite observed during the evening period, it is possible that this decrease in appetite was
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not sufficiently large to influence food intake in a free-living situation where participants are more likely
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to be exposed to extraneous factors that stimulate or inhibit food intake (39-41). In addition, it is possible
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that errors in recording food intake using diet diaries could mask a small effect on food intake.
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This present study indicates that consuming a beverage containing 20g of SFD had a limited
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effect on biomarkers of glycemia. There was no statistically significant effect on the biomarkers of
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appetite (CCK, ghrelin, GLP-1 and PYY3-36). This observation was consistent with the lack of a
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contemporaneous effect on subjective appetite. There was a statistically significant reduction of the
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 17 plasma concentration of GIP during the first 150 minutes post-consumption. GIP is secreted by the K
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cells of the small intestine in response to food intake and stimulates insulin secretion (42-45). High fiber,
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low glycemic foods are generally associated with a decreased postprandial glucose and insulin response
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due, in part, to changes in GIP secretion (46-48). Although this study confirmed previous research
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showing a reduction in plasma GIP concentration following a meal with a higher fiber content (49), we
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did not detect a significant treatment effect on plasma glucose or insulin concentration.
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There are limitations to this study other than those already discussed. First, this was a single dose, single
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day feeding study and the effect of repeated consumption of SFD on appetite or food intake cannot be
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determined from this study. Second, this study tested SFD in a liquid beverage, it is not clear if there
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would be a different outcome if it was provided in a solid food. Third, the study population did not
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include obese individuals and it is not clear how they would respond to foods containing SFD. Fourth, the
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functional characteristics of SFD have not been fully established and further research is required to
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identify the mechanisms through which it may exert an effect on appetite. Fifth, participants were not
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permitted to drink fluids with the snack meal which may have influenced the amount eaten. However,
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participant ratings of thirst did not appear unduly high through the study. Further research is warranted
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to determine if SFD influences appetite and food intake in different populations or using different
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vehicles. Moreover, it is possible that larger doses of SFD are required to elicit a robust effect on appetite
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and food intake.
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Conclusion
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This present study examined the effect of 20g or 40g of SFD on subjective appetite, food intake and
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biomarkers of appetite. Based on the results from this present study further research is warranted to better
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characterize the functional properties of SFD, determine if higher doses elicit a more robust effect on
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appetite/food intake and determine the temporal effects of SFD on appetite. While this present study
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suggests that an effect of SFD on appetite might occur several hours after consumption. Due to
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limitations in our study design a study that explicitly investigates this question is required.
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Acknowledgements
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 18 We thank Visha Arumugam for her technical assistance.
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Conception and design of the study: JH
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Generation, collection, assembly, analysis and/or interpretation of data: CE, WH, JH
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Drafting or revision of the manuscript: CE, YZ, JH
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Approval of the final version of the manuscript: CE, WH, YZ, PW, JH
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Financial Support
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This study was funded by Tate & Lyle Ingredients Americas LLC. The Research and all publications
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arising out of or referable to it are considered proprietary data to which Tate & Lyle claims exclusive
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right of reference in accordance with Regulation (EC) no 1924/2006 of the European Parliament and of
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the Council on Nutrition and Health Claims Made on Foods.
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390 Conflict of Interest
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PW is a paid employee of Tate and Lyle. CE, WH, YZ and JH have no conflict of interest.
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26. Fernando WMADB, Ranaweera KKDS, Bamunuarachchi A, Brennan CS. The influence of rice fibre fractions on the in vitro fermentation production of short chain fatty acids using human faecal micro flora. Int J Food Sci Tech. 2008;43(12):2237-44. 27. Bjorck I, Elmstahl HL. The glycaemic index: importance of dietary fibre and other food properties. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 2003;62(1):201-6. 28. Stunkard AJ, Messick S. The 3-Factor Eating Questionnaire to Measure Dietary Restraint, Disinhibition and Hunger. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 1985;29(1):71-83. 29. Schofield WN. Predicting basal metabolic rate, new standards and review of previous work. Human nutrition Clinical nutrition. 1985;39 Suppl 1:5-41. 30. Elliott SA, Davies PS, Nambiar S, Truby H, Abbott RA. A comparison of two screening methods to determine the validity of 24-h food and drink records in children and adolescents. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2011;65(12):1314-20. 31. Flint A, Raben A, Blundell JE, Astrup A. Reproducibility, power and validity of visual analogue scales in assessment of appetite sensations in single test meal studies. International journal of obesity and related metabolic disorders : journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity. 2000;24(1):38-48. 32. Zhu Y, Hsu WH, Hollis JH. Increasing the number of masticatory cycles is associated with reduced appetite and altered postprandial plasma concentrations of gut hormones, insulin and glucose. Br J Nutr. 2013;110(2):384-90. 33. Zhu Y, Hsu WH, Hollis JH. Increased number of chews during a fixed-amount meal suppresses postprandial appetite and modulates glycemic response in older males. Physiol Behav. 2014;133:136-40. 34. Zhu Y, Hsu WH, Hollis JH. The effect of food form on satiety. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 2013;64(4):385-91. 35. Nilsson AC, Ostman EM, Hoist JJ, Bjorck IME. Including indigestible carbohydrates in the evening meal of healthy subjects improves glucose tolerance, lowers inflammatory markers, and increases satiety after a subsequent standardized breakfast. J Nutr. 2008;138(4):732-9. 36. Stewart ML, Savarino V, Slavin JL. Assessment of dietary fiber fermentation: Effect of Lactobacillus reuteri and reproducibility of short-chain fatty acid concentrations. Molecular nutrition & food research. 2009;53:S114-S20. 37. Tolhurst G, Heffron H, Lam YS, Parker HE, Habib AM, Diakogiannaki E, et al. Short-Chain Fatty Acids Stimulate Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Secretion via the G-Protein-Coupled Receptor FFAR2. Diabetes. 2012;61(2):364-71. 38. Vetrani C, Costabile G, Luongo D, Naviglio D, Rivellese AA, Riccardi G, et al. Effects of wholegrain cereal foods on plasma short chain fatty acid concentrations in individuals with the metabolic syndrome. Nutrition. 2016;32(2):217-21. 39. Giskes K, Kamphuis CBM, van Lenthe FJ, Kremers S, Droomers M, Brug J. A systematic review of associations between environmental factors, energy and fat intakes among adults: is there evidence for environments that encourage obesogenic dietary intakes? Public Health Nutrition. 2007;10(10):1005-17. 40. Levitsky DA. The non-regulation of food intake in humans: hope for reversing the epidemic of obesity. Physiol Behav. 2005;86(5):623-32. 41. Blundell JE, Caudwell P, Gibbons C, Hopkins M, Naslund E, King N, et al. Role of resting metabolic rate and energy expenditure in hunger and appetite control: a new formulation. Dis Model Mech. 2012;5(5):608-13. 42. Cummings DE, Overduin J. Gastrointestinal regulation of food intake. The Journal of clinical investigation. 2007;117(1):13-23. 43. Wang SY, Chi MMY, Li L, Moley KH, Wice BM. Studies with GIP/Ins cells indicate secretion by gut K cells is K-ATP channel independent. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2003;284(5):E988-E1000.
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44. Asmar M, Tangaa W, Madsbad S, Hare K, Astrup A, Flint A, et al. On the role of glucosedependent insulintropic polypeptide in postprandial metabolism in humans. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2010;298(3):E614-E21. 45. Tseng CC, Kieffer TJ, Jarboe LA, Usdin TB, Wolfe MM. Postprandial stimulation of insulin release by glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) - Effect of a specific glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor antagonist in the rat. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 1996;98(11):2440-5. 46. Kendall CWC, Esfahani A, Hoffman AJ, Evans A, Sanders LM, Josse AR, et al. Effect of Novel Maize-based Dietary Fibers on Postprandial Glycemia and Insulinemia. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2008;27(6):711-8. 47. Runchey SS, Valsta LM, Schwarz Y, Wang CC, Song XL, Lampe JW, et al. Effect of low- and highglycemic load on circulating incretins in a randomized clinical trial. Metabolism-Clinical and Experimental. 2013;62(2):188-95. 48. Morgan LM, Tredger JA, Wright J, Marks V. The Effect of Soluble-Fiber and Insoluble-Fiber Supplementation on Postprandial Glucose-Tolerance, Insulin and Gastric-Inhibitory Polypeptide Secretion in Healthy-Subjects. Br J Nutr. 1990;64(1):103-10. 49. Runchey SS, Valsta LM, Schwarz Y, Wang C, Song X, Lampe JW, et al. Effect of low- and highglycemic load on circulating incretins in a randomized clinical trial. Metabolism: clinical and experimental. 2013;62(2):188-95.
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Highlights •
The consumption of 20 or 40g of SFD has no effect on appetite or food intake during the 150 minutes post-consumption The consumption of 40g SFD may influence appetite several hours after consumption although
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confirmatory studies are required
The consumption of 20 or 40g of SFD reduced post-prandial GIP but had no effect on other
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markers of appetite or glycemia
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S0899-9007(17)30201-0
DOI:
10.1016/j.nut.2017.08.016
Reference:
NUT 10034
To appear in:
Nutrition
Received Date: 1 March 2017 Revised Date:
21 August 2017
Accepted Date: 29 August 2017
Please cite this article as: Emilien CH, Zhu Y, Hsu WH, Williamson P, Hollis JH, The effect of soluble fiber dextrin on postprandial appetite and subsequent food intake in healthy adults., Nutrition (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2017.08.016. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
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The effect of soluble fiber dextrin on postprandial appetite and subsequent food intake in healthy
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adults.
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Christine H. Emilien1, Yong Zhu2, Walter H. Hsu3, Patricia Williamson4 and James H. Hollis1*
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Department of Epidemiology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA
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Tate & Lyle Ingredients Americas LLC, Hoffman Estates, IL
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Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA
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*Corresponding Author: James Hollis PhD, 220 MacKay Hall, Department of Food Science and
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Human Nutrition, Iowa State University Ames, IA 50011 United States Phone: +1-515-294-9567;
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Fax: +1-515-294-8181; Email: [email protected]
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Abstract Objective This crossover study investigated the effect of consuming a beverage containing
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soluble fiber dextrin (SFD) on appetite and food intake in adults. It was hypothesized that beverages
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containing 10g or 20g of fiber from SFD would be more satiating than the control beverage.
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Research methods and procedures Forty-one participants consumed lunch with a beverage
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containing 0g, 10g or 20g of fiber from SFD. Appetite questionnaires were completed and blood samples
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collected immediately before lunch and at regular intervals over the following 150 minutes. Then, the
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participants were provided with an afternoon snack and the amount eaten recorded. The participants then
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left the laboratory but were asked to complete hourly appetite questionnaires and record food intake for
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the remainder of the day.
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Results Consuming SFD had no effect on appetite over the 150 minutes following consumption
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of the lunch meal (p>0.05).
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consumption of the beverage containing 20g of fiber from SFD (p<0.05) after the participants left the
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laboratory. There was no effect of consuming SFD on food intake at the snack meal or for the rest of the
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day (p>0.05). Plasma GIP was lower during the 150 minutes following consumption of the 20g of fiber
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from SFD beverage (p<0.05). There was no treatment effect on the plasma concentration of other
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biomarkers of glycemic response or appetite (p>0.05).
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Hunger and desire to eat were lower and fullness higher following
Conclusions Overall this study’s results did not show an effect of SFD on appetite, food intake
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and plasma markers of appetite for the first 150 minutes post-consumption. Further research is required
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to quantify how SFD influences appetite several hours after consumption.
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minutes post-consumption •
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The consumption of 20 or 40g of SFD has no effect on appetite or food intake during the 150
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Highlights
The consumption of 40g SFD may influence appetite several hours after consumption although confirmatory studies are required
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The consumption of 20 or 40g of SFD reduced post-prandial GIP but had no effect on other
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markers of appetite or glycemia
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Keywords: Dietary Fiber, Resistant Dextrin, Appetite, Food Intake
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Introduction The rapid rise in the number of overweight and obese individuals has increased efforts to identify
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foods or food ingredients that promote satiety and reduce energy intake. Dietary fiber has attracted
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considerable interest because increased fiber consumption is associated with a lower body weight (1-4) or
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a lower body mass index (BMI) (5-8). At this time, it has not been established why fiber is associated
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with a lower body weight or BMI but one possible explanation is that dietary fiber increases satiety and
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decreases short-term energy intake (9-13). While a recent review questioned the satiating effect of some
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dietary fibers (13) there are substantial differences in the physical and chemical characteristics of different
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fibers and it is likely that their effect on satiety needs to be individually determined by testing using
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human participants.
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Dietary fiber consumption is below recommended levels in many countries (14, 15).
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Consequently, the development of dietary strategies to increase the consumption of fiber may be useful in
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reducing the number of overweight and obese individuals. While strategies for increasing fiber intake
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have generally focused on increasing the consumption of high fiber foods such as fruits and vegetables,
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these interventions have had limited success in changing eating habits and therefore little impact on
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overall fiber intake (16, 17). An alternative strategy is to develop functional fibers that can be
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incorporated into a wide array of commonly eaten foods. One such functional fiber ingredient is soluble
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fiber dextrin (SFD); a type of dietary fiber that completely dissolves in water without noticeably changing
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its appearance, taste or viscosity (18). SFD is resistant to digestion in the small intestine although a study
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using a rodent model reported that SFD is fermented in the colon (19). At this time, it is not clear to what
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extent SFD is fermented in the human colon and over what timeframe. Moreover, the effect of long-term
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consumption of SFD on the human gut microbiota is not known although a study using a rodent model
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found that the regular consumption of SFD results in a distinctive gut microbiota (20). To date, only a
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limited number of studies have been conducted regarding the impact of SFD on appetite or food intake.
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These studies have found that adding SFD to a beverage reduces food intake at a subsequent test meal
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 5 (18). This effect on food intake may be explained, in part, because SFD suppresses the post-prandial
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ghrelin response (21). The influence of SFD on other hormones related to appetite such as
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cholecystokinin-8 (CCK-8), glucagon like peptide 1 (GLP-1), peptide YY3-36 (PYY3-36), ghrelin, and
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glucose-dependent insulintropic polypeptide (GIP) has not been investigated. In addition, SFD may also
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influence the post-prandial glycemic response. For example, studies have shown that dietary fiber reduces
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the post-prandial plasma concentration of glucose and insulin (22, 23). This effect may be due to the
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replacement of available carbohydrate with fiber (24), a change in glucose absorption kinetics due to a
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slower gastric emptying rate (25), or the fermentation of fiber to produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)
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that improve glycemic control (26). A change in the postprandial glycemic response may also influence
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appetite by reducing the glycemic index of a meal (27). However, the effect of SFD on the glycemic
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response has not been adequately characterized.
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The primary aim of this present study was to test the effect of a beverage containing SFD on
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subjective appetite in healthy adults. Additionally, the effect of SFD on food intake, glucose, insulin,
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CCK-8, GLP-1, PYY3-36, ghrelin, and GIP was determined. Based on previous work (18), we hypothesize
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that SFD will increase feelings of satiety and decrease energy intake at subsequent meals and that these
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effects will be modulated, in part, by changes in the plasma concentration of putative satiety hormones.
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Materials and Methods
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This study was conducted with the approval of the Iowa State University Institutional Review Board and signed informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to enrolling in the study.
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Participants
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Potential participants were informed about the study via a mass email sent out to Iowa State
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University faculty, students and staff and flyers advertising the study posted in the local community.
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Individuals interested in the study were invited to a screening session where they completed a
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questionnaire that posed questions about their general health. In addition, the participant’s height and
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body weight was measured using a calibrated stadiometer (Model S100, Ayrton Corp., Prior Lake, MN)
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and clinical weighing scales (Detecto 758C, Cardinal Scale Manufacturing Company, Webb City, MO).
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 6 The participants were asked to taste samples of all the test foods and rate each of them on a 9-point scale.
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Participants were only included in the study if they were aged between 18 – 40 years, had a BMI between
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19.9 and 29.9 and were willing to eat the test foods. Participants were excluded from the study if they:
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had a presence or history of gastrointestinal disease, were a restrained eater (≥14 on the restraint section
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of the three-factor eating questionnaire) (28), used tobacco products, did not find the test foods palatable
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(< 5 on a 9 point scale), had an acute or chronic disease, were using medication that lists an effect on
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appetite as a side effect, or did not regularly consume an afternoon snack (< 4 times a week).
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Protocol
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This study used a double-blind, randomized, cross-over design with each participant completing
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three separate test sessions. There was a washout period of at least one week between each test session.
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Participants were asked to avoid alcohol consumption and strenuous physical activity for the 24 hours
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before each test session and to refrain from eating or drinking (except water) after 10:00pm on the
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evening before each test day. On the morning of each test session the participants were required to eat a
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standardized breakfast that was provided by the research team and then fast until reporting to the test
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facility four hours later.
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On arriving at the test facility, an indwelling catheter was placed into the participant’s non-
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dominant arm. Participants were then allowed to rest for 30 minutes before a baseline blood sample was
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collected and appetite questionnaire completed. Then, the participants were served lunch with one of three
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test beverages and asked to consume the test meal in its entirety within 15 minutes. On completion of this
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meal, participants were asked to fill out an appetite questionnaire and a blood sample was collected (t0).
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Further appetite questionnaires and blood samples were collected at t0+15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120 and 150
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minutes. Following the 150 minute measurement, subjects were served a snack and asked to eat until
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comfortably full. The snack meal was weighed before and after serving, without the participant’s
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knowledge, and the amount consumed recorded. The participant was not allowed to drink any fluids from
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the completion of the lunch meal until they finished eating the snack meal. The indwelling catheter was
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then removed and participants were instructed to complete hourly appetite questionnaires contained on a
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hand-held computer (PalmPilot) and record all foods and beverages eaten during the remainder of the day
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using a diet diary.
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Test Foods and Beverages The participant’s daily energy expenditure was calculated using validated equations to estimate
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basal metabolic rate (29) and multiplying this figure by a physical activity level of 1.5. The standardized
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breakfast meal consumed on the morning of each test session provided 25% of the participant’s estimated
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daily energy requirement. The macronutrient composition of the breakfast meal was 60% carbohydrate,
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14% protein and 26% fat and consisted of Honey Nut Cheerios® (General Mills Inc., Minneapolis, MN),
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Great Value whole milk (Wal-Mart Stores Inc., Bentonville, AR), wheat bread (Sara Lee Corp., Chicago,
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IL), and strawberry jelly (J.M. Smuckers Comp., Orville, OH). The lunch meal of chicken salad was
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prepared using Swanson® canned chicken (Campbell Soup Comp., Camden, NJ), fat free ranch dressing
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(Kraft Food Groups Inc., Northfield, Il), Kraft® light mayonnaise, iceberg lettuce, Great Value butter and
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dried cranberries (Ocean Spray ®, Lakeville, MA) and was served with Wonder Bread® white bread
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(Flower Foods, Thomasville, GA). Excluding the beverage, the test meal provided 25% of the
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participant’s total daily energy requirement and had a macronutrient profile of 55% carbohydrate, 15%
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protein and 30% fat. The ad libitum snack provided at the end of each test session consisted of sliced
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apples with a caramel dip (Crunch Pak ®, Cashmere, WA).
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The test beverage served with the lunch meal provided 0, 10 or 20 grams of fiber from SFD. The
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amounts of SFD used in the test foods were based on what could realistically be used in commercial
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products. The SFD ingredient (Tate & Lyle Ingredients Americas LLC, Hoffman Estates, IL) contained
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50% fiber and 50% digestible carbohydrate. Maltodextrin, a rapidly digestible carbohydrate, was added to
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match the beverages for available carbohydrate. Treatment 1 contained 10g fiber (20g SFD) plus 10g of
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maltodextrin and provided 20g total digestible carbohydrate. Treatment 2 contained 20g fiber (40g SFD)
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and provided 20g total digestible carbohydrate. The control beverage contained 20g of maltodextrin and
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provided 0g of fiber and 20g total digestible carbohydrate. In addition to being matched for available
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carbohydrate, all beverages were approximately matched for energy (80, 83, and 85 kcal for the control,
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treatment 1 and treatment 2 respectively). To create the test beverages, each treatment mixture was
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dissolved in 355ml of water and flavored with Crystal Light (Kraft Food Groups Inc, Northfield, Il). The
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nutritional information is presented in table one.
Treatment 2
Energy (Kcal)
80
83
85
SFD (g)
0
20
40
Fiber
0
10
20
Available CHO (g)
20
20
20
Water (ml)
355
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Measurement of Food Intake
Data from diet diaries were analyzed using NutritionistPro© software and checked for validity
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Table one – nutritional information of the test beverages
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using the McCrory method (30). No trends in over or under reporting of caloric intake were observed.
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Subjective Appetite Measurements
Subjective appetite was measured using a standard appetite questionnaire (31) that posed the
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following questions: How hungry do you feel right now? How full do you feel right now? What is your
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desire to eat right now? What is your prospective consumption right now? How thirsty are you right now?
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Responses were measured using a visual analogue scale anchored with opposing statements at each end
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(e.g. not hungry at all or as hungry as I have ever felt). Responses to the appetite questions were captured
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and stored on a PalmPilot hand-held computer that placed a time and date stamp on each entry to check
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for protocol compliance. For all appetite measurements collected outside the laboratory, compliance was
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defined as completion of the appetite questionnaire within 15 minutes of the designated time. Only time
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points with a minimum of 70% of participants with compliant responses were included in the final
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analysis.
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Glucose and Hormone Analysis Blood was drawn into 4ml EDTA-coated vacutainer tubes and mixed with 400 µl of 10 000 KIU
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(1·4 mg)/ml aprotinin. Samples were centrifuged for 15 minutes at 3000 g and 4°C then divided into
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aliquots before being stored at -80°C for further analysis. Plasma samples were assayed for glucose using
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a biochemical analyzer (YSI Life Sciences, Model 2700 select) while all other analyses (insulin, GLP-1,
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PYY3-36, GIP, ghrelin and CCK) were completed using established RIA procedures (32). All samples
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were run in duplicate and all samples from a given participant were analyzed within the same batch.
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Insulin antibodies and the insulin and GIP tracers were made in Dr Hsu’s laboratory. All other
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Tracers used were purchased from PerkinElmer (Waltham, MA). The ghrelin and GIP analysis were done
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using T-4747 (Bachem, Bubendorf, Sui) and H-027-02 (Phoenix Pharmaceuticals Inc., Burlingame, CA)
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antibodies. Prior to RIA analysis for CCK, GLP-1 and PYY3-36, samples were ethanol extracted. Briefly,
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0.5 mL of plasma was mixed with 1mL of 96% ethanol and allowed to stand for 10 minutes at room
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temperature. Incubated samples were then centrifuged at 3000rpm and 4°C for 15 minutes. After
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centrifuging, the supernatant was decanted into a clean microcentrifuge tube and dried in a Jouan RC
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10.10 vacuum concentrator (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA) at 37°C. Dried extracts were then
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reconstituted using 0.5mL of assay buffer and stored at -20°C for further analysis. Antibodies for PYY3-36
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and GLP-1 were purchased from Bachem (T-4090 & T-4056) while CCK-8 antibody C2581 was
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purchased from Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis, MO. Detection limits and coefficient of variations (CV) for
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each of the RIA measured hormones are as follows: Insulin: 1.5 – 200 µU, interassay CV 10%, intra-
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assay CV 7%; Ghrelin: 50 – 1600 pg/mL, interassay CV 11%, intra-assay CV 7%; GLP-1: 7.5 –
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1000pg/mL, inter-assay CV 12%, intra-assay CV 8%, PYY3-36: 5 – 320pg/mL, inter-assay CV 12%, intra-
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assay CV 8%, GIP: 25 – 2500pg/mL, inter-assay CV 9%, intra-assay CV 6%, CCK-8: 0.5 – 80pg/mL,
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interassay CV 11%, intra-assay CV 7%.
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Statistical Analysis SPSS for windows (version 20, 2012, IBM, Armonk, NY) was used to perform all statistical
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analysis and data are presented as means ± standard error. A mixed model, repeated measures analysis of
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covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test overall treatment effect on plasma parameters. Baseline values
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were included as a covariate and participants were added as random variables in the model. The appetite
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data was split into two periods: in-laboratory data and free-living data. This was due to a change in the
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protocol and a reduction in compliance after the participants had left the laboratory. For the in-laboratory
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data, a mixed model, repeated measures ANCOVA was used to test overall treatment effect on plasma
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parameters and subjective appetite measurements. Baseline values were included as a covariate and
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participants were added as random variables in the model. For the free-living appetite data, the mean
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rating for each of the subjective appetite questions was calculated and analyzed using a one-way, repeated
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measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Differences in food intake were also analyzed using one-way,
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repeated measures ANOVA. For all measures, post-hoc analysis was performed by Bonferoni adjusted
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pairwise comparison of treatment effects. There was no evidence suggesting an effect of treatment order
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on the outcome measures. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05.
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A power calculation indicated that a sample size of 38 would allow the detection of a 10%
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difference in subjective appetite measures (the primary outcome measure) with α=0.05 and β = 0.9. The
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power calculation was based on the standard deviations from previous studies of food intake and appetite
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conducted by the lead author (32-34). Forty five participants were recruited to allow for attrition.
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Results
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Participants Demographics
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Forty-five participants were recruited and randomized to a treatment order. Two males and two
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females withdrew from the study due to scheduling conflicts. Forty-one participants, 19 female and 22
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male, completed the study. The participant’s mean age was 24 ± 4 years and mean BMI was 23.4 ± 2.5
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kg/m2.
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The primary aim of this present study was to test the effect of a beverage containing SFD on subjective
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appetite in healthy adults.
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Hormones and Glucose Figure 1 shows the data for the plasma concentration of GIP, ghrelin, CCK-8 and PYY3-36 during
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the 150 minutes following consumption of the test meal. Statistical analysis of results revealed a
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significant effect of treatment on plasma GIP (F(2, 179) = 7.101, p = 0.001). Post hoc analysis revealed
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that the plasma concentration of GIP was lower following consumption of the 20g fiber from SFD
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beverage as compared to the control (p=0.001). No statistically significant effect of treatment was found
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on ghrelin (F(2, 294) = 2.663; p=0.071), CCK-8 (F(2, 200) = 2.496; p=0.085), or PYY3-36 (F(2, 11) =
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2.091; p=0.172). Additionally, there was no observed treatment effect on plasma glucose (F(2, 147) =
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1.250; p=0.290), insulin (F(2, 177) = 1.121;p=0.328) or GLP-1 (F(2, 246) = 0.028; p=0.973) (data not
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shown).
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Figure 1 Plasma hormone responses for cholecystokinin, peptide YY3-36, ghrelin and glucose-
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dependent insulintropic polypeptide measured from baseline through 150 minutes post
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consumption of a test beverage containing 0 g (squares), 10 g (triangles) or 20g (circles) of fiber
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from SFD. * Indicates a statistically significant decrease in plasma concentration as compared to
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control (p <0.05).
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Subjective Appetite
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Data collected in the laboratory
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Hunger, fullness, desire to eat and prospective consumption data that were collected in the
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laboratory are shown in Fig. 2. There was no statistically significant effect of treatment on: hunger (F (2,
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139) = 0.324; p=0.724), fullness (F(2, 178) = 1.351; p=0.262), desire to eat (F (2, 118) = 1.054; p=0.352),
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 13 prospective consumption (F (2, 54) = 0.843;p=0.436). In addition, there was no statistically significant
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effect on thirst (F(2, 112) = 0.977; p=0.379 (data not shown).
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Figure 2 VAS scores of hunger, fullness, prospective consumption and desire to eat rated from
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baseline through 150 minutes post consumption of a test beverage containing 0 g (squares), 10 g
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(triangles) or 20g (circles) of fiber from SFD. There were no statistically significant treatment
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differences observed (p > 0.05).
Appetite data collected outside the laboratory
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Figure 3 shows crude mean appetite ratings of the free-living data for hunger, fullness, desire to
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eat and prospective consumption. These time points correspond to 3.5 – 8.5 hours (210 – 510 minutes)
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post consumption of test beverages. Due to missing values the statistical analysis included 83% of the
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 14 possible number of data points. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant main treatment effects
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on hunger (F(2, 39) = 4.291; p=0.021), fullness (F(2, 39) = 4.145; p=0.023), and desire to eat (F (2, 39) =
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6.459; p=0.004). Post-hoc analysis showed lower hunger and desire to eat in addition to higher fullness
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following consumption of the 20 g fiber from SFD beverage as compared to the control. There was no
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significant main treatment effect for prospective consumption (F(2,39) =3.018; p=0.060). In addition,
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there was no statistically significant effect on thirst (F(2,39)=2.780; p =0.068) (data not shown).
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Figure 3 Mean ± SE for subjective appetite measures hunger, fullness, desire to eat, and
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prospective consumption collected 3.5 – 8.5 hours post consumption of test beverages. Different
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letters for a given appetite response indicates statistically significant difference (p < 0.05)
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Food Intake
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Table 2 reports the mean energy intake for each treatment. There was no statistically significant
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effect of treatment on energy intake at the snack meal, consumption for the remainder of the test day (data
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from diet diary), or total daily energy intake.
305 Treatment Beverage (g fiber from SFD)
Snack
Diet Diary
Total
0
168 ± 15
1381 ± 93
1549 ± 82
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1257 ± 83
1409 ± 82
20
171 ± 15
1365 ± 97
1536 ± 95
1.141
0.723
1.005
0.3
0.4
0.3
F (2, 39) Main Effect P-Value 306 307
Table 2 Food Intake Data – Means (kcal) ± SE Discussion
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The primary aim of this present study was to test the effect of a beverage containing SFD on
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subjective appetite in healthy adults. Additionally, the effect of SFD on food intake, glucose, insulin,
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CCK-8, GLP-1, PYY3-36, ghrelin, and GIP was determined. This present study found that consuming a
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beverage containing 20g fiber from SFD reduced the plasma concentration of GIP during the first 150
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minutes post consumption and reduces feelings of hunger and desire to eat while increasing fullness
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several hours (>3.5) after consumption. However, there was no effect on other biomarkers of appetite
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during the first 150 minutes after consumption or food intake throughout the test day. There was no effect
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of consuming a beverage containing 10g of SFD on any outcome measure.
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This study did not find significant differences in subjective appetite while participants were in the
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laboratory suggesting that SFD does not influence appetite in the short-term when the meals are matched
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for macronutrient content. However, participants reported increased fullness, reduced hunger and reduced
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desire to eat following the 20g fiber from SFD treatment 3.5 to 8.5 hours after the beverage was
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consumed. During this time the participants were not in the laboratory and it was not possible to make
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measurements that may provide a mechanistic explanation for these results. One possible explanation is
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that SFD is fermented in the colon and produces short chain fatty acids (SCFA). Ingestion of fermentable
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carbohydrates has been shown to produce SCFAs and increase satiety in both rodents and humans models
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potentially through regulation of satiety hormones GLP-1 and PYY3-36 (35-38). While this study found no
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effect of consuming SFD on GLP-1 and PYY3-36 during the first 150 minutes post-consumption it would
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likely take several hours for the SFD to reach the large intestine to be fermented and produce SCFA. In
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this present study, we cannot confirm that the SFD was fermented or if such fermentation would be
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 16 328
temporally associated with changes in appetite or biomarkers of appetite such as GLP-1 or PYY3-36.
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Further studies are warranted to determine if SFD is fermented and if this is associated with increased
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secretion of GLP-1 or PYY3-36. In this present study, hand-held computers were used to measure subjective appetite after the
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participants left the laboratory. There are limitations to this approach that may limit the validity of the
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data. First, participant compliance to the protocol was reduced after the left the laboratory with many
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questionnaires either not been completed or not being completed within 10 minutes of the required time.
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Second, as the participants were free-living over the time in which treatment differences were observed,
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several other extraneous variables could influence appetite confounding the relationship between SFD and
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appetite. While there is no evidence of a systematic bias favoring the 20g SFD treatment the free-living
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data collected in this present study should be interpreted with caution. Further studies are required to
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understand how SFD influences appetite over an extended period under controlled laboratory conditions.
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Despite the observed changes in appetite 3.5 – 8.5 hours after consuming the SFD containing
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beverages, this did not translate into a reduction in ad libitum food intake as measured using diet diaries.
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These results differ from those provided by a previous study that found reduced food intake after
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consuming SFD despite no reduction in appetite (18). However, this previous study provided the SFD in
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multiple servings with the initial dose of SFD being given following an overnight fast. In this present
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study, a single preload was used and SFD was provided with lunch rather than breakfast. Regarding the
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reduction in appetite observed during the evening period, it is possible that this decrease in appetite was
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not sufficiently large to influence food intake in a free-living situation where participants are more likely
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to be exposed to extraneous factors that stimulate or inhibit food intake (39-41). In addition, it is possible
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that errors in recording food intake using diet diaries could mask a small effect on food intake.
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This present study indicates that consuming a beverage containing 20g of SFD had a limited
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effect on biomarkers of glycemia. There was no statistically significant effect on the biomarkers of
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appetite (CCK, ghrelin, GLP-1 and PYY3-36). This observation was consistent with the lack of a
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contemporaneous effect on subjective appetite. There was a statistically significant reduction of the
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 17 plasma concentration of GIP during the first 150 minutes post-consumption. GIP is secreted by the K
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cells of the small intestine in response to food intake and stimulates insulin secretion (42-45). High fiber,
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low glycemic foods are generally associated with a decreased postprandial glucose and insulin response
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due, in part, to changes in GIP secretion (46-48). Although this study confirmed previous research
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showing a reduction in plasma GIP concentration following a meal with a higher fiber content (49), we
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did not detect a significant treatment effect on plasma glucose or insulin concentration.
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There are limitations to this study other than those already discussed. First, this was a single dose, single
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day feeding study and the effect of repeated consumption of SFD on appetite or food intake cannot be
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determined from this study. Second, this study tested SFD in a liquid beverage, it is not clear if there
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would be a different outcome if it was provided in a solid food. Third, the study population did not
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include obese individuals and it is not clear how they would respond to foods containing SFD. Fourth, the
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functional characteristics of SFD have not been fully established and further research is required to
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identify the mechanisms through which it may exert an effect on appetite. Fifth, participants were not
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permitted to drink fluids with the snack meal which may have influenced the amount eaten. However,
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participant ratings of thirst did not appear unduly high through the study. Further research is warranted
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to determine if SFD influences appetite and food intake in different populations or using different
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vehicles. Moreover, it is possible that larger doses of SFD are required to elicit a robust effect on appetite
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and food intake.
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Conclusion
373
This present study examined the effect of 20g or 40g of SFD on subjective appetite, food intake and
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biomarkers of appetite. Based on the results from this present study further research is warranted to better
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characterize the functional properties of SFD, determine if higher doses elicit a more robust effect on
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appetite/food intake and determine the temporal effects of SFD on appetite. While this present study
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suggests that an effect of SFD on appetite might occur several hours after consumption. Due to
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limitations in our study design a study that explicitly investigates this question is required.
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Acknowledgements
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 18 We thank Visha Arumugam for her technical assistance.
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Conception and design of the study: JH
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Generation, collection, assembly, analysis and/or interpretation of data: CE, WH, JH
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Drafting or revision of the manuscript: CE, YZ, JH
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Approval of the final version of the manuscript: CE, WH, YZ, PW, JH
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Financial Support
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This study was funded by Tate & Lyle Ingredients Americas LLC. The Research and all publications
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arising out of or referable to it are considered proprietary data to which Tate & Lyle claims exclusive
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right of reference in accordance with Regulation (EC) no 1924/2006 of the European Parliament and of
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the Council on Nutrition and Health Claims Made on Foods.
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390 Conflict of Interest
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PW is a paid employee of Tate and Lyle. CE, WH, YZ and JH have no conflict of interest.
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The consumption of 20 or 40g of SFD has no effect on appetite or food intake during the 150 minutes post-consumption The consumption of 40g SFD may influence appetite several hours after consumption although
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confirmatory studies are required
The consumption of 20 or 40g of SFD reduced post-prandial GIP but had no effect on other
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markers of appetite or glycemia
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